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MANUAL 



CLASSICAL LITERATURE 



6 f 
MANUAL 



CLASSICAL LITERATURE 



FROM THE GERMAN OF 

J. j/ksCHENBURG, 
It 

PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK. 



WITH ADDITIONS. 



By N. W. FISKE, 

PROFESSOR OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY (FORMERLY OF 
THE LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES) IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 



THIRD EDITION. 






PHILADELPHIA: 
EDWARD C. RIDDLE, No. 5 MINOR STREET. 

1841. 



IP. 



o^ 



tt^£> 



'q/M 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1836, 

By Edward C. Biddle, 

In the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Eastern District of 
Pennsylvania. 



PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. 



It will be natural to ask, why this book is offered to the public* 
The translator knows not how to introduce the reasons, in a better 
way, than by first allowing the author himself to explain the design 
and character of the original work. For this purpose, the reader is 
requested to peruse the following extracts from the Prefaces of 

EsCHENBURG. 

From the Preface to the fifth Edition. — Twenty-seven years ago, I was in- 
duced to commence a revision and enlargement of that portion of Hederick's 
Introduction to the Historical Sciences, which treats of Classical Literature, 
Mythology and Roman Antiquities. In doing this I expected to aid an es- 
teemed friend, who had been requested by the booksellers to prepare an im- 
proved edition of the whole work. But what determined me to the attempt 
was a conviction, that it was undertaking a work of very useful tendency, 
and a hope, that by it a want, long felt in elementary instruction, might be 
supplied. Other duties hindered the seasonable accomplishment of this pur- 
pose, and I was led to enlarge the original plan, so as to include the Grecian 
Antiquities, and what is embraced under the head of Archeology of Litera- 
ture and Art. Thus it formed a complete Manual, furnishing the most es- 
sential aids in reading the classical authors, and with sufficient fulness for all 
elementary purposes. My work so designed has, therefore, now scarcely a 
trace in it of the treatise of Hederick. 

My aim, in this work, was to furnish both Learners and Teachers with a 
book, which might at the same time serve as a general introduction to the 
reading of classical authors, and likewise afford further and constant help in 
understanding and explaining them. It surely is unnecessary to prove, that 
a knowledge of Greek and Roman Mythology and Antiquities, and some ac- 
quaintance with the Archseology of Literature and Art, and also with the 
general History and Criticism of the Ancient Authors, are not only useful, 
but absolutely indispensable, in the pursuit of classical study. And it ap- 
pears to me, that it must greatly facilitate the acquisition of this knowledge, 
to have the whole range of it brought into one collected system, as it is in 
this work, and all digested with one common end in view, and reduced as far 
as far as possible to one uniform method, with a careful selection of what is 
most essential, and omission of what is comparatively unimportant, and a con- 
stant reference to its appropriate use. The Teacher will find presented to 
him throughout the work occasions and hints for further illustrations and ad- 
ditions ; while the Learner has in the book itself what is of indispensable 
importance, and in such a form, that he may easily re-peruse and review it. 

The Archaeology of Literature and Art had never, previously to the attempt 
in this work, been exhibited in a form adapted for general instruction. Yet 
some such acquaintance with the subject as this work may furnish, is of the 
highest importance to the scholar. It may be expected, that the glance, 
which he will here obtain of the rich monuments of antiquity, will lead him 
to seek the pleasure of a more complete and full knowledge, especially of 
Grecian art. And certainly the classical teacher needs to be in some degree 
familiar with the objects presented in this field of study, in order to do jus- 
tice to his pupils. — The View of the Classical Authors was necessarily con- 
fined within brief limits. I preferred to arrange them in Departments, in- 
stead of following purely chronological order, because I could thereby more 
conveniently introduce the brief remarks I wished to offer respecting the 
form, which each Department of writing assumed among the Greeks and 
Romans. In giving the editions of the classics, and the works helping to il- 
A 



VI PREFACE, 

lustrate them, I confined myself chiefly to such as are most suitable for sc&ol' 
ars, and best calculated in my view for their advancement. In describing: 
the authors, only a short and condensed summary could be given, not includ- 
ing a complete enumeration of their works, but merely naming the most im- 
portant. — The sketch of Greek and Roman Mythology is that, which I first 
drew up for use in my own lectures, and which has been separately printed. 
Here I have endeavored to separate the circumstances most important for the 
scholar's notice from those of minor consequence ; introducing the historical 
or traditional part of the fables, without saying much of the theories aisd 
speculations employed in solving them ; yet presenting hints at explanations, 
worthy of the scholar's notice. The references to the Metamorphoses- of 
Ovid are added, because I deem it highly useful to connect a reading of these 
with the study of Mythology.— A new system of Greek and Roman Antiqui- 
ties might seem, at first view, less needed than the other parts of this wo«k, 
since there are other systems and compends easily accessible, especially of 
Roman Antiquities. But it was necessary to the completeness of the Maiki- 
al to include these branches. Nor was this all. I hoped here, as in the 
rest of my work, to furnish something especially valuable on account of its 
embracing all that is most essential to the subject, with the exclusion of ex- 
traneous and unimportant matter. 

Since the last edition of this Manual, there have appeared some perform- 
ances of a similar kind, in which I thankfully find evidence of the utility of 
my own work, and am ready to acknowledge their excellence in some partic- 
ulars. These works might render a new impression of mine superfluous j 
but the very frequent call for the Manual, the urgent request of the booksel- 
lers, and the apprehension of a second counterfeit emission of the work, have 
persuaded me to prepare this fifth edition. In the emendations and improve- 
ments I Jiave been guided by the same considerations, which controlled me 
in the preceding editions. In the additions in the part treating of the classic 
authors I have received very friendly assistance from Professor Sc heftier, 
of this place. 

From the Preface to the Sixth Edition. — In a former preface, the occasion, 
design, and plan of this Manual have been stated. In each successive edi- 
tion, I have endeavored to make useful improvements ; but have throughout 
adhered to the original design, and confined myself, of course, to substantial- 
ly the same limits. Although much progress has been made in classical stud- 
ies in Germany during the last thirty years, and there are now several books 
of great merit, which may serve as guides and introductions to such studies, 
yet the demand for another impression of this Manual has compelled me again 
to take it in hand and to perform the renewed labor of revision. In this labor 
I must again gratefully mention the assistance kindly rendered me by Profes- 
sor ScHEFFLER. 

The 6th edition was the last published during the life of the author. But 
the work has been printed once or twice since his death. The following is 
taken from the Remarks prefixed to the seventh edition (Berlin, Nov. 1, 1824). 
— The continued acknowledgement of the great excellence of this Manual of 
Classical Literature, which is proved by the constant demand for the book, 
renders it unnecessary to say much by way of preface to a new edition. 
After the death of Eschenburg, the society of booksellers employed a well 
qualified editor, who has revised the work and superintended it with great 
care and fidelity. An examination will show, that in doing this, advantage 
has been taken of the important results of modern classical researches. It is, 
therefore, confidently believed, that this work, will still be found one of the 
most useful of the kind ; perhaps the very best Manual, both for the Gymna- 
sia and other Seminaries, and also for private use. 

In view of this account of the character, design, and reputation of 
the original work, it is easy to see the reasons why it should be pre- 
sented to the scholars of our country. Many instructors have felt 
the want of a Comprehensive Text-book in the department of Clas- 
sical Literature and Antiquities. After much inquiry, the transla- 
tor has been able to find no work, which, on the whole, seemed so 
well adapted for the object, as Eschenburg' s Manual. 



PREFACE. Vll 

It will be seen, by a mere glance, that the general design and 
plan of the work, in its present form, is to exhibit in a condensed 
but comprehensive summary, what is most essential on all prominent 
topics belonging to the department of Classical Literature and Anti- 
quities, and at the same time give references to various sources of 
information, to which the scholar may go, when he wishes to pursue 
any of the subjects by further investigations. I cannot doubt, that a 
Manual on this plan, thoroughly executed, would prove one of the 
greatest aids to the classical student, which it is possible to put into 
his hands : and I cherish the hope that in the entire want of a book 
of this sort not only in our country, but also in the English language 
hitherto, the present attempt to introduce one from abroad will meet 
with a candid reception ; especially as it is one whose value has been 
so fully attested in the land most of all celebrated for classical at- 
tainments. 

Here it may be proper to mention, that, some years since, this work was 
translated into the French. The translator, after some preliminary remarks, 
«ays, " from such considerations, I supposed I should render the public a ser- 
vice, by making known in France a series of elementary works universally 
esteemed and circulated in Germany. I begin with the Manual of Classical 
Literature by Eschenburg. This author is Councillor in the Court of the 
Duke of Brunswick, and Professor in the public Seminary called the Caroli-> 
num. As estimable for his moral character as for the variety of his attain- 
ments, known as editor of the posthumous writings of Lessing, and dear to 
all the celebrated men of the country ; living also in the vicinity of one of 
the richest libraries ; he united, along with thege advantages, all the light 
and experience derived from a long series of years devoted to instruction, and 
that good judgment, admirable but rare, which knows how to avoid the super- 
fluous without omitting the necessary and the useful. I shall not attempt an 
encomium on the book, of which I here offer a translation ; it is sufficient 
to refer to the public suffrage and decision, by which this Manual has been 
adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in a major part of the 
Universities and Colleges in Germany." — Subsequently to the time of this 
translation, in a Report made to the French Institute respecting the literary 
labors of the Germans, by Charles Fillers, the distinguished author of the 
Essay on the Reformation of Luther, the Manual of Eschenburg was noticed 
as a valuable gift to the world. 

I feel at liberty also to state, as evincing the value of this work, in the es- 
timation of competent judges, that the present translation was commenced 
with the warm approbation and encouragement of Prof. Stuart of Andover 
and Prof. Robinson now of Boston. In fact, under the advice of these emi- 
nent scholars, Mr. Isaac Stuart, Professor of Languages in the University of 
& Carolina, had made preparations for translating the same work, and wholly 
without my knowledge, but had been compelled to renounce the design, just 
before I consulted their views of the utility and expediency of my attempt. 
It is likewise worthy of notice here, that, from a conviction of the great value 
of the Manual and of its fitness to be useful in our country, it had actually 
been translated, before I entered upon the work, by Mr. Crusd, whose trans- 
lation of the part pertaining to Roman Authors is introduced into the present 
publication. 

No more needs to be said respecting the design and merits of the 
original work and its claims to be introduced to the knowledge of 
American scholars. But something more maybe desired respecting 
the author himself. This desire I am able to gratify, through the 
friendship of Prof. Robinson, whose repeated advice and assistance 
in the present work I here gratefully acknowledge, and who has fur- 
nished the following brief notice of Eschenburg. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

" The name of Eschenburg stands high in Germany, as one of their best 
writers on taste and the theory of the fine arts, including fine writing. The 
article [below] is condensed in the Encyclopaedia Americana; but I have pre- 
ferred to translate the original [from the Conversations-Lexicon] as being 
more full. 

John Joachim Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick, was 
born 1743 at Hamburg, and died at Brunswick, 1820. This distinguished 
scholar and writer received his earliest education in the Johanneum at Ham- 
burg ; afterwards in Leipzig, where Ernesti, Gellert, Moms, and Clodius, 
were his instructors ; then under Heyne and Michalis in Gottingen. He 
then came, through the agency of Jerusalem, as a private tutor, to Bruns- 
wick; where he afterwards received the Professorship in the Carolinum, va- 
cated by the death of the poet Zacharia. This post he held during his life. 
To him Germany is indebted for a nearer acquaintance with many good Eng- 
lish writers in the department of ^Esthetics ; e. g., Brown, Webb, Burney, 
and Hurd, whom he translated and in part accompanied with notes and addi- 
tions. He published, moreover, at different times in Journals and Magazines, 
accounts of the most remarkable appearances in English Literature, by means 
of which a love and taste for the literary treasures of that island and people 
were greatly promoted among the Germans. His greatest desert, however, 
lies in his translation of Shakpheare (Zurich, 1775-87, 14 vols. ; 1798-1806, 
12 vols.). Although not the first in this great undertaking, since Wieland 
had already begun a similar, yet he has long had the merit of being the most 
complete ; even though so many excellent translations of the great tragic 
writer have been since begun. Indeed his version of the collected works of 
this poet is to this moment sought after, although not possessing the charm 
of metre nor the literal fidelity, which others exhibit. In making his trans- 
lation, moreover, by means of his literary and social connections, he enjoyed 
many advantages, which another would with difficulty possess in an equal 
degree ; and his own private library contained, so long ago as 1807, more than 
400 volumes in reference to Shakspeare, exclusive of Engravings, &c. An- 
other great benefit, conferred on the public by Eschenburg, was the publica- 
tion of his Lectures in the Carolinum, his Theorie und Liter atur der schbncn 
Wissenschaften, his Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde, and his Handbuch der 
Classischen Literatur ; of the last work a seventh edition was published in 
1825. In social intercourse, Eschenburg was exceedingly amiable, and, not- 
withstanding his occasional satirical remarks, generally beloved. Three years 
before his death he celebrated his official jubilee or 50th anniversary. He was 
also Senior of the Cyriacus-foundation, and a knight of the Guelphic order. 
— In the 6th Supplementary Volume of Jorden's Lexicon deutscher Dichter 
und Prosaisten, there is a minute catalogue of his works, both original and 
translated, and also of his editions of other authors of former or recent times." 

It remains for the translator to speak briefly of the principles and 
method by which he has attempted to execute his task, in preparing 
the work in its present form ; and the following remarks contain all 
that it seems important for him to say on this point. For the rest, 
those who use the book must judge. 

As to the translation itself, my aim has been throughout to express the au- 
thor's meaning with strict fidelity ; but in doing this I have endeavored to 
avoid the long periods and involved arrangement of words and clauses, for 
which the German language is of known celebrity ; I have almost uniformly 
employed shorter sentences, and have sometimes departed very much from 
the phraseology of the original. The alterations are not many ; in some in- 
stances I have omitted a clause or sentence, and in a few a whole section or 
paragraph, without any notice to the reader : in a few cases also I have al- 
tered the arrangement of the sections. Otherwise, wherever I have not pre- 
sented the author entire and unaltered, a distinct intimation of some change 
by the translator is given to the reader, by one of the marks which will be 
explained below. — The additions are very considerable ; and, whatever may 
be their pertinency or their value, they certainly have cost some labor. In 
making th,em ? I have endeavored to keep constantly in mind the grand 4$* 



PREFACE. IX 

feign of the work, and to render it more complete in the respects which, as 
has been before remarked, constitute its peculiarity, distinguishing it from 
every other work on these subjects in our language. The additions may gen- 
erally be distinguished from the original, either by the size of the type or by 
particular marks ; as will be described under the Explanations below. It will 
be seen, that large additions have been made in the portion relating to the 
Greek Literature and Authors; it was my intention to make similar additions 
to the View of the Roman Authors; but the design was renounced for the rea- 
sons stated in the Advertisement on page 290.* I regretted, on receiving 
Mr. Grilse's Translation, to find that it did not include the notices of edi- 
tions and illustrative works mentioned by Eschenburg; and should the pres- 
ent effort meet with approbation, it is my purpose to prepare for separate pub- 
lication something more complete on the Roman Literature. I flatter myself, 
that the condensed view of the sacred writings and the writings of the early- 
Christians, as found in the Greek language, will be considered a useful addi- 
tion. — The whole of Part V is also added by the translator, as explained on 
page 572 1 ; only it ought to be further remarked, that a few paragraphs per- 
taining to the remains of Athens and Rome, placed under Antiquities by Es- 
chenburg and omitted in the translation, are introduced, with alterations, in 
this part under the Topography of those cities. 

The work is now offered as a humble contribution to the service of 
the public, and commended to the candid examination of the scholar ; 
in the hope, that under the blessing of Him, in whom is the fountain 
of all wisdom and knowledge, it may prove an auxiliary of some value 
in the cause of liberal and good education. 

Amherst College, April 12, 1836. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from the author 
and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section always indicates 
that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always denotes that the section 
or paragiaph to whose number it may be annexed is altered so as to differ more or less from 
the original. All the matter in the largest of the three kinds of type is translated directly from 
Eschenburg, excepting such sections as may have one or the other of these marks. All the 
matter in the smaller type is added by the translator, with the following exceptions ; (1) sec- 
tions or paragraphs having the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated 
from Eschenburg ; (2) the first paragraplis of the several sections on the individual Roman au- 
thors, which are also translated from Eschenburg, unless their number is accompanied by a 
star, or the letter t, as above described ; and (3) part of the mere references to books and au- 
thors, a majority perhaps of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not 
seem of much consequence to discriminate carefully between what was put in by the author 
and what by me ; if any one should find some of them irrelevant or unimportant, he may safe- 
ly charge such upon me rather than Eschenburg; if any inquire why the numerous references 
to German works are retained, I only remark, that it is becoming more and more common to 
import such works into this country, and more and more important for our scholars to be ac- 
quainted with the German language ; and if any deem it superfluous to have given so many 
references, let such consider, that the same books are not accessible to all students, and an in- 
creased number of references must increase the probability of presenting some to books within 
the reach of every reader ; and it should be borne in mind also, that some references are given 
chiefly as bibliographical statistics, which is the case especially with respect to some of the edi- 
tions of Greek and Roman classics. 

* This refers to page 290 of the first edition. The advertisement there given was, in sub- 
stance, that the present translator, when his work was far advanced in the printing, entered 
into an arrangement with Rev. C. F. Cruse, in consequence of a notice then received from the 
latter, that he had already translated the whole of Eschenburg, with the previously announced 
design of publishing it. By this arrangement it was engaged that Mr. Cruse's translation 
should be used in the part of the work which treats of the Roman Authors ; with the under- 
standing that, if a new edition should be demanded, the present translator might omit or re- 
tain it, according to his own choice. 

f The explanation (here referred to as on page 572 of the first edition) was simply an ac- 
knowledgement, that the Epitome of Classical Geography, contained in Part Fifth of this Man- 
ual, is chiefly drawn from an English treatise, bearing the same title, by W. C. Taylor ; with 
a considerable change in the divisions and arrangement ; and with more full descriptions of 
ancient Rome, Athens, and Sparta, collected from other sources. 

A* 



PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 

When the second edition of this Manual was issued, it was expected that 
a more full view of Roman Literature than the work then contained would be 
prepared for separate publication by the author. Circumstances which it is 
unnecessary here to specify delayed the execution of the plan until the last 
summer, when the publisher of the Manual requested an immediate prepara- 
tion of a third edition. The design of a separate publication was then re- 
nounced, from a conviction, that the convenience and advantage of the stu- 
dent would be better served by incorporating the whole into one work. The 
present edition, accordingly, contains a new translation of that part of Es- 
chenburg which relates to the Roman Authors, with large additions. 

Besides this essential improvement, a considerable quantity of new matter 
is also introduced in other portions. The value of the work is, moreover, 
augmented by the insertion of numerous illustrations. These are carefully 
combined in Plates to avoid the loss of room occasioned by scattering single 
cuts separately over the pages ; and the whole printing is executed in a very 
compact style ; so that, notwithstanding all the additions and the accession 
of several hundred cuts, the sensible bulk of the volume is scarcely increased. 

The author would here make a general acknowledgement to those friends 
who have favored him with remarks and notes. With special gratitude, he 
mentions the very valuable assistance received from Prof. Sears, of the 
Newton Theological Seminary, who freely furnished critical remarks, cor- 
rections, and additions, for the whole of the part on the Archceology of Liter- 
ature and Art, and also the History of Greek Literature ; to his generous at- 
tentions, much of the improvement in these portions of the work is entirely 
due. 

The work of Eschenburg still enjoys high estimation in Germany, as is 
evinced by the fact that a new edition has very recently been published at 
Berlin. k It is believed, that the American Translation is not rendered less 
truly valuable by the large amount of various matter which it now contains 
in addition to the original. 

Amherst College, September, 1839. 



TABLEOF CONTENTS 
PART I. 



Archaeology of Literature and Art. 



Introduction, p. 1 — 20. 
§§ 1 — 32. 1. The original capaci- 
ty and knowledge of men. 2 Devel- 
opement of the same. 3 Aided by- 
language. 4 Origin of arts and sci- 
ences. 5 First character of the same. 
6 Attainments made before the Del- 
uge. 7 Effects of the dispersion of 
the human family, by the confusion of 
tongues at Babel. 8 Earliest employ- 
ments ; food. 9 Effect of climate and 
other causes ; influence of agriculture 
on arts. 10 Rise of architecture and 
use of metals. Tools of stone. 11 Im- 
itative arts. 12 Origin of Language. 
13 Origin of Writing. 14 Previous 
methods of communicating thought. 
15 Picture-writing; by~Mexicans; N. 
Am. Indians. 16 Hieroglyphics 17 
Abbreviated pictures, 18 Syllable- 
writing. Chinese ; Cherokee ; Persian 
&c. 19 Alphabetic writing. 20 Mate- 
rials and implements. 21 Contents of 
earliest writings; writings of Moses 
and Job the most ancient ; claims of 
the oriental records. 22 The earliest 
sciences. 23 Origin of Medicine. 24 
Of Arithmetic. 25 Of Astronomy. 26 
Of Geometry. 27 Of Geography. 28 
Egypt and Asia the cradle^of the sci- 
ences. 29 High culture of the Greeks 
and Romans. Importance of classical 
studies. 30 Object of the present 
treatise. 31 Utility of the same. 32 
References to works illustrating the 
subjects included. 

ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERA- 
TURE. 

J. Of the origin and first steps of 
Grecian culture, p. 23 — 28. 

§ § 33—44. 33 First population of 
Greece. The Pelasgi. 34 Early state 
of society. Colonies from the east. 
35 Origin of Greek language. Vari- 
ous theories on the subject. 36 Lan- 
guage of Noah ; nature of the Confu- 
sion of tongues. Languages of west- 
ern Asia. Semitic and Sanscrit fami- 
lies. 37 Japheth and descendants. 
33 The probable foundation of the 
Greek. 39 Causes of the great per- 
fection of the Greek. 40 First im- 



pulse to Grecian civilization. 41 In- 
fluence of eastern nations on the reli- 
gion of the early Greeks. 42 On their 
arts. 43 Influence of the Greek bards. 
44 Of the Greek games. 

II. Of the Alphabet, Method of Wri- 
ting and Books, p. 27 — 35. 

§ § 45 — 60. 45 Letters introduced 
by Cadmus, Resemblance of Grecian 
and Phoenician alphabets. 46 Num- 
ber of letters in the alphabet of Cad- 
mus. 47 Changes in form of Greek 
letters. 48 Direction of letters and 
lines in writing. 49 Uncial and Cur- 
sive characters. Abbreviations. 50 
Breathings. 51 Accents. 52- Punc- 
tuation. 53 Materials used in Greece 
for writing. 54 Instruments. 55 Ma- 
terial used for ink. 56, 57 Form of 
books. 58 Copyists. 59 Infrequent 
use of writing in early times. Wheth- 
er Homer committed his poems to wri- 
ting (cf. p. 179j. 60 Instruction giv- 
en orally. 

III. Of the most flourishing period 
of Greek Literature, p. 36 — 43. 

§§ 61 — 77. 61 Circumstances favor- 
able to progress in letters. Different 
characters of different Hellenic tribes. 
Actual studies and attainments. 62 
Design of the author under the pres- 
ent head of the subject. 63, 64 The 
Grecian system of education ; Gymna- 
sia; Music. 65,66 The Musical and 
Dramatical contests. 67 Rehearsals 
public and private. 63 Professed 
Readers. 69 The Symposia or lite- 
rary feasts. 70 No learned professions 
among the Greeks. 71 Grammar as 
a part of education. 72 Philosophy; 
Esoteric and Exoteric. 73 Methods 
of teaching; Socratic. 74 The great 
public schools; Academy, Lyceum, 
Porch, Cynosarges, Garden. 75 Reg- 
ulations and discipline of the Gymna- 
sia and schools. 76, Greek libraries. 
77 Travels of learned men. 

IV. Of the decline of Greek Litera- 
ture, p. 43—47. 

§ § 78 — 85. 78 Causes of its decline. 
79 Greek language still extensively 
used. 80 Greek letters cultivated at 



xu 



CONTENTS. 



some places ; Rhodes, Pergamus, Al- 
exandria, &c. 81 Greek letters pat- 
ronized by some of the Emperors. 82 
Schools of Athens suppressed. 83 Op- 
position between Christianity and pa- 
gan literature ; influence of Christian- 
ity. 84 Loss of Classical manuscripts, 
in various ways. 85 Political condi- 
tion of the Greeks after^the Christian 
era. 

V. Of the Remains and Monuments 
of Grecian Literature, p. 47 — 63. 

§ § 86 — 108. 86 Division of these in- 
to three classes. — I. Inscriptions. 
87 References to works on Greek in- 
scriptions. 88 General design and 
character of inscriptions. 89 Qualifi- 
cations requisite for interpreting in- 
scriptions. 90 Notice of some of the 
most important inscriptions of a date 
prior to Alexander. 91 Of those of a 
date between Alexander and the Chris- 
tian Era. 92 Of a period subsequent 
to the Christian Era. — II. Coins. 
93 Utility of an acquaintance with 
coins. 94 Uncoined metal first used. 
95 Earliest Greek coins. Chronolog- 
ical classification of Greek coins. 96 
The coins in most common use among 
the Greeks. Number of ancient coins 
preserved. 97, 98 Forms of letters on 
Greek coins. 99 References to works 
on Numismatics. — III. Manu- 
scripts. 100 Utility of them. 101 
Their antiquity. Palimpsesti. 102 
How made and preserved. 103, 104 
Marks by which the age of a Ms. is 
known; or criteria of Paleeography. 
105, 106 Importance and advantages 
of collating manuscripts. 107 Notice of 
some of the oldest and most curious 
manuscripts extant ; Greek Scrip- 
tures ; Herculanean Rolls ; Egyptian 
Papyri ; Hebrew Pentateuch. 108 Li- 
braries containing Greek manuscripts. 

ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERA- 
TURE. 

J. Of the sources of Roman culture. 
p. 65—68. 

§§ 109—114. 109 Origin of the Ro- 
mans. Two different theories respect- 
ing the inhabitants of Italy. Early 
tribes. Uncertainty of the early his- 
tory of Rome. 110 Origin of Latin 
written characters. Ill Intercourse 
of the Romans with the Greeks. 112, 
113 State of culture before the Punic 
wars. 114 Origin and progress of the 
Latin Language. Monuments of its 
early character. 



//. Of the Alphabet, Writing and 
Books, p. 69—71. 

§115—118. 115 Number of origi- 
nal letters. 116 The early and later 
orthography. 117 Forms of letters. 
Abbreviations ; Notai Tironiance. 118 
Form of books. Materials and instru- 
ments for writing. List of names and 
terms used in relation to writing, &c« 

III. Of the most flourishing period 
of Roman Literature, p. 71 — 75. 

§ 119—127. 119 Influence of the 
Greek colonies in Magna Grsecia. 120 
Introduction of the Greek philosophy. 
121 Most brilliant age in Roman let- 
ters. Causes. 122 Branches cultiva- 
ted. 123 Change in the system of ed- 
ucation. 124 Instructions of the 
Grammarians and Rhetoricians. 125 
Public schools. Atheneum. Literary 
exercises specially practiced by the 
youth in the course of education, &c. 
126 Libraries at Rome. 127 Custom 
of finishing study abroad. Places vis- 
ited for the purpose. 

TV. Of the decline of Roman Litera- 
ture, p. 76, 77. 

§ 128 Causes of the decline. Com- 
mencement of it. Exertions and influ- 
ence of some of the Emperors. Effect 
of intercourse with provincials ; of the 
removal of the seat of government to 
Constantinople. Schools of learning 
in the empire ; Byzantium, Berytus, 
Massilia, Augustodunum. 

V. Remains and Monuments of Ro- 
man Literature, p. 77 — 85. 

§ 129—143. 129, 130 Roman I n- 
scriptions; References to works 
on the subject. 131 Abbreviations 
and initial letters on Roman coins. 132 
Peculiar advantages of study of Ro- 
man inscriptions. 133 Notice of some 
of the most important inscriptions that 
are preserved. 134 Roman Coins; 
when first struck. Connection be- 
tween poetry and medals. 135 Divis- 
ion into Consular and Imperial. 136 
Legend on coins. Peculiar forms of 
writing on early coins. 137 False 
coins. 138 References to works on 
Roman coins. 139 The most valua- 
ble collections of ancient coins. Sym- 
bols on coins and medals. 140 Roman 
Manuscripts; few existing of a 
very early date. 141 Successive 
changes in the manner of writing. 142 
Zealous search for manuscripts on the 
revival of letters. Petrarch, Poggio, 
and others interested in it. Deposito- 



CONTENTS. 



Xlll 



ries of Latin manuscripts. 143 Some 
of the most ancient Latin manuscripts 
known. 

ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

Preliminary Remarks, p. 87 — 90. 

§ 144—153. 144 Meanings of the 
word Art. 145 Division of the arts in- 
to the Mechanical and the Fine. 146 
The plastic arts. 147 Objects repre- 
sented by them. Allegorical images. 
148, 149 Requisites in the artist, con- 
noisseur, and amateur, severally. 150 
Utility of some knowledge of the his- 
tory of art. 151 Antiques and the 
study of them. 152 Original design 
of the monuments of ancient art. Sci- 
ence of iEsthetics ; references on the 
same. 153 Object of the present trea- 
tise. Four branches of art particular- 
ly included. 

/. Sculpture, p. 90—108. 
§ 154 — 191. 154 Comprehensive 
meaning of the term. 155, 156 Origin 
of Sculpture. Character of the first 
specimens. Image of Cybele. 157 
The materials used. 158 First soft ; 
clay &c. 159 Various kinds of wood. 
160 Ivory. 161 Marble and stone of 
different kinds. 162 Bronze. 163 
Classes of Statues ; costume ; atti- 
tudes. 164 Busts. 165 The kind of fig- 
ure called Hermes. 166 Bas-reliefs. 
167 Mosaic. 168 Inscriptions on stat- 
ues. 169, 170 Egyptian sculpture. 171 
Sculpture among the Asiatics. 172, 
173 Character and remains of Etrus- 
can Sculpture. 174 Rise of sculpture 
in Greece ; circumstances favorable 
to its advancement. Daedalus. 175 
The four periods of Grecian sculpture. 

176 Its character in the first period. 

177 Different schools. 178 Frequent 
demand for statues in greece. 179 — 
181 Grecian sculpture in its subse- 
quent periods. 182 — 184 Sculpture 
among the Romans. 185 The most 
celebrated remains of ancient sculp- 
ture. 186 Of Statues. 187 Of Busts. 
188 Of Bas-relief. 189 Of Mosaic. 190 
The most famous collections of such 
remains. 191 References to works 
on this subject. 

//. Lithoglyphy or Gem-Engraving. 
p. 108—120. 

§ 192—213. 192 Explanation of the 
term. 193 Gems early known. 194 
Respecting the nature and classifica- 
tion of gems. 195 Notice of some of 
the principal gems employed in this 
art. Murra. Alabaster. 196 Manner 
of forming the figures on them ; in- 
taglios ; cameos. 197, 198 Various ob- 



jects represented. 199 Origin and 
earliest instances of the art. 200, 201 
Gem-engraving of the Egyptians. — 
Scarabcei ; Abraxas. 202 This art 
among other nations, especially the 
Etrurians. 203, 204 Among the 
Greeks. 205 Among the Romans. 206 
Uses made of sculptured gems. 207 
Mechanical operations in engraving. 
208 Fictitious gems. 209 Advantages 
of some knowledge of ancient gems. 

210 This study facilitated by the use 
of paste imitations. The impressions 
cfLippert; ofWedgewood; ofTassie. 

211 Some of the most remarkable an- 
cient gems. 212 The most celebrated 
collections. 213 References to works 
illustrating the subject. 

III. Painting, p. 120—126. 

§ 214—226. 214 Explanation of this 
art. 215 Date of its origin. 216 Its 
early existence in Chaldsea and Egypt. 
217 Earliest pictures among the 
Greeks. 218 The colors employed by 
Greek painters. 219 Materials and 
instruments for painting. Fresco- 
painting. 220 Encaustic painting. — 
Painting on glass. Mosaic. 221 Merit 
of ancient painting. Perspective. 222 
Schools in painting among the Greeks. 
Celebrated masters. Four periods. — 
Comparative number of paintings and 
statues. Portraits. 223 Etruscan paint- 
ings. 224, 225 Painting at Rome. 226 
Monuments of ancient painting. Ref- 
erences to works on the subject. 
IV. Architecture, p. 127—142. 

§ 227—244. 227 Both a mechanic 
and a fine art. Its origin. 228 Lead- 
ing principles, or causes affecting its 
character. 229 Materials in early 
times. Influence of materials on the 
style. 230 The grand branches of 
Architecture, Civil, Military, Naval. 
231 Egyptian Architecture. Cyclope- 
an. 232 Architecture as exhibited in 
Homer. 233 Most flourishing period 
of this art in Greece. 234 Descrip- 
tion of ancient temples. 235 Of The- 
atres and Odea. 236 Of Gymnasia. 
237 Of Porticos. 238 Of pillars and 
columns ; and the several orders of 
Architecture. 239 Ornaments of an- 
cient Architecture. Caryatides, At- 
lantides, &c. 240 Most celebrated 
Greek architects. 241 Tuscan and 
Ptoman Architecture. Description of 
ancient Baths. 242 P^emains of an- 
cient architecture. 243 Works illus- 
trating the subject. 244 Notice of 
several styles of Architecture, more 
modern ; Romanesque, Saracenic, 
Chinese, Gothic. 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PART II. 

History of Ancient Literature, Greek and Roman. 



GREEK LITERATURE. 

Introduction p. 145 — 157. 

§ § 1 — 10. 1 Circumstances favor- 
able to literature among the Greeks. 
2 Excellence of Greek classics; import- 
ance of acquaintance with them. 3 
Beauty and perfection of the Greek 
language. 4 Its dialects. 5 Pronun- 
ciation of Greek. 6 Principles and 
methods in studying. Analytical and 
Synthetical methods. Interlinear 
translations. Grammatical and logi- 
cal analysis. Other exercises. Use of 
Reading-books. System in the Lon- 
don University. 7 List of various 
helps in the study of Greek. 8 Plan 
to be pursued in the present view of 
Greek literature. 9 Six periods in 
Grecian political history , very conven- 
iently applied to the history of litera- 
ture. 10 The several departments or 
classes of writers to be noticed. 
/. Poets, p. 157—199. 

§§ 11—81. 11 Subjects of earliest 
Greek poetry. 12 Poetry first culti- 
vated in the northern provinces of 
Greece. 13 Poetry originally connect- 
ed with music among the Greeks. 
References on the origin and progress 
of Greek poetry. 14 Kinds or varie- 
ties of Grecian poetry. 15 Sacred. 
16 The Sibyls. 17-20 Epic. 21 The 
Cyclic poets. The Homeridae. Iliac 
Table. 22-26 Lyric poetry. 27 The 
Scolion. 28-29 Elegiac. 30 Bucolic 
or Pastoral, 31 , 32 Didactic. 33 Ero- 
tic. 34 The Epigram. 35 Anthologies. 
36 Dramatic poetry, including (37-40) 
Tragedy; (41-43) 'Comedy; and (44) 
Satyre. 45 Different forms of Satire. 
46 Farces and Mimes. 47 Pomp and 
expense of representation. Instruct- 
ing of the actors. 47Z References to 
works treating of the Greek poets gen- 
erally. 48 Orpheus. 49MusBeus. 50 
Homer. 51 Hesiod. 52 Archilochus. 
53 Tyrtseus. 54 Sappho. 55 Solon. 56 
Theognis. 57Phocylides. 58 Pytha- 
goras. 59 Anacreon. 60 Pindar. 61 
iEschylus. 62 Sophocles. 63 Eurip- 
ides. 64 Empedocles. 65 Aristoph- 
anes. 66 Menander. 67 Lycophron. 
68 Theocritus. 69 Bion ; Moschus. 
70 Callimachus. 71 Aratus. 72Clean- 
thes. 73 ApolloniusRhodius. 74 Ni- 
cander. 75 Oppian. 76 Nonnus. 77 
Coluthus. 78 Quintus Smyrnams or 
Calaber. 79Tryphiodorus. 80Theo- 
dorus Prodromus. 81 Tzetzes. 



II. Orators, p. 199—207. 
§ § 82—107. 82 Oratory as an art 
not known in the heroic ages. 83 Elo- 
quence much practiced after time of 
Solon. 84 History of Grecian elo- 
quence short. 85 Chiefly confined to 
Athens. 86 Three aspects in three 
different eras. 87, 88 Era of Them- 
istocles. 89-91 Era of Pericles. 92-94 
Era of Demosthenes. 95-97 Subse- 
quent decline. School of Rhodes. 

98 Three branches of ancient oratory. 

99 References to works illustrating the 
Greek orators collectively. 100 Anti- 
phon. 101 Andocides. 102 Lysias. 
103 Isocrates. 104 Isseus. 105 Ly- 
curgus. 106 Demosthenes: 107 Ms- 
chines. Hyperides. Dinarchus. 

777. Sophists and Rhetoricians. 
p. 207—215. 

§§ 108— ] 28. 108 Description of 
the Sophists. 109 Their performan- 
ces. 110 Names of some of the more 
eminent in different periods. Ill Dis- 
tinction between Sophists and Rhetor- 
icians. 112 Rhetoricians in different 
periods. 113 General references. 
114 Gorgias. 115 Aristotle. 116 De- 
metrius Phalereus. 117 Dionysius 
Halicarnasseus. 118 Dion Chrysos- 
tomus. 119 Herodes Atticus. 120 
^lius Aristides. 121 Lucian. 122 
Hermogenes. 123 Athenaeus. 124 
Longinus. 125Themistius. 126 Him- 
erius~. 127 Julian the Apostate. 128 
Libanius. 

IV. Grammarians, p. 215 — 219. 

§ § 129—147. 129 Time when writ- 
ers of this class first flourished ; place. 
130 Their various performances. 131 
Some of the most distinguished be- 
fore the time of Constantine. 132 
Grammarians at Constantinople. 133 
General references. 134 Hephsestion. 
135 Apollonius Dyscolus. 136 ^Elius 
Herodianus. 137 Julius Pollux. 138 
iElius Mceris. 139 Harpocration. 
140 Hesychius. 141 Ammonius. 142 
Photius. 143 Suidas. 144 The Ety- 
mologium Magnum. 145 Eustathius. 

146 Gregorius Pardus, or Corinthius. 

147 Thomas Magister. 

V. Writers of Epistles and Roman- 
ces, p. 220—224. 

§ § 141—165. 148 Extant letters as- 
cribed to ancients, in part spurious. 

149 Romances unknown in best pe- 
riods of Greek literature ; reason. 

150 Erotic and Milesian tales. Imag- 



. CONTENTS. 



XV 



hiary voyages. 151 Some of the au- 
thors of Romances. 152 References 
on the writers of this division. 153 
Anacharsis. 154 Phalaris. 155 The- 
mistocles. 156 Socrates. J57 Chion. 
158 Aristsenetus. 159 Alciphron. 160 
Heliodorus. 161 Achilles Tatius. 
162 Longus. 163 Xenophon of Ephes- 
us. 164 Chariton. 165 Eumathius. 
VI. Philosophers, p. 224—240. 

§§ 166—201. 166 The poets of 
Greece her first philosophers. 167 
The next her priests and legislators. 
Subjects of speculation in the early 
religious philosophy. Political philoso- 
phy. Seven Sages. 168 Origin of 
schools in philosophy. The earliest 
of celebrity. 169 The Ionic. 170 The 
Italic. 171 The Socratic. 172 Sects 
derived from the Socratic. Three 
Minor. Cyrenaic. Megaric. Eliac. 
173 Four Major. Cynic. 174 Stoic. 
175 Academic. 176 Peripatetic. 177 
Sects derived from the Italic. Eleatic. 
Heraclitean. 178 Epicurean. 179 
Sceptic. 180 Periods of Greek litera- 
ture in which the several sects arose. 
Grecian philosophy after the Roman 
supremacy. 181 The New Platonists. 
Eclectics. 182 Christian philosophy. 
Peripatetic philosophy after time of 
Constantine. Its propagation in west- 
ern Europe. 183 References to sources 
of information on the Greek philoso- 
phy. 184 ^sop. 185 Ocellus Luca- 
nus. 186 Xenophon the Athenian. 
187 iEschines, the philosopher. 188 
Cebes. 189 Plato. 190 Timaeus of 
Locri. 191 Aristotle. 192 Theophras- 
tus. 193 Epictetus. 194 Arrian. 195 
Plutarch. 196 Marcus Antoninus. 
197 Sextus Empiricus. 198 Plotinus. 
199 Porphyry. 200 Jamblichus. 201 
Stobeeus. 

VII. Mathematicians and Geograph' 
ers. p. 240—247. 

§ 202—221. 202 Mathematics re- 
duced to scientific form by Greeks, 
but derived from other nations. 
203 The foundation for philosophy. 
Views of Plato. 204, 205 State 
of Greek mathematics in differ- 
ent periods. 206, 207 Degree of 
knowledge among the Greeks respect- 
ing Geography. 208 Treaties on Tac- 
tics. 208t General references. 209 
Euclid. 210 Archimedes. 211 Apol- 
lonius Pergaeus. 212 Pappus. 213 
Diophantus. 214 Hanno. 215 Era- 
tosthenes. 216 Strabo. 217 Diony- 
b'ius Periegetes. 218 Claudius Ptole- 
my. 219Pausrnias. 220m Stephanus 
of Byzantium. 220 Cosmas Indico- 



pleustes. 221 Onesander. Poly© 
nus. 

VIII. Mythographers. p. 247—249. 

§ 221u— 231. 221m Principal sour- 
ces whence the traditionary fables of 
the Greeks may be learned. 222 Pal- 
sephatus. Euhemerus. 223 >Heracli- 
tus. 224 Apollodorus. 225 Conon. 
226 Parthenius. 227 Phurnutus or 
Cornutus. 228Hephsestion. 229 An- 
toninus Liberalis. 230 Sallustius, the 
Platonist. 

IX. Historians, p . 249—261 . 

§ 231—260. 231 Earliest history in 
a poetical form. Earliest writers of 
history in prose. 232 The composi- 
tions styled logographies. 233 The 
distinguished historians in the bril- 
liant period of Greek literature. 234 
Writers on Attic history. 235, 236 
Chief historians between Alexander 
and the Roman supremacy. 237, 238 
Principal writers during the next pe- 
riod until time of Constantine. 239a 
Historical authors after time of Con- 
stantine. The Byzantine Historians. 
239b Grecian Biography. 240 Gener- 
al references. 241 Herodotus. 242 
Thucydides. 243 Xenophon. 244 
Ctesias. 245 Polybius. 246 Diodorus 
Siculus. 247 Dionysitis Halicarnas- 
seus. 248 Flavius Josephus. 249 
Plutarch. 250 Arrian. 251 Appian 
252 Dion Cassius. 253 ^Elian. 254 He- 
rodian. 255a Diogenes Laertius. 
255b Philostratus. 255c Eunapius. 
256 Zosimus. 257 Procopius. 258 
Agathias. 259 Zonaras. 260 Dares 
Phrygius. Dictys Cretensis. 

X. Writers on Medicine and Natur- 
al History, p. 262—267. 

§ § 261—277. 261 Greeks less emi- 
nent in these sciences. iEsculapius 
and his descendants. Hippocrates the 
first author. 262 The Dogmatic school. 
263 Dissections. Empiric school. 
Medicine first practiced at Rome by 
Greek slaves. 264 The Methodic 
school. The Eclectic school. Char- 
acter and influence of Galen. 265 
State of medicine after time ot Con- 
stantine. 266 Physics included under 
studies of the philosophers. 267 Ar- 
istotle founder of Zoology : Theo- 
phrastus, of Mineralogy and Botany. 
Cabinets of the Ptolemies at Alexand- 
ria. Chief writers before the time of 
Constantine. 268 State of natural 
science under the emperors of Con- 
stantinople. 269 Collections of Greek 
writers on medicine and physics. 270 
Hippocrates. 271 Dioscorides. 272 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



Aretams. 273 Galen. 274 Aristotle. 
275 Theophrastus. 276 Antigonus of 
Carystus. 277 iElian. Apollonius 
Dyscolus. 

Notice of the Hebrew-Grecian 

and Christian writings, p. 167 — 275. 

§ § 278—293. 278 The Septuagint. 
279 The Apocrypha. 230 Works from 
Christian authors. 281, 282 Books of 
the Neto Testament. Their moral au- 
thority. Their literary influence. 

283 Works of the Apostolical Fathers. 

284 Spurious or Apocryphal writings. 

285 Opinions of early Christians re- 
specting human learning. Christian 
seminaries. Philosophy adopted by 
the Fathers. 286 Biblical writings. 
Versions of Bible ; Origen's Hexapla. 
Harmonies. Commentaries. 287 
Controversial writings, lrenreus, Jus- 
tin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras. 288 
Historical writings. Eusebius. 289 
Doctrinal. Origen Athanasius. 290 
Homiletical. Character of the an- 
cient homily. Few remains of early 
sacred oratory. 291 Homilies of Ori- 
gen. 292 Distinguished Christian ora- 
tors just after the time of Constantine_. 
Basil, Gregory, and Chrysostom. 293 
References to works giving informa- 
tion respecting the Fathers. 

ROMAN LITERATURE. 

Introduction, p. 277 — 282. 

% 294—302. 194 Rank of the Ro- 
mans in literature. 295 Utility of study- 
ing their language. 296 The four ages 
commonly assigned to it. 297 Pronun- 
ciation of Latin. 298 Methods and ex- 
ercises in studying. 299 Various works 
useful as helps. 300 Plan followed in 
this treatise. 301 Five periods of the 
history of Roman literature. 302 
Classes of authors. 

1. Poets, p. 282—321. 

S$ 303—389. 303, 304. Earliest 
poetry of the Romans. Hymns of the 
Fratres Arvales and Salic Priests. 
Fescennine verses. 305 Tuscan His- 
triones. Atellane Fables. 306 Early 
national ballads. 307, 308 Introduc- 
tion of regular dramatic forms. 309- 
312 Tragedy. 313-317 Comedy. 318 
Atellane Fables. 319 Mimes. Panto- 
mine. 320 Origin of modern dramatic 
exhibitions. Plays at fairs. Holy 
farces. Mysteries and Moralities. 
321-325 Epic Poetry. 326-329 Lyric. 
330, 331 Bucolic. 332, 333 Elegiac. 
334-336 Didactic 337 The Fable. 338- 
341 The Epigram. 342 Anthologies. 
343-347 Satire. 348 General refer- 



ences. Collections of Roman PoeUs 
349 Livius Andronicus. 350 Naevius. 
351Ennius. 352Plautus. 353 Pacuvi* 
us. 354 Accius or Attius. 355 Ter- 
ence. 356 Lucilius. 357 Lucretius. 
358 Catullus. 359 Cornelius Gallus. 
360 Tibullus. 361 Propertius. 362 
Virgil. 363 Horace. 364 Ovid. 365 
Cornelius Severus. 366 Pedo Albino- 
vanus. 367 Gratius Faliscus. 368 
Publius Syrus. 369 Marcus Manilius. 
370 Cessar Germanicus. 371 iEmilius 
Macer. 372 Phasdrus. 373 Persius. 
374 L. Annceus Seneca. 375 Lucan. 
376 Valerius Flaccus. 377 Silius 
Italicus. 378 Statius. 379 Martial. 
380 Juvenal. 381 Flavius Avianus. 
Festus Avienus. 382 Dionysius Cato. 
383 Nemesian. 384 Calpurnius. 385 
Ausonius. Proba Falconia. 386 Clau- 
dian. 387 Prudentius. 388 Sedulius. 
389 Rutilius Numatianus. 

II. Orators, p. 321—328. 

% 390—406. 390 Eloquence in the 
earliest ages. 391?Influence of Greek 
teachers. 392 Civil honors acquired 
by oratory. 293 Eloquence of the 
Gracchi. 394 Increase of speakers. 
Eminence of Crassus and Antony the 
Orator. 395 Study of the art of speak- 
ing. Schools. 396 Two eminent ora- 
tors, Sulpitius and Cotta. 397 The 
two great rivals, Hortensius and Cice- 
ro. 398 The kinds of oratory. 399 
Decline of Roman eloquence. 400, 401 
Principal orators in the later ages. 
402 Panegyrical oratory of the Ro- 
mans. 403 General references. 404 
Cicero. 405 Pliny the younger (Caius 
Csscilius Secundus). 406 The Pane- 
gyrists ; Claudius Mamertinus, Eume- 
nius, Nazarius, Pacatus, Symmachus. 

727. Rhetoricians, p. 328—332. 

407—415. 407 Distinction between 
Rhetoricians and Grammarians. 408 
First rhetoricians at Rome. Opposi- 
tion to the Grecian teachers. 409 
Schools of Roman freed-men. 410 
411 Principal authors in this depart- 
ment. 412 General references. 413 
Cicero. 414 Marcus Annaeus Seneca. 
415 Quintilian. 

IV. Grammarians, p. 332 — 338. 

416 Studies and influence of the 
Grammarian. 417 The ancient gram- 
marian and modern philologist. 418 
Principal grammarians down to the 
death of Augustus. 419 Chief gram- 
marians of the next period. 420 High 
rank enjoyed by grammarians in later 
times. 421 Names of the more emi- 
nent. 422 General references. 423 



CONTENTS, 



xvil 



Varro. 424 Asconius Pedianus- 425 
Aulus Gellius. 426 Censorinus- 
427 Nonius Marcellus- 428 Pom- 
ponius Festus. 429 iElius Dona- 
tus- 430 Macrobius- 431 Charisi- 
us. 432 Diomedes. 433 Priscianus. 
434 Isidore, 

V. Epistolizers and Romancers, p. 
328—342. 

§ § 435 — 445. 435 Number and val- 
ue of Roman epistles extanl The 
earliest specimens- 436 — 438- The 
principal authors. 439 Romance scarce- 
ly found in Roman literature- Cicero- 
441 Pliny the younger (C. Caecilius 
Secundus). 442 Lucius Annasus Sen- 
eca- 443 Fronto- 444 Symmachus. 
445 Sidonius Apollinaris- 

VI. Philosophers, p. 342—355- 

§ § 446 — 474- 446 origin of Roman 
philosophy. 447 Numa a philosopher. 
448 Philosophers introduced by Paulus 
,/Emilius and Scipio Africanus. 449 
Date of the rise of philosophy at Rome. 
450 Difference between Greeks and 
Romans in respect to philosophical 
studies- 451 comparative number of 
Roman philosophers- 452 Patronage 
of Lucullus. 453 Philosophy in the 
time of the emperors. Introduction 
of oriental views- 454 Example of 
Marcus Aurelius. Influence of Chris- 
tianity. 455 Sects of philosophy at 
Rome- 456 Academic. 457 Stoic- 
458 Peripatelic. 459 Cynic 460 Ep- 
icurean. 461 Sceptic. 462 Pythago- 
rean. 463 New Pythagorean- 464 
New Platonists. 465 Eclectics- 466 
Philosophy of Christian Father:;. 468 
Cicero. 469 Lucius Ann. Seneca. 

470 Pliny the elder (Caius Secundus). 

471 Apuleius. 472 Petronius Arbiter. 
373 Capella. 474 Boethius, 

VII. Mathematicians, Geographers, 
•and (Economists, p. 355 — 364. 

§ § 475—501. 475, 476 Merit of the 
Romans in mathematical science. 477- 
479 Principal writers in this depart- 
ment. 480 Knowledge of geography 
among the Romans. Survey of the 
Empire- 481, 482 Principal writers 
and works. 483 Class of writers term- 
ed CEconomists. Greek and Roman 
agriculture. 484, 485 Roman writers 
on husbandry. 486 The Culinary art. 
487 Surveying of land. 488 Treatises 
on the art of the agrimensores or land- 
surveyors- 489 General references. 
490 Vitruvius. 491 Frontinus- 40'2 
Vegetius. 492 Julius Firmicus- 494 
Pomponius Mela- 495 Solinur,- 496 
Vibius Sequester- 497 The Roman 
B 



Itineraries. 498 Marcus Porcius Cato. 
499 Varro. 500a Columella. 500& 
Palladius. Martialis Gargilius- 501 
Ccelius Apicius- 

VIII. Mythographers. p. 364—366. 

§§ 502—509- 502 The tales of Ro- 
man mythology similar to those of the 
Grecian. 503 The writers few. Col- 
lections- 504 Hyginus. 505 Fulgen- 
tius. Albricus- 506 Lactantius Pla- 
cidus. 

IX. Historians and Biographers. 
p. 366—383. 

§ § 507—542. 507 Metrical annals. 
508 The Pontifical Commentaries and 
other early records. 509 Legal docu- 
ments. Family memoirs. Funeral 
eulogies. 510 Loss of early historical 
records- Dispute respecting the au- 
thenticity of the common history of 
Rome- 511— 51 3 The Annalists- 514, 
515 Principal writers in the third peri- 
od of Roman Literature. 516 Official 
documents in this period- 517 — 522 
Historical writers after the time of 
Augustus. 523—526 Roman biography o 
Several classes of biographical works. 
527 General references. 528 Julius 
Caesar. 529 Sallust- 530 Cornelius 
Nepos. 531 Titus Livius- 532 Vel- 
leius Paterculus. 533 Valerius Maxi- 
mus. 534 Tacitus. 535 Quintus Cur- 
tries- 536 Florus. 537 Suetonius- 538 
Justin. 539 Sextus Aurelius Vic- 
ton 540 Eutropius. 541 Ammianus 
Marcellinus- 542 Authors of the Au- 
gustan History. 

X. Writers on Medicine and Natur- 
al Science* p. 383— 388* 

§ § 543—557. 543 Science of Med- 
icine in low estimation at Rome. 544 
Early notions respecting the nature 
of diseases. 545 Greek slaves the 
first physicians. 546 Regard paid to 
the Greek physicians. 547a Cato's 
book of medicine- 547b Roman med- 
ical authors, from the time of Augus- 
tns to that of the Antonines- 548 Med- 
ical writers in later times- 549 Rank 
of physicians under the emperors- 550 
Opportunities for advancing natural 
science enjoyed by the Romans. 551 
Principal authors in physics. 552 Gen- 
eral references. 553 Aulus Cornelius 
Celsus- 554 Scribonius Largus- 555 
Serenus Sammonicus- 556 Theodorus 
Priscianus- 557 Marcellus Empiricus. 

XL Writers on Law and Jurispru- 
dence, p- 388—394. 

§§ 558 — 571. 553 Number of works 
in this department lost- R-eason for it 



XV1U 



CONTENTS. 



559 Various classes of works. 560 De- 
sign of the notice here to be taken- 
561 Earliest collections. The Jus Papir- 
ianum ; Twelve Tables ; Jus Flavian- 
um ; Jus JElianum- 562 Writers in the 
second period of Roman literature ; 
Manilius, Mucius Scsevola. 563 Emi- 
nent writers of the next period ; Sul- 
picius Rufus ; Cicero; Alfenus Varus ; 
Cascellius ; MWxxs Tubero, &c- 564, 
565 Chief civilians and authors in the 
period between Augustus and the An- 
tonines ; Masurius Sabinus, and Sem- 
pronius Proculus ; Cocceius Nerva , 
Juventius Celsus ; Neratius Priscus ; 
Salvius Julianus ; Gaius, &c 566 
Rank of the legal profession in the 
time between the Antonines and Con- 
stantine- Encouragement under the 
system of Constantine. Law-School 
of Berytus. 567 Papinian ; Ulpian ; 
Julius Paulus. 568 Codex Hermogen- 



ianus. Codex Theodosianus- Code of 
Theodoric- Breviary of Alaric. 569 
Arrangements of Theodosius for re- 
ducing to order the Roman law- La- 
bors of Tribonian- Constituent parts' 
of the Body of Roman Law. 570 In- 
fluence of the system of Justinian, 
Revival and sway of Roman Jurispru- 
dence. 571 General refences. 

Christian Writings in the Latin Lan~ 
guage. p. 394- 

§ § 572. Names of some of the au- 
thors- References on the subject. 

Appendix to the Greek and Roman 
Literature, p- 394—396- 

§ § 573—575. 573 Editions of the 
Classics m regular sets. 574 Collec- 
tions of Translations- 575 History of 
classical studies- 



PART III. 

Mythology of the Greeks and Romans. 



Introduction, p. 399 — 406, 

§ § 1 — 12. 1 Circumstances calcu- 
lated to give a fabulous character to 
early traditions. 2 Mythology in the 
Greek, and in the modern sense of the 
term. 3 Different points of view in 
contemplating mythological fables. 
4 Changes and additions in mytholog- 
ical stories. 5 Different sources of 
mythological fabrications. 6 Advan- 
tages of an acquaintance with mythol- 
ogy. 7 Eastern origin of the Grecian 
deities. 8 The Roman gods borrowed 
from the Greeks. 9 The Greek and 
Roman system of classifying their 
gods. 10 The four classes under 
which they are arranged in this work. 
11 The notions of deity entertained 
by the Greeks and Romans. Abode 
of the gods. 12 References to works 
treating on the subject. 

7. Mythological History of the Supe- 
rior gods. p. 407 — 429. 

$$ 13—67. 13 Gods included in this 
class. 14-17 Saturn. 18 Janus. 19- 
21 Cybele or Rhea. 22-25 Jupiter. 
26-28 Juno. 29-31 Neptune. 32-34 
Pluto. 35-37 Apollo. 38-40 Diana. 
41-43 Minerva. 44-46 Mars. 47-50 
Venus. 51-54 Vulcan. 55-56 Mer- 
cury. 57-60 Bacchus. 61-64 Ceres. 
65-67 Vesta. 

II. Mythological History of the In- 
ferior gods. p. 429 — 442. 

§§ 68 — 96. 68 Gods included in this 
class. 69,70 Ccelus. 71,72 Sol or 
Helius. 73 Luna. '74,75 Aurora. 
76 Nox. 77 Iris. 78 Molns. 79,80 



Pan. 81,82 Latona. 83 Themis, 
Asteea. Nemesis. 84 iEsculapius, 
85 Plutus. 86 Fortune. 87 Fame. 
88 Terminus. Priapus. 89 Vertum- 
nus. 90 Flora. 91 Feronia. 92 Pales, 
93 Gods presiding over various condi- 
tions or pursuits of men. Bellona. 
Victoria, &c. 94 Deified Roman em- 
perors. 95 Virtues and Vices. 96 
Egyptian deities worshiped among the 
Romans. 

III. Mythical beings, whose history 
is intimately connected with that of 
the gods. p. 442 — 451, 

$$ 97—117. 97 Titans. 98 Giants, 
99 Tritons. 100 Sirens. 101 Nymphs, 
102, 103 Muses. 104 Graces. 10& 
Hours. 106 Fates. 107 Furies. 108 
Harpies. 109 Daemons. 110 Manes, 
111 Lares. 112 Penates. 113 Sleep, 
Dreams, and Death. 114 Satyrs and 
Fauns. 115 Gorgons. 116 Amazons. 
117 Minotaur, Chimaera, and various 
other monsters. 

IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 
451—456. 

§§ 118—133. 118 Three periods of 
Grecian story. 119 General cause of 
the deification of heroes. 120 Two 
classes of venerated heroes. 121 In- 
achus, Oxgyges, Cecrops and several 
others, honored specially among their 
own people. 122 Perseus. 123, 124 
Hercules. 125,126 Theseus. 127, 
128 Jason and the Argonauts. 129 
Castor and Pollux. 130 Heroes of 
the Theban war. 131 Pelops and his 
descendants. 132 Heroes of the Tro- 
jan war. 133 Deified Roman emperors. 



CONTENTS. 



XIX 



PART IV. 

Greek and Roman Antiquities. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction, p. 459 — 464. 

§§ 1 — 14. 1 Origin of the name 
Q-rsecia. 2 Countries indluded under 
it. 3 Most important Grecian cities. 
4 Political changes. 5 First inhabit- 
ants. 6 Their early intercourse. 7 
Early forms of government. 8 The 
Spartan system. 9 Athens. 10 Caus- 
es of Grecian improvement. II Util- 
ity of study of Antiquities, and of 
Grecian in particular. 12 Original 
sources of knowledge on the subject. 
13 References to authors. 14 Defects 
in the common treatises on Greek an- 
tiquities. Early and later ages distinct. 

/. Of ike Earlier and less cultivated 
Ages. p. 464—482. 

§ 15 The period included. Subject 
divided into four brances. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ § 16—32. 16 First traces of the 
religion of the Greeks. 17 Form and 
mode of religious instruction. 18 In- 
fluence of the poets. 19 Number and 
character of the gods. 20 Temples 
and sacred places. 21 Images and 
statues. 22 Priests and Priestesses. 
23 Rites; ablutions. 24 Prayers. 25 
Sacrifices; the materials ; the origin. 
26 Altars. 27 Sacrifices ; the cere- 
monies. 28 Gifts and offerings. 29 
Worship rendered to heroes. 30 Fu- 
neral solemnities. 31 Burning of 
corpse ; monuments. 32 Oracles and 
divination. 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§§33—41. 33 Early rudeness. 34 
Power of the kings. 35 Their retinue 
and councillors. 36 Courts of justice. 
37 Laws and punishment, 38 The 
Cretan laws. 39 Successive forms of 
government at Athens. 40 At Sparta. 
41 Commerce and Navigation. 

(3) Military Affairs. 

§§ 42—51. 42 Early Creeks warlike. 
43 Their armies, how composed. 44 
Weapons; Defensive. 45 Offensive. 
49 The materials of which made. 47 
War-galleys. 48 Camps. 49 Order 
of Battle. 50 Division of Spoils. 
Barbarous stripping; of the slain. Com- 
bat of chiefs. 51 Treaties. 

(4) Domestic Affairs. 
§§52 — 63. 52 Common food. Dai- 
ly meals. 53 Social repasts. 54 Dress. 
55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation 
Of the Hair. 56 Houses. 57 Hospi- 



tality. 58 Employments; agriculture J 
hunting. 59 Employments of wo- 
men. 60 Amusements. 61 Marriage. 
62 Education of children. 63 Slaves. 

//. Of the Later and more flour- 
ishing Ages, p. 482 — 552. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§§ 64 — 90. 64 Number of gods in- 
creased. 65 Temples more splendid. 
66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 67 Class- 
es of priests. Purification. 68 Sac- 
rifices and attendant ceremonies. 69 
Oaths. Leagues. 70 Oracles. Im- 
posture at Argos. 71 Oracles of Ju- 
piter; atDodona; in Crete; African 
desert. 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. 
74 Of Trophonius ; and others. 75 
Arts and methods of divination. 76, 
77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; 
of Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of 
Minerva. 78 Games. 79 The race. 
80 Leaping. 81 Wrestling. 82 The 
discus. 83 Boxing. 84 Four sacred 
games. Olympic. 85 Pythian. 86 
Nemean. 87 Isthmian. 88 System 
of athletics. 89 Theatres, and dram- 
atic representations. 90 Chorus. 
Theoric money at Athens, 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§§ 91—134. 91 Athens and Sparta 
distinguished by pecularities. 92 Dra- 
co and Solon at Athens. 93 The 
tribes and classes at Athens. 94 Pis- 
istratus, and his sons. 95 The thirty 
tyrants. Form of government after 
them until death of Alexander. 96 
Buildings of Athens. 97 The free 
citizens of Athens. 98 The foreign 
residents. 99 The slaves. 100 Mag- 
istrates. The Archons. 102 The 
Eleven. Orators. Ambassadors. No- 
taries. 103 Athenian revenues. 104 
Officers of the revenue and treasury. 
Expenditures. 105 Amphictyonic 
council. 106 Assemblies of the peo- 
ple. 107 Athenian senate. 108 Ar- 
eopagus. 109 Athenian courts of jus- 
tice. TheEphetae. 110 The Helitea. 
Ill The Forty. The DiEetetee. 112 
Different kinds of actions. 113 Pun- 
ishments. 114 The Ostracism. 115 
Modes of inflicting death. 116 Pub- 
lic rewards and honors. 117 Attic 
laws. 118 Natural situation of Spar- 
ta. 119 Spartan tribes. 120 Treat- 
ment of children at Sparta. 121 Spar- 
tan slaves. 122 The kings of Sparta. 
123 The Senate. Ephori. ]24 No- 
mophulakes and other magistrates. 
125 Assemblies of the people. 126 



XX 



CONTENTS. 



Public repasts. 127 Judicial affairs. 
128 Punishments. 129 Laws of Spar- 
ta. 130 Cretan constitution. 13 L 
Cretan laws ; public meals ; slaves. 
132 Constitution of Tliebes. 133 
Constitutions of Corinth and Syra- 
cuse. 134 Of Argos; of iEtolia, and 
Achaia. 

(3) Military Affairs. 
$$ 135—160. 135 The warlike char- 
ter retained ; especially by the Spar- 
tans. 136 Persons liable to military 
duty. Their support. 137 Classes of 
troops. The infantry. 138 Cavalry. 
Use of Elephants. 139 Armor. 140 
Various officers. 141 The divisions of 
the army. 142 Forms of Battle-array. 
Manoeuvres. 143 Declaration of war. 
Treaties. 144 Camps. 145 Standards 
and ensigns. Signals for battle. 146 
Art of besieging. 147 Military en- 
gines. 148 Defence of cities. 149 
Treatment of captured places. 150 
Division of spoils. 151 Military re- 
wards and punishments. 152 Means 
of conveying intelligence. 153 Cross- 
ing of rivers., 154, 155 Ships. Names 
of their principal parts. Vessels of 
war. 156 Rowers, sailors and ma- 
rines. Manner of placing the seats of 
rowers. 157 Instruments employed 
in naval battle. 158 Naval officers. 
159 Manner of naval battle.. 160 Na- 
vul victories and monuments. Naval 
punishments. 

(4) Affairs of Private Life. 
§5 161—187. 161 Food. Use of wines. 
162 The different meals. Manner of 
spending the day at Athens. 163 En- 
tertainments or feasts. 164 Customs 
at table. 165 Substances eaten at 
the principal meal. 166 Officers and 
attendants at an entertainment. 167 
Customs in drinking. Amusements 
accompanying a feast. 168 Customs 
of hospitality. Officers called Proxe- 
ni. Inns. 169 Dress, for the body, 
head, and feet. Use of silk. Adorn- 
ing of the person. 170 Bathing and 
anointing. 171 Houses. 172 Com- 
merce and Agriculture. 173, 174 Gre- 
cian money and coins. Ratio of Gold 
and silver. 175 Greek system of no- 
tation. 176 Grecian weights. 177 
Measures. 178 Social amusements. 
179, 180 Music and musical instru- 
ments. 181 Condition of females. 
182 Laws and customs respecting 
marriage. 183 — 186 Funeral rites. 
Anniversaries held in honor of the 
dead, with orations and games. 187 
Sepulchral monuments. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, 

Introduction, p. 553—557. 
§§ 188—198. 188 Origin of Rome. 
189 Principal events which affected 
the appearance of the city. Compar- 
ative splendor of ancient and modern 
Rome. 190 Population of Rome. 191 
Extent of the Roman empire. 192 Pro- 
portion of soldiers and other citizens, 
193 The time of the regal govern- 
ment. 194 Most brilliant era of Ro- 
man history. 195 Condition under 
the emperors. 196 Utility of studying 
Roman antiquities. Original sources 
of information on the subject. 197 
References to modern works and au- 
thors. 198 Division of the subject. 
(1) Religious Affairs, p. 557—578. 

W 199—239. 199 Use of the term re- 
ligio. 200 Origin of the religion of 
the Romans. 201 Its connection with 
politics. 202 Design of Romulus and 
Nurna. Gods of the Romans. 203 
Temples. 204 Statues and offerings. 
Groves. 205 Altars. 206 Vessels- 
employed in sacrifices. 207 Several 
orders of priests. 208 Pontifices. 209 
Augurs. Various methods of augury. 
210 Haruspices. 2ll Epulones. 212 
Feciales. 213 Rex sacrorum. 214 
Flamines. 215 Salii. 216 Luperci, 
217 Galli and others. 218 Vestal vir- 
gins. 219 Fratres Arvales, Curiones, 
and others. 220 Customs in offering 
prayers. 221 Sacrifices and attend- 
ant rites. 222 Vows. 223 Dedica- 
tion of sacred buildings. 224 Expia- 
tions. The lustrum. 225 Oaths. 226 
Oracles. 227 Lots. 228 Divisions 
of time. 229, 230 Festivals. 231 Pub- 
lic games. 232, 233 Ludi Circenses. 
Naumachia. 234 Ludi Seculares. 
235 Ludi Gladiatorii. 236 Ludi Flo- 
rales. 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cerea- 
les, and others. 238 Theatres, Masks 
&c. 239 Amphitheatres. 

(2) Civil Affairs, p. 578—601. 
§ § 240 — 274. 240 Regal government-. 
241 Consuls. 242 Imperial govern- 
ment. 243 Praetors, 244 jftdiles. 245 
Tribunes. 246 Quaestors. 247 Cen- 
sors. 248, 249 Extraordinary magis- 
trates; Dictator; Decemviri; Military 
Tribunes; Prsefects. Interrex, &c 
250 Proconsuls, and other provincial 
magistrates. 251 Tribes. 252 Six 
classes of citizens. Centuries. 253 
Patricians and plebeians. 254 The 
populace. Patrons and clients. 255 
Roman nobility. Right of images, 
Curule office. 256 The Equites or 



CONTENTS. 



XXI 



Knights. 257 The Senate. 258, 259 
The Comitia. 260 Right of citizenship. 
Government of conquered cities and 
nations. 261 Judicial proceedings. 
Public actions and trials. 262 Private 
actions. 263 Penal offences. 264 Pun- 
ishments. 265 System of laws. Body 
of Roman civil law. 266 Regulations 
respecting grain. 267 Revenue. 268 
Commerce. Mechanic arts. 269 Agri- 
culture. Carriages. 270 Money. 
Coins. 271 System of reckoning and 
notation. 272 Modes of acquiring 
property. 273 Auctions. Confisca- 
tions. 274 Measures of extent, &c. 
Modesof determining the Roman/oo?. 
(3) Affairs of War. p. 601—619. 
§ § 275—309. 275 Authorities on the 
subject. 276 Military establishment 
of the kings. 277 Persons liable to 
duty. Time of service. 278 Consu- 
lar army. Exempts. 279 System of 
levy. 280 Classes of troops. 281 Sub- 
division into maniples, &c. 282 Stand- 
ards. Music. 283 Weapons. 284 
Wages. Rewards. 285 Punishments. 
286 Order of battle. 287 Modes of at- 
tack. 288 Light troops. 289, 290 Cav- 
alry. 291 Cohorts. 292 Auxiliaries. 
293 Attendants upon the army. 294 
Order of march. 295 Forms of array. 
296, 297 The Camp. 298 Watches. 
Exercises of soldiers. 299 Sieges. 
Engines. Mounds and towers. Bat- 
tering ram and other engines; 300 
Modes of defence in a siege. 301 The 
fleets. 302 Method ofliaval battle. 
303 Construction and parts of Roman 
ships. 304 Different kinds of vessels. 



305 Rewards of generals. 306 Laws 
on the subject. 307 The triumph. 308 
The ovation. 309 Military system un- 
der the emperors. 

(4) Affairs of Private Life. 
p. 620—640. 

§§ 310—343 .310 The /ree-florn and 
the free-made discriminated. 311 Sys- 
tem of applying proper names. 312 
Regulations respecting marriage. 313, 
314 Marriage contracts. 315 Nuptial 
ceremonies. 316 Divorces. 317 The 
right and power of the father over his 
children. 318 Emancipation of sons. 
319 Adoption. 320 Legitimation. 321 
Education of youth. 322 Slaves. 323 
Slave trade. 324 Emancipation of 
slaves. 325 Dwellings. Parts and 
ornaments of a Roman house. 326 
Country seats or villas. 327 Manner 
of life. Morals. 328 Daily routine of 
employment. 329 Food and meals. 
Furniture for eating. 330 Different 
courses at supper. Roman hospitality. 
331a Drinking and'games at banquets. 
Dice. 3315 Wines. 332 Dress. The 
toga. 333 The tunic. Badges. 334 
The stola and other garments of wo- 
men. 335 Various outer garments. 
Use of silk. 336 Coverings for the 
head and feet. 337, 338 Dress of the 
hair. Personal ornaments. 339 Fu- 
neral customs. Exposure of the corpse. 
340 Funeral processions. Eulogy. 341 
Burning. Place of burial. Tombs. 
Phials of tears. 342 Mourning for the 
deceased. Games and sacrifices. 343 
Consecration, or deification of deceas- 
ed emperors. 



PART V. 



Classical' Geography and Chronology. 



EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRA- 
PHY. 

Introduction, p. 643, 644. 
§ § 1-5. 1-3 Portion of earth known 
to ancients. 4, 5 Ancient divisions. 

I. Of Europe, p. 644 — 688. 
§§ 6 — 148. 6, 7 Extent and bounda- 
ries. 8 General subdivisions. 9. 15 
Northern countries of Europe ; Scan- 
dinavia, Cimbrica, Sarmatia, Germa- 
nia, &c. 16-26 Middle countries of 
Europe ; Gallia, Rhaetia, Noricum, 
Pannonia, Illyricum, Mcesia, Dacia. 
27-29 Southern countries of Europe. 
29-31 Hispania. 32-50 Italia. 51-71 
Topography of Rome. 51, 52 Gates 
and roads. 53 Bridges and hills. 54 
Districts. References to writers on 
the topography of the city. 55 Campi. 



56 Streets. 57Fora. 58-60 Temples 
and groves. 61-63 Curia?, basilicas, 
circuses ; theatres &c. 64 Baths. 65 
-67 Schools, porticos, columns, tro- 
phies &c. 68 Aqueducts. Sewers. 69 
Monuments to the dead. 70 Dwellings. 
71 Villas. Suburbs. 72-75 Thracia. 
76 Four natural divisions of Graecia. 
77-81 Macedonia. 82-88 Thessalia. 
Epirus. 89-103 Hellas. 104-116 To- 
pography of Athens. 104, 105 Its sit- 
uation. 106 The Acropolis. 107 Par- 
thenon and other buildings of the cit- 
adel. 103-110 The lower city and its 
temples. Ill Porches. Odea. Cer- 
amicus. 112, 113 Forums. Aqueducts. 
Stadium. 114 Areopagus. Pnyx. 115 
Theatres. Choragic monuments. 116 
Harbors. References to writers on 
the topography of Athens. 117-125 
Peloponnesus. 126-129 Topography 



CONTENTS. 



of Sparta. 126 Form and situation. 
127 Forum. 128 Columns and statues. 
129 Hippodrome. Harbor. Refer- 
ences to writers. 130-148 European 
Islands 130-136 Britannia and adjoin- 
ing islands. 137 Balearic®. Corsica 
an'd Sardinia. 138-140 Sicilia. 141,142 
Ionian islands. 143-148 JEgean islands. 
II. or asia. p. 683—692. 

§ § 149—172. 149, 150 Extent and 
general division of Asia. 151-155 
Countries of the Eastern division. 
Scythia, Sinse, India, Persia, Media, 
Parthia. 156-171 Countries of the West- 
ern division. 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, 
Albania, Iberia. 157 Armenia. 158 
-165 Asia Minor. 166-169 Syria in- 
cluding Palaestina. 170 Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia and Assyria. 171 Arabia. 
172 Asiatic islands. 

III. OF AFRICA, p. 692 — 696. 

§§ J73— 183. 173 Extent and di- 
visions of Africa. 174-176 Egypt. 
177 Ancient ruins and remains of 
Egypt. Works on the subject. 178 
Ethiopia. 179 Libya. 180 Africa 
Propria. 181 Numidia. 182 Mauri- 
tania. 183 Africa Interior. Atlantis. 

INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL 
CHRONOLOGY. 

Preliminary Remarks, p- 697- 
§§ 184. Importance of the subject' 

Design of present sketch. Two parts. 
I. Of measuring time and adjusting 

its divisions- p. 697 — 702. 

$$ 185—196- 185 The three natural 

divisions of time ; day, month, and 

year- 186, 187 Ancient- customs as to 



beginning and dividing the day. 188 
Devices for marking and making 
known the parts of the day. Dial, 
Clepsydra. 189 190 The month. The 
Grecian system. 191 Roman method 
of reckoning the months, and the days 
of the month. The week- Names of 
the days. 192 The year- Tjhe Gre- 
cian ; Roman ; Julian. The Gregori- 
an Calendar. Old and new style- 193 
Cycles. 194 The lunar cycle- 195 
The solar. 196 The cycle of indiction. 
Julian Period. 

77- Of fixing the dates of historical 
events and arranging them in order. 
p> 702—720. 

§§ 197—215- 197 Topics noticed 
in this part- 198—201 Methods of as- 
certaining dates. 1. Successive gen- 
erations ; and successive reigns of 
kings- 2- Celestial appearances. 3. 
Coins, inscriptions &c- 4. Historical 
testimony- 202, 203 Epochs and eras. 
Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ; the 
Christian ; the Mahometan ; of the 
French Republic. 204—207 Systems 
and tables. 204 Claims of the Egyp- 
tians and Babylonians. 205 The He- 
brew and the Septuagint chronology. 
Newton's. Usher's. 206, 207 Various 
plans for charts- The best- 208-215 
Actual dates of most prominent events. 
208 Common complaint of students. 
Remedy. 209 Brief outline of general 
Chronology. 210 Systems of artificial 
memory- 211 Chronology of ancient 
states ; eight principal states of Asia ; 
references to works on their history. 

212 Of the two principal in Africa. 

213 Of Greece- 214, 215 Of Rome. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 

[Reference from one place to another in this Manual is commonly made by specifying the 
number of the Part, and Section, and Subdivision of the section. Thus, (in the following col- 
umns, or any where in the work, 1 ) the reference cf. P. IV. § 44. 2, directs the reader to Part IV. 
section 44, paragraph numbered 2.— Sometimes the P. and the § may be omitted ; as thus, cf. 
IV.Tl. 4. which would refer to Part IV. section 77, paragraphs] 

1. Frontispiece. View of Delphi and the 
Heights of Parnassus, as given by Bocage in 
Barthelemy's Anacharsis ; cf. the volume of 
Plates, p. 71, as cited P. II. § 153. 2. — P. V. 
$97. 

2. Reverse of Title-page. View of Ath- 
ens, reduced from Hobhouse's Albania. 

3. Plate I. (Page 2.) Ancient Books, and 
Implements used in Writing and in the Arts. — 
Fig. 1. A painting on the wall of a chamber, 
found at Herculaneum ; it shows a bag of 
money, tied, lying on a table between two 
heaps of coins, with an inkstand and reed, a 
parchment or papyrus manuscript with its ti- 
tle appended, a style, and tablets. — Fig. 2. 
Tablets connected by a ring, pugillares ; cf. 
P. I. § 56. 2, § 118. 3. — Figs. 3 and 4. Styles ; 
cf. P. I. $ 54. — Fig. 9. A reed. — Fig. 5. A 
roll showing the manner of writing. — Fig. 6. 
Two tablets, and the capsa, or bookcase ; cf. 
P. I. § 118. 3.— Figs. 7 and 8. Tools employed 
in architecture &c. : cf. P. I. § 229. 2. 

4. Ppate la. (Page 29.) Ancient Writing, 
Manuscripts, and Inscriptions. — Fig. a. Fine 



specimen of the ancient Ms. roll ; it is a H-e 
brew Synagogue roll, belonging to the British 
Museum ; said to consist of 40 brown African 
skins attached together ; written in 153 col- 
umns, 22 inches deep and 5 wide ; each col- 
umn having 63 lines. The reader passed from 
column to column, unrolling the volume from 
one stick and rolling it upon another, the or- 
namented ends of the sticks serving for han- 
dles. — Figs, d, e, f, are from remains found 
at Pompeii ; e, a boy holding a closed roll or 
volume ; d, a girl with a set of pugillares (cf. 
P. I. § 118. 3.) and a style ; /, another reading 
a roll partly opened Figs. i. ii. iii. speci- 
mens of writing i n Greek Mss. , cf. P. I. §104. 2. 
Fig. D. Inscription copied from a Baby- 
lonian brick lately deposited in the Boston 
Atheneum ; the brick is about 11 inches square 
and 3 inches thick ; it is here (merely for the 
sake of convenience in forming the Plate) ex- 
hibited so that the lines are perpendicular, but 
their actual direction is horizontal ; they are 
to be read from left to right, the bottom of the 
figure being the left, and the top the right 



DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. 



XXlll 



Cf» P. I. $ 18. 4. —Fig. G. Several specimens 
of writing in the arrow-head character : No. 1, 
part of an inscription found on a pillow near 
Murghab or Mourgaub, supposed hy Morier to 
be the site of the ancient Pasargada ; it is the 
name of Cyrus, Kusruesh, in Hebrew Koresh, 
in Greek Kuros: No. 2, part of an inscription 
on a monument at Persepolis ; the name of 
Darius, DARHEuscH,in Hebrew, Dariavish, in 
Greek, Darcios .• No. 3, part of another in- 
scription, containing a title often assumed by 
Persian mouarchs, Khschehioh Khschehi- 
ohtch, i. e. King of Kings (cf. Ezra, vii. 12) : 
No. 4, the name of Xerxes, in the alphabet of 
the Zend language, Khschhersche : No. 7, 
the same name in the alphabet considered that 
of the Pehlvi language : No. 8, the same, in a 
character supposed to be more modern : No. 5, 
Hieroglyphic inscription noticed by Champol- 
lion, on an Egyptian alabaster vase, as being 
the name of Xerxes, and read by him Khsche- 
akscha; No. 6, the same name in the Perse- 
politan character, as found on that vase. See 
P. I. $ 18. 4. Fig. H. Specimen of phonet- 
ic hieroglyphical writing ; two cartouches of 
hieroglyphics, from one of the colonnades 
adorning the first court of the palace of Kar- 
nac, a part of Egyptian Thebes ; the name of 
an Egyptian king, supposed to be the one 
called in the Bible Shishak (1 Kinfs, xiv. 5) ; 
the left cartouch expresses, it is supposed, the 
surname, interpreted as signifying "approved 
of the sun " j the other on the right (in which 
the corresponding Roman letters are, in the 
cut, attached to the hieroglyphics by way of 
explanation, is read Amnmai Shshnk, and in- 
terpreted '■'■Dear to Ammon, She s honk"; this 
name is thought by some to be the same as 
the Sesonchis {2i]aoy x l ?) of Manetho. Cf. 

P. I. $16.1; §91.7.8. Fig. B. Ancient 

British writing on moveable sticks ; cf. P. I. 

$53. Fig. C. The papyrus, growing on 

the banks of the Nile; cf. P. I. $118. 1 

Fig. E. Comparative view of several corre- 
sponding letters in eight different alphabets 
(cf. P. I. $ 45. 2) ; forming as nearly as the al- 
phabets will allow, the words of the Hebrew 
inscription, Holiness to the Lord, which 
was engraved on the golden plate attached to 
the mitre of Aaron (Exod. xxviii. 36, 37) ; — 
the line a is in Hebrew old coin letters ; 6, in 
the Hebrew common letters, as in the modern 
printed Hebrew Bible ; c, in the Egyptian hie- 
ratic or priest's letters ; d, in the Samaritan ; 
e, in the Egyptian phonetic hieroglyphics ; /, 
in the Coptic ; the next line gives the corre- 
sponding Roman letters, as formed in modern 
printing, being the same as ours; g, the com- 
mon Greek, as nearly as the alphabet seems 
to allow ; the last line, h, is the Septuagint 
version of the inscription. This cut may serve 
also to illustrate the ancient custom of engrav- 
ing an inscription in different languages on 
the same monument ; as, e. g. the Rosetta 
stone (cf. P. I. $91.7); the Egypto-Persian 
Vase noticed above in explaining fig. G; and 
the memorable three-fold inscription placed 
by Pilate over the head of the Savior upon the 
cross (Luke, xxiii. 38 ; John, xix. 19). 

5. Plate II. (Page 53.) Grecian Coins. — 
For particulars, see P. I. $ 93. 2, $ 95. 1, P. IV. 
$ 173. 3. 

6. Plate III. (Page 64.) Roman Coins.— 
For the details, see P. I. $ 134. 1, $ 139. 2, P. 
IV. $ 270. 3. 

7. Plate IV. (Page 86.) Specimens of An- 
cient Sculpture. — Fie. 1. Dying Gladiator; cf. 
P. I. $ 186. 9.— Fig. 2. Head of Antinous ; cf. 
P. I. $ 186. 10. — Fig. 3. Apollo Belvidere ; cf. 
P. I. $ 186. 4. — Fig. 4. Gladiator Borghese ; 
cf. P. I. $ 186. 8. — Fig. 5. Laocoon ; cf. P. I. 
$ 186. 1. —Fig. 6. Hercules Farnese ; cf. P. I. 
$ 186. 6. 

3. Plate V. (Page 109.) Jewels and Sculp- 
tured Gems. — Figs. 1 and 2. Specimens of the 
Abraxas ; cf. P. I. $ 200. 2, $ 198 ; P. III. $96. 
(6). — Fig. 3. A Roman seal ; cf. P. I. $ 206. 



—Fig. 4, and figs. g. h, i, o, and r. Jewels for 
the ear and breast ; cf. P. IV. $ 338. — Fig. 5. 
Cupid, ason an ancient gem ; cf. P. I. $ 198. — 
Fig. 6. Daedalus, as on an ancient gem ; cf. P, 
I. $ 198, — Figs. 7 and 8. Gems bearing a Her- 
mes and Hermeraclcs ; cf. P. 1. $ 164. 2.— Figs, 
a, b, c, d, e,f. Finger-rings,with gems inserted; 
cf. P. I.$206. b 

9. Plate VL (Page 121.) Illustrations per- 
taining to the Theatre. — Fig. 1. Plan of the 
Greek theatre ; cf. P. 1. $ 235. — Fig. 2. Plan 
of the Roman theatre ,- cf. P. IV. $238. — Fig. 
A. Edifice called Choragic Monument of Thra- 
syllus ; cf. P. I. $ 66. 3 ; P. V. $ 115. —Fig. C. 
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, called also 
Lantern of Demostlmies. — Fig. B B. A repre- 
sentation in Mosaic, found at Pompeii ; cf. P. 
I. $ 189. 1. 

10. Plate Via. (Page 128.) Architectural 
Illustrations. — Figs, a, b, c, d, e. Columns, 
Egyptian &c. ; cf. P. I. $ 238. 3. — Figs. /, g, 
h, i,j, k, I. Grecian and Roman columns, ex- 
hibiting the different orders &c. ; cf. P. I. 
$ 238. 1 — Figs, m and n. Arches upon pil- 
lars ; cf. P. I. $244. — Figs. p,q, s, u. Grecian 
capitals ; cf. P. I. $ 238. 1. — Figs. 0, r, t, v. 
Pillars ; r and v, Gothic ; 0, Saracenic ; t, Chi- 
nese ; cf. P. I. $ 245. 

11. Plate VII. (Page 134.) Comparative 
View of celebrated Edifices and other Structures. 
See bottom of the Plate. 

12. Plate VIII. (Page 144.) Grecian Busts, 
with names annexed ; taken from the Historic 
Gallery, cited P. I. $ 187. 

13. Plate IX. (Page 276.) Roman Busts, 
with names annexed ; taken from the Historic 
Gallery and Landon, as cited P. I. $ 187. 

14. Plate X. (Page 398.) Mythological Il- 
lustrations. — Fig. 1. Saturn ; cf. P. III. $ 14- 
17 — Fig. 2. Cybele; cf. P. III. $19-21.— 
Fig. 3. Pluto; cf. P.III. $ 32-34. — Fig. 4. 
Vulcan; cf. P. III. $ 51-54. — Fig. 5. Nep- 
tune; cf. P. III. $29-31. — Fig. 6. Venus, 
with attendants ; cf. P. III. $ 47-49. — Fig. 7. 
Diana ; cf. P. III. $ 38-40. — Fig. 8. Bacchus ; 
cf. P. III. $ 57-60. 

15. Plate XI. (Page 408.) Mythological Il- 
lustrations. — Fig. 1. Juno ; cf. P. III. \ 26-28. 

— Fig. 2. Mercury ; cf. P. III. $ 55, 56.*— Fig. 
3. Jupiter; cf. P. III. $ 22-25. — Fig. 4. Apol- 
lo ; cf. P. III. $ 35-37. — Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. 
III. $61-64. — Fig. 6. Minerva; cf. P. III. 
$ 41-43. - Fig. 7. Mars ; cf. P. III. $ 44-46. — 
Fig. 8. Janus; cf. P. III. $ 18. — Fig. 9. Cu- 
pid; cf. P. III. $50. — Fig. 10. Vesta; cf. P. 
III. $ 65-67. 

16. Plate XI a. (Page 415.) The Hindoo 
Triad. Cf. P. III. $ 25. 4. 

17. Plate XI 6. (Page 431.) The Avatars 
of Vishnu. Cf. P. III. $ 25. 4, $ 376. 

18. Plate XII. (Page 439.) Mythological 
Illustrations. — Fig. 1. Sol, as represented on 
a coin of the Rhodians ; cf. P. III. $ 71-73. — 
Fig. 2. Nox, as represented on a gem ; cf. P. 
III. $ 76. — Fig. 3. Luna; cf. P. III. $ 73. — 
Fig. 4. Hebe ; P. III. $ 27. —Fig. 5. Flora ; 
cf. P. III. $ 90. — Fig. 6. ^Esculapius ; cf. P. 
III. $ 84. — Fig. 7. Pan ; cf. P. III. $ 79. — 
Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope; cf. P.III. $95.1.— 
Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P.III. $86. — Fig. 10. 
Victoria ; cf. P. III. $ 93. — Fig. 11. Concor- 
dia ; cf. P. III. $ 95. 1. — Fig. 12. Pax, or 
Peace; cf. P. III. $ 95. 1. 

19. Plate XIII. (Page 458.) Crowns, Gar- 
lands, #c— Figs. 1,2,3,4, 5. Roman crowns 
or wreaths, bestowed as military rewards. 
Fig. 6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. IV. $284. 1. 

— Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands re- 
ceived by victors in the games ; cf. P. IV. 
$ 84-87, $ 233. — Fig. A. Plan of a Gymna- 
sium or Palaestra after Vitruvius, as given in 
Barthelemy'' s Anacharsis ; cf. P. I. $ 236. — 
Fig. B. Victorious charioteer ; cf. P. IV. $233. 
— Fig. C. A golden crown found in Ireland ; 
cf. P. IV. $ 34. 

20. Plate XIV. (Page 475.) Military Weap- 
ons,fyc. For particulars, see P. IV. $45,137,283. 



XXIV 



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 



21. Plate XV. (Page 483.) Tombs and Se- 
pulchral Remains. — Figs. J, 2, 3. Tomb of 
Cyrus, Absalom's pillar, and Pvramid of Ces- 
tui s ; cf. P. IV. <$ 187. 4. — Fig. 4. Gates of a 
tomb ; cf. P. IV. $ 187. 4. — Figs, a and dd. 
Lachrymatory and unguentary vases ; cf. P. 
IV. $341. 7. — Fig. B. Egyptian Psychostasy, 
or weighing of the soul ; cf. P. III. $ 34. 2. — 
Fig. e. Funeral couch ; cf. P. IV. $340. 1. — 
Fig. hh. Collin and urns, &x. ; cf. P. IV. 
$341.6. 

22. ' Plate XVI. (Page 505.) Temples. — 
Fig. 1. Parthenon ; cf. P. IV. $96, P. I. $234.3, 
P. V. $ 107. — Fig. 2. Temple of the Winds ; 
cf. P. IV. $ 96, P. V. $ 110. — Fig. 3. Temple 
of Theseus,- cf. P. IV. $96, P. V. $109.— 
Figs, a, b, c, d, e, f,g,h. Ground-plans of the 
different kinds of temples ; cf. P. I. $234. 2. 

23. Plate XVII. (Page 522.) Various Arti- 
cles of Armor. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Helmets ; 
cf. P. IV. $ 45. —Figs, r, s. Mail and breast- 
plate ; cf. P. IV. $ 45, 138. — Fig. u. Greaves ; 
cf. IV. $44, 45. — Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian war- 
riors ; cf. P. IV. $ 45. — Fig. 3. Persian war- 
rior ; cf. P. IV. $ 45. — Fig. 4. Trophy ; cf. 
P. IV. $ 150. — Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with 
an armor-bearer; cf. P. IV. $283. — Fig. 6. 
Egyptian archer; cf. P. IV. $ 45, 288. 1.— 
Fig. 8. Soldier in complete mail ; cf. P. IV. 
$283. 

24. Plate XVIII. (Page 531.) Naval Illus- 
trations. — Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat for 
rapid moving; cf. IV. 304. — Fig. 2. Vessel 
from a painting at Pompeii ; cf. IV. 304. — 
Fig. 3. Liburnian galley ; cf. IV. 304.— Fig. 4. 
Merchant vessel ; cf. IV. 155. — Fig. 5. War- 
galley ; cf. IV. 155. — Fig. A. Hexireme as ex- 
plained by Holwell ; cf. IV. 155, 156. — Fig. 
B. Views of the relative position of the row- 
ers, according to the explanations of some ; 
cf. IV. 156. 2. — Figs, a, b, c. Different forms 
of prows ; cf. IV. 155. 3. 

25. Plate XJX. (Page 535.) Pertaining' to 
Household Affairs. —Fig. 1. Plan of a Grecian 
house ; cf. IV. 171. 1. — Fig. 2. A Grecian 
key ; cf. IV. 171. 2. — Fig. 3. Young man 
wearing the petasus; cf. IV. 169. 3. — Fig. 4. 
A bride sitting with a mirror held before her ; 
cf. IV. 169. 6, 171. 2. —Figs. 5 and 10. Gre- 
cian sofas ; cf. IV. 171. 2. — Fig. 6. Peculiar 
head-ornament, worn in oriental countries ; 
cf. IV. 34.— Fig. 7. Grecian lady, from Boyd's 
Potter ; cf. IV. 169. 5, 171. 2, 52. — Figs. 8, 9. 
Chairs ; cf. IV. 171. 2. — Figs, a, b, c, &.c. Va- 
rious forms of coverings for the feet 3 cf. IV. 
169. 2, 336. 

26. Plate XX. (Page 541.) Costume.— 
Figs, a, b, c, d. Modern Egyptian and oriental 
dresses. ; e, /, Greek Bacchantes ; g, an 
Egyptian spinner ; h, i, Grecian female fluters; 
k, Grecian lady in the more ancient costume ; 
m, peculiar head-dress ; n, 0, Egyptian princ- 
ess and priestess in transparent garments ; 
y, w, veils and head-dresses. See P. IV. $ 169. 
5. — Fig. 1. A box worn on the' neck ; cf. IV. 
337. — Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Egyptian 
monuments ; figs. 3,4, toilet-table and mirror; 
cf. IV. 338. 

27. Plate XXI. (Page 549.) Musical In- 
struments. For particulars, see P. IV. $ 180. 

28. Plate XXII. (Page 561.) Altars and 
Sacrificial Apparatus. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Vari- 
ous articles as given in Montfaucon ; fig. A, 
including 1, 2, &c, articles drawn from sculp- 
tures found at Pompeii ; fig. B, representation 
of a sacrifice from the same source ; cf. P. IV. 
§ 206. — Fig. C. Sacrifice to Bacchus ; cf. IV. 
205.1, $67. — Fig. D. Sacred utensils from 
Egyptian remains ; cf. IV. 206. — Figs. E, H. 
Altars; cf. IV. 205. 1. 

29. Plate XXIV. (Page 577.) Gladiatorial 
Contests. — Fig. 1, two andabatce or horsemen ; 
fig. 2, a horseman and footman (cf. P. IV. 
-$283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on foot ; fig. 



5, wounded bull ; fi<r. 6, two seoutores and two 
rctiarii ; see P. IV. $ 235. 2. — Fig. 7. Plan of 
an amphitheatre at Pompeii ; cf. IV. 239. — 
Fig. n. A Dacian horseman in scale-armor ; 
cf. IV. 283. 

30. Plate XXIV. (Page 587.) Pertaining 
to topics noticed under the head of Roman Civil 
Affairs — Figs. 1 and 3. Roman fasces and 
Egyptian sceptres ; cf. P. IV. $ 240. 1. — Figs. 
2 and 9. Roman official chairs ; cf. IV. 255. 2. 
— Figs. 4,5,6. Chariots; cf. IV. 269.3.— 
Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight; cf. IV. 
270. 1. — Fig. 10. Sedan ; cf. IV. 255. 2.— Fig. 
A, a kind of stocks ; fig. B, the Mamertine 
prison at Rome ; cf. IV. 264. 1. 

31. Plate XXV. (Page 599.) Pertaining 
to Household and Agricultural Affairs. — Fig. 1 , 
plan of a Roman house ; figs, a and b, a key 
and bolt from Pompeii ; cf. P. IV. $325. 6. — 
Fig. c. Egyptian door ; cf. I. 231. 1. — Figs, d 
and E (including 1, 2, 3, &c). Couch and 
lamps; cf. TV. 325~. 7.— Fig. ii. Roman plough; 
fig. iii. Syrian ploughs ; figs. iv. 6, 7, instru- 
ments for threshing ; figs. 5, 8, sickle, prun- 
ing-knife, &c. See IV. 269. 2. 

32. Plate XXVI. (Page 605.) Armor, Mil- 
itary Standards, #c. — Figs. 1 and 2. Legiona- 
ry soldieas with shield and sword, baggage 
&c. cf. ft IV. $ 283. — Fig. 3. A Medo-Per- 
sian, frorWsculptures at Persepolis ; bearing a 
sort of hammer, or battle-axe, probably a token 
of some military rank, perhaps however of a 
some civil office ; the two hands of another 
are seen bearing the same token ; fig. 4, an- 
other from the sculptures at Persepolis, with a 
sword and other accoutrements. Cf. 1. 171. — 
Figs. A, B, C, &c. A variety of standards and 
nags ; cf. IV. 282. 1. — Fig. E. Part of the tri- 
umphal procession represented on the Arch of 
Titus ; cf. I. 188. 2. 

33. Plate XXVII. (Page 615.) War-engines, 
Roman Camp fyc. — Fig. 1, testudo; fig. 2, vinece ; 
3, moveable tower ; 4, 5, 10, battering-ram ; 6> 
scorpio; 7,balista; 8, pluteus ; 9,falxmuralis ; 
see P. IV. $299. — Figs, a, b. Archer and 
slinger; cf. IV. 288. 1. — Fig. P, plan of a 
consular camp ; R, sectional view of the ag- 
ger and fossa ; see IV. 297 t. 

34. Plate XXVIII. (Page 635.) Pertain- 
ing to Feasts and the use of Wine. — Fig. 1. 
Plan and view of a triclinium found at Pom- 
peii ; cf. P. IV. $ 329. 2. — Fig. 2, carriage and 
vessel for transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera ; 
cf. IV. 331b. — Fig. 4. Two persons inter- 
changing the pledge of hospitality ; cf. IV. 
330. 3. — Fig. 5, a Bacchanal reveling zflone ; 
taken from remains at Pompeii ; fig. 6, a wine 
press, from Egyptian monuments ; fig. 7, two 
glass cups elegantly cut or cast ; figs, a, b, c, 
d, e, f, &c, various cups and vessels ,• cf. IV. 
331b. 

35. Plate XXIX. (Pasre 642.) Plans of 
Athens and Rome. See P. V. $ 52-71, 104-116. 

36. Plate XXX. (Page 665.) Cabirian 
Temple at Thessalonica. See P. III. $ 129. 2 ; 
V. 80. 

37. Plate XXXI. (Page 685.) Plain and 
Acropolis of Philippi. See P. V. $ 80. 

Note. It is but justice here to make men- 
tion of the courtesy of the Publishers of the 
Comprehensive Commentary, and the Publishers 
of the Missionary Herald, in allowing a num- 
ber of cuts originally executed for those works 
to be used in preparing some of the above 
specified Plates. It is known that the engrav- 
ings for the former work were executed under 
the judicious and tasteful supervision of Rev. 
Dr. Jenks and his son, Mr. W. Jenks. 
Through the liberality hereby acknowledged, 
this Manual has a greater number and variety 
of illustrations than could otherwise have 
been afforded. 



PART I 



ARCHAEOLOGY 



OF 



LITERATURE AND ART 



PLATE I. 





,H k 



^©> 





INTRODUCTION 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 



1. — The origin of human knowledge, and its advancement into the 
form of sciences and arts, 

§ 1. Man in his first state had the natural capacity for acquiring 
a great variety of knowledge, by reason of those superior faculties, 
which distinguished him from irrational animals. But he had then 
no actual store of innate knowledge and skill. Much less had he 
any comprehension of those rules and precepts, which guide us in 
the arts and sciences, and which are the result of long observation 
and mature reflection. 

All that is known respecting the first state of man is contained in the ac- 
count given by Moses respecting Adam and Eve, who were the first human 
pair, and were formed by direct creation. This account gives little informa- 
tion as to the degree or the nature of their actual knowledge. Certain it is, 
however, that Adam was created a man; he was not created a child, infant or 
embryo, and left to advance to manhood by the gradual steps, which are requi- 
site by what we call the laws of nature in the formation of every other man. 
It can be little else than a dispute about words to contend, whether he had or 
had not innate ideas and actual knowledge before the exercises of mind which 
were first occasioned by surrounding circumstances. For these exercises of 
his mental powers, if truly the exercises of a man, and not of a child, must 
have been such as, in all other cases but his own, could have arisen only after 
obtaining previous ideas or actual knowledge to some extent ; and in fact, as 
plainly exhibited in the account of Moses, they were such as, in other cases, 
presuppose a maturity of intellect. It seems an evident conclusion, therefore, 
that Adam either possessed by creation the requisite knowledge, or was 
caused to put forth without it the same exercises as if he had it. On either 
supposition (if any can adopt the latter) some degree of the knowledge, which 
is now acquired gradually in the progress from infancy to manhood, came at 
first directly from God. God implanted it in some way or other ; man did 
not acquire it by the gradual process which we now term natural. This 
knowledge, skill, attainment, intellectual power, or whatever any may choose 
to call it, was the original stock or germ, from which every subsequent acqui- 
sition sprang. 

Such a view of the original maturity of the first man by no means supposes 
Adam to have possessed the extensive knowledge imagined in the fabulous 
tales of the Jewish Rabbins, or in the descriptions of some theologians. It 
only represents him as a man literally and truly, instead of a child; as cre- 
ated at once a moral and intellectual man ; instead of being formed a sort of 
animal in human shape, and left to grow into an intelligent being under ac- 
cidental influences. 

See G. C. Knapp, Lectures on Chr. Theology, Tr. by L. Woods, N. Y. 1831. 2 vols. 8 vo. 
B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. — Cowper's description of Adam, in the verses entitled Yardly Oak} given in 
Jlikia's British Poets, Phil. 1831. p. 96. 



4 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

§ 2. There was a gradual development of his faculties, through 
the impulse of his wants, favored sometimes by accident, and aided 
by experience and repeated efforts. Thus he acquired a multitude 
of ideas about himself and the objects of nature around him, which 
were successively enriched, corrected, and engraved upon his mem- 
ory. By degrees meditation led him from the visible to the invisible, 
and from observing actual operations and appearances he proceeded 
to conjecture and contemplate secret causes and powers. 

§ 3. By means of language the communication of knowledge be- 
came more easy and rapid. Then this knowledge was no longer 
confined to the isolated observations and partial experience of each 
individual observer. The ideas of many were collected and com- 
bined. The amount of acquisition was increased more and more, 
as men united themselves in social bonds, and as, in the progress of 
population and civilization, there was a tendency to the same com- 
mon aims, and modes of living, and mutual interests. (See remarks 
under § 12. 1, 2.) 

§ 4. The knowledge of the arts was acquired sooner than that of 
the sciences, because the wants that gave them birth were more ur- 
gent, and the difficulty of acquiring them was not so great, since 
they were chiefly the fruit of experience rather than of reflection. 
And among the arts themselves, the mechanical or those of common 
life, must, for the same reasons, have appeared first. It was only at 
a late period, when man began to think on the means of a nobler 
destiny, and to feel a desire and relish for higher pleasures, that the 
fine arts took their rise. Necessitatis inventa antiquiora sunt quam 
voluntatis. (Cicero.) 

§ 5. We must not imagine the first notions concerning the arts to 
have constituted any thing like a system reduced to a regular form 
and fixed principles. "With regard to the theory, there were at first 
only disconnected observations and isolated maxims, the imperfect 
results of limited experience. As to the practice, there was little 
but a mechanical routine, some process marked out by chance or 
imperious necessity. The principal object was to secure the satis- 
fying of wants, the preservation of life, and the convenience of a so- 
cial state, which men sought to accomplish by reciprocal aid, and by 
communicating to each other their experience and acquirements. 

§ 6. Before the great catastrophe of the flood, men had already 
acquired much practical knowledge ; such as the first elements of 
agriculture, architecture, and the art of working metals ; these arts 
were practiced, although in an imperfect manner. But in that singu- 
lar revolution of nature, which caused the destruction of nearly the 
whole human family, the greatest part of this knowledge was lost. 

Respecting the number of people existing on the earth before the flood, and 
the state of art, science, and literature among them, nothing is known be- 
yond mere conjecture. — The following remarks on the subject are from Shuck- 
ford's Sacred and Profane History connected. " The number of persons in 
this first world must have been very great ; if we think it uncertain, from 
the differences between the Hebrew and the Septuagint in this particular, at 
what time of life they might have their first children, let us make the great- 
est allowance possible, and suppose that they had no children until they were 
a hundred years old, and none after five hundred, yet still the increase of this 



INTRODUCTION. ANTEDILUVIAN SCIENCE. 5 

world must have been prodigious. There are several authors, who have 
formed calculations of it, and they suppose, upon a moderate computation, 
that there were in this world at least two millions of millions of souls. It 
would be very entertaining, if we could have a view of the religion, politics, 
arts or sciences of this numerous people." — After pursuing some hints re- 
specting their religion, he adds, " we can only guess at the progress they 
might make in literature or any of the arts. The enterprising genius of man 
began to exert itself, very early in music, brass-work, iron-work, in every ar- 
tifice and science useful or entertaining ; and the undertakers were not lim- 
ited by a short life, they had time enough before them to carry things to per- 
fection ; but whatever their skill, learning, or industry performed, all remains 
or monuments of it are long ago perished. We meet in several authors hints 
of some writings of Enoch, and of pillars supposed to have been inscribed by 
Seth. The Epistle of St. Jude seems to cite a passage from Enoch ; but the 
notion of Enoch's leaving any work behind him has been so little credited, 
that some persons, not considering that there are many things alluded to in 
the New Testament, which were perhaps never recorded in any books, have 
gone too far, and imagined the Epistle of St. Jude to be spurious, for its seem- 
ing to have a quotation from this figment. — There is a piece pretending to be 
this work of Enoch, and Scaliger, in his annotations upon Eusebius's Chron- 
icon, has given us considerable fragments, if not the whole of it. It was 
vastly admired by Tertullian and some other fathers ; but it has since their 
time been proved to be the product of some impostor, who made it. according 
to Scaliger, Vossius, Gale, and Kircher, some time between the captivity and 
our Savior's birth. — As to Seth's pillars, Josephus gives the following account 
of them. ' That Seth and his descendants were persons of happy tempers 
and lived in peace, employing themselves in the study of astronomy, and in 
other researches after useful knowledge ; that in order to preserve the knowl- 
edge they had acquired, and to convey it to posterity, having heard from 
Adam of the Flood, and of a destruction of the world by fire, which was to 
follow it, they made two pillars, the one of stone, the other of brick, and in- 
scribed their knowledge upon them, supposing that one or the other of them 
might remain for the use of posterity. The stone pillar, on which is inscribed, 
that there was one of brick made also, is still remaining in the land of Seriad 
to this day.' Thus far Josephus ; but whether his account of this pillar may 
be admitted, has been variously controverted ; we are now not only at a loss 
about the pillar, but we cannot so much as find the place where it is said to 
have stood." 

For further remarks on the pillars of Seth ; Slmckford, Sac. & Prof. Hist, connected, Vol. I. 
p. 55. Phil. 1824. 2 vols. 8.— E. Stilllngftcet, Origines Sacrse, B. i. c. 2. Lond. 1662. 4.— Re- 
specting the hook of Enoch, cf. P. II.§ 279. — On the attainments of antediluvians, also Du 
Pin (as cited P. II. §240), B. I. Sect. 1. " 

§ 7. Subsequently to the deluge, the free communication and pro- 
pagation of knowledge was hindered by the confusion of tongues, 
and the consequent dispersion of the inhabitants of the earth into 
many countries. Thereby the progress of human acquirements was 
retarded in a very sensible manner during the first ten centuries. 
For a long time men were destitute of some particulars of knowl- 
edge almost essential to life ; as, for instance, the use of fire. 

However incredible it may at first seem, that any part of mankind should 
have been ignorant of the use of fire, it is attested by the most ancient and 
unanimous traditions. (See references in proof of it, in De GogueVs Origin 
of Laws, Arts, &c. P. I. B. ii. as cited § 32.) — Modern discoveries have con- 
firmed the same. " The inhabitants of the Marian Islands [Marianas or La- 
drones], which were. discovered in 1521, had no idea of fire. Never was as- 
tonishment greater than theirs, when they saw it, on the descent of Magellan 
on one of their islands. At first they believed it to be a kind of animal that 
fixed itself to and fed upon wood. Some of them, who approached too near, 
being burnt, the rest were terrified, and durst only look upon it at a dis- 
tance." (Goguet.) 

1* 



O ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART, 

Respecting the effect of the dispersion on civilization, cf. § 12. 2. 

§ 8. The food of man in the first ages was extremely simple, and 
consisted in a great measure of the spontaneous productions of the 
earth. The use of animals for nourishment was very limited, from 
want of means to domesticate or capture them. The art of prepar- 
ing food of either kind was likewise very imperfect. But the neces- 
sity of taking nourishment was, doubtless, the most imperious of 
wants ; and hence it is not only probable, but certain from the testi- 
mony of sacred and profane authors, that tilling the ground and 
tending herds and flocks were the first and most general occupations, 
of men, and that the knowledge relating to these objects was the 
first acquired and the most extensive. A proof of the antiquity of 
agriculture is found in the fact, that almost all the ancient nations 
ascribe its invention and introduction in their country to some divin- 
ity, or some deified founder of their state, or early sovereign of their 
land. 

§ 9. According to the difference of country, climate, manner of 
living, and habits, there was a difference likewise in these simple at- 
tainments, and in the steps of their progress. With some nations 
agriculture was the most common occupation, with others the rais- 
ing of cattle, and with others hunting and fishing ; and by natural 
consequence, among each people, the experience relating to their 
own occupations, and the observations and acquirements resulting 
from it, were the most generally diffused and the most perfect. Com- 
pared with the other modes of subsistence, agriculture has an im- 
portant advantage in promoting various arts, because it compels men 
to renounce a wandering life, and settle in fixed, permanent abodes ; 
thus it increases the demand for conveniences, and furnishes an oc- 
casion for inventions, which may help to facilitate and carry to per- 
fection the culture of the soil. 

§ 10. Among the inventions which resulted from this, we may no- 
tice especially architecture and the working of metals. The first 
arose from the necessity of procuring a shelter from the inclemency 
of the seasons and the attacks of wild beasts. Rude in its origin, it 
hardly deserved the name of an art ; but under the influences of 
social life, it made a progress considerably rapid. The metals were 
probably discovered to man by some accident. For the art of work- 
ing them we may be indebted to operations perceived in nature, vol- 
canic eruptions, e. g., or casual fires. 

1. The art of working metals is alluded to by Moses (Gen. iv. 22) as ex- 
isting before the deluge, but was lost probably in the dispersion of Noah's 
descendants, except among those who remained near the spot where man was 
first located. (Comp. § 12.) — The same authority shows the use of metals 
established a few ages after the flood. Gen. xxii. 6, xxxi. 19, xxxiii. 12, 
Levit. xxvi. 19, Deut. xxix. 16, 17. Comp. Job xxviii. 1, 2, 17. 

2. Goguet remarks that the use of iron probably was not so early as that of 
other metals, and that tools of stone preceded those made of iron. " Ancient- 
ly they employed copper for all the purposes for which we now make use of 
iron. Arms, tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts were all of copper 
for many ages. The writings of Homer leave no room to doubt of this. We 
see, that at the time of the Trojan war, iron was very little used. Copper 
supplied its place. It was the same for ages amongst the Romans." — u A 
kind of stones, commonly called thunder-stones ( Ceraunia) , are still preserved 



INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE, 7 

in a great many cabinets. They* have the shape of axes, plough-shares, fsam- 
mers, mallets, or wedges ; for the most part, they are of a substance like that 
of our gun-flints, so hard that no tile can make the least impression upon 
them. It is evident from inspection, that these stones have been wrought by 
the hands of men. The holes for inserting the handles prove their destina- 
tion and the several uses that were made of them. It is well known, that 
tools of stone have been in use in America from time immemorial. They are 
found in the tombs of the ancient inhabitants of Peru, and several nations 
use them at this day. They shape and sharpen them upon a kind of grind- 
stone, and by length of time, labor and patience, form them into any figure 
they please. They then fit them very dexterously with a handle, and use 
them nearly in the same manner we do our tools of iron. Asia and Europe 
are strowed with stones of this sort. They are frequently found. There 
must then have been a time, when the people of these countries were igno- 
rant of the use of iron, as the people of America were before the arrival of 
the Europeans." 

Goguet, Or. of Laws, &c. P. I. B. ii. c. 4. — Cf. Dictionn. Class. d'Hist Naturelle (cited 
§ 194), article Ceraunias. — Mahudel, Des pretendes pierres de foudre, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 163. 

§ 11. The arts of imitation had a later origin, because they were 
not produced by an equally urgent want, and require more deep med- 
itation and some abstraction of mind. In their commencement they 
were, however, merely the developments of superior mechanical 
dexterity, rather than what may properly be called fine arts, and 
the first attempts were but rude and defective. Among these we 
number whatever belongs to sculpture, or the art of imitating fig- 
ures in relief; for which purpose it is probable, that soft materials, 
as earth and clay, were at first employed. The proper art of draw- 
ing presupposes more abstraction ; probably it was first practiced 
in tracing the outlines of shadows cast from different objects and 
bodies. Music, which, independent of any natural pleasure in 
rhythm and melodious sounds, might originate from the songs of 
birds, must be regarded as among these early arts of imitation. With 
it, if not before it, was invented poetry, which, in its origin and its 
first advances, was joined inseparably with something of musical 
accompaniment. 

§ 12. We have already (§ 3) mentioned Language as the princi- 
pal means of communication among men. Respecting its origin, 
we only observe, that the first men possessed by creation the faculty 
of speech, although language itself, most probably, was not an im- 
mediate gift of the Deity, but a gradual invention of man; the natu- 
ral expressions of feeling, which he had in common with other ani- 
mals, being by degrees formed into articulate sounds and signs of 
thought. Not necessary to him in the isolated state of nature, it 
was yet so essential to the social state as to call into exercise the im- 
planted faculty of speech, and constantly and rapidly increase the 
stock of words. But, as the ideas were few and confined chiefly to 
objects of sense, the original language needed neither great compass 
nor high improvement. 

1. The remarks of the author in this section indicate too much agreement 
with the common error of considering a state of barbarism as the natural and 
original state of man. Philosophers in tracing the progress of human know- 
ledge have often founded their speculations on this supposition, that men at 
first were but a number of ignorant savages, not joined by any social ties, a 
mere mutum ac turpe pecus, scarcely elevated above the beasts of the forests 
through which they roamed. Dr. Fergurson has the following judicious ob- 



8 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

servations on this topic. " The progress of mankind from a supposed state of 
animal sensibility, to the attainment of reason, to the use of language, and to 
the habit of society, has been painted with a force of imagination, and its steps 
pointed out with a boldness of invention, that would tempt us to admit among 
the materials of history the suggestions of fancy, and to receive perhaps as the 
model of our nature in its original state some of the animals whose shape has 
the greatest resemblance to ours. It would be ridiculous to affirm, as a dis- 
covery, that the species of the horse was probably never the same with that of 
the lion ; yet, in opposition to what has dropped from the pens of eminent 
writers, we are obliged to observe that men have always appeared among ani- 
mals a distinct and superior race ; that neither the possession of similar organs, 
nor the approximation of shape, nor the use of the hand, nor the continued in- 
tercourse with this sovereign artist, has enabled any other species to blend 
their nature or their inventions with his ; that in his rudest state, he is found 
to be above them, and in his greatest degeneracy, he never descends to their 
level. He is, in short, a man in every condition ; with him society appears to 
be as old as the individual, and the use of the tongue as universal as that of 
the hand or the foot. If there was a time in which he had his acquaintance 
with his own species to make, and his faculties to acquire, it is a time of 
which we have no record, and in relation to which our opinions can serve no 
purpose and are supported by no evidence." 

See A. Fergursori's Ess. on History of Civ. Society, Bost. 1809. 8vo. The allusion of the 
author, in the passage quoted, is to such theorists as Rousseau and Monboddo. — See Rousseau, 
sur l'origine de l'inegalite parini les hommes, in his Ouevres, Par. 1823. 25 vols. 18. vol. 1st. — 
Monboddo (J. Burnet), Origin and Progress of Language, Edinb. 1774, 6 vols. 8vo. — Also, Bozy 
de St. Vincent, L'Homme, Essai Zoologique sur le genre humain. Par. 1827. 2 vols. 16mo. 
This author attempts to prove that there are several species of human kind, and that Adam 
was the father of but one species. For more correct views, see S. S. Smith, Essay on the 
cause of variety in the complexion and figure of the Human Species. N. Brunsw. 1810. 8. — 
J. C. Prir.hard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8vo. 

2. The whole history of the world is opposed to the hypothesis of a gradual 
advancement of the human race from a condition of barbarism. In the first 
place, all the nations which are known to have risen from barbarism to culti- 
vation have been thus raised by coming into contact and intercourse with 
other nations more civilized and cultivated than themselves, and not by the 
natural progress of their own independent steps towards perfection. In the 
next place, a nation or society once merged in barbarism is found in fact to 
sink into deeper and deeper degradation when separated from the influence of 
more enlightened nations, instead of rising gradually from its depression and 
gaining the rank and happiness of a civilized people. So great is this tenden- 
cy to deterioration, that it is a matter of exceeding difficulty, even with all 
the aids which the most cultivated nation can furnish, to introduce and per- 
petuate among savage tribes the manners, intelligence and blessings of civili- 
zed life. But the truth on this subject is, that the natural and original state 
of man, that in which he was first placed by his benevolent Creator, was a 
state combining all the blessings of civilization needed in a single holy family. 
Man was at his creation put at once into the social and family condition, and 
if before the deluge there was any such state of things as existed after it in the 
savage and barbarous tribes, it was a state into which man plunged himself, 
by not choosing to retain God in his knowledge. It was in this way that man 
was thrown into the savage state after the deluge. The family of Noah was 
a civilized family, in which were preserved, no doubt, all the useful know- 
ledge and arts of the antediluvian world, as well as the true religion., There 
is no evidence, that there was any state of barbarism among their descendants 
until after the dispersion. So far as history and tradition cast any light on 
this subject, they point to that portion of the earth, where the subsiding flood 
left the family of Noah, as the region of earliest civilization and refinement. 
Every search after the primary sources of intellectual culture conducts the 
inquirer towards this quarter, as the original centre of light. The families and 
tribes, which remained nearest this centre, retained most of the arts, sciences, 
and religion of their ancestors. Those which removed the farthest retained" 
the least, and gradually lost nearly all resemblance to their primitive charac- 
ter, and finally, in the course of their various and distant migrations, -sunk to 
the manners and spirit of savages. 



INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. \J 

"It is customary to begin history with hypothesis ; to seek the history of religion, or of socie- 
ty, for instance, in the savage state ; in that state which historical criticism cannot reach ; among 
the shadows which lie beyond all history. I shall do otherwise." * * * 

" Whence comes modern history ? It is clear that there was something before it and I need 
not insist upon demonstrating that its real and well known roots lie in the Grecian and Ro- 
man world ; to this parentage all kinds of evidence lead us. And this world of classical antiq- 
uity, does it not suppose a previous world ? It is perfectly well known that if the roots of the 
modern world lie in classical antiquity, those of classical antiquity may be found on the 
coasts of Egypt, the plains of Persia, and the high lands of Central Asia. It is evident in a 
word, that the East preceded Greece. Jill evidence brings us to this ; but does it carry us far- 
ther ? " — V. Cousin's Introduct. to Hist, of Philosophy, Lect. 2nd. Transl. by H. O. Linberg, 
Boat. 1832. 8. 

See Zimmerman, Geograph. Geschichte de Menschen. — Veiners, Gesch. der Menscheit, 
and Bailly, sur I'origine des Sciences, cited § 32. — Tiitler's History, P. II. S. 50. — Prichard, as 
above cited, Vol. I. p. 86.— Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Obs. No. xvii. p. 261.— Faber's Difficulties 
of Infidelity, Sect. III. 

3. As to the origin of language, the question has been fully discussed by 
theologians, grammarians and philosophers. Many have maintained that it 
was of human invention. But the advocates of this opinion have advanced 
the most diverse and contradictory conjectures as to the mode and process. 

Lord Monboddo, for instance, supposes the original form of language to have 
been the inarticulate cries, " by which animals call upon one another, and ex- 
hort or command one another to do certain things," and adduces, apparently 
to illustrate what he means, such exclamations as Hi ha, Ho ho, Halouet, used, 
he says, among the Hurons of North America, and quite analogous to our own 
halloo, huzza, hurra, " which are no other but cries, calling, or exhorting, a 
little articulated ! " — Dr. Murray, who died in the year 1813, then Professor 
of Oriental Languages in the University of Edinburgh, imagined all language 
to be derived from nine barbarously rough monosyllables. " Taste and phi- 
losophy," says he, " will receive with aversion the rude syllables, which are 
the base of that medium through which Homer, and Milton, and Newton, have 
delighted or illumined mankind. The words themselves, though inelegant, are 
not numerous : each of them is a verb and name for a species of action. Pow- 
er, motion, force, ideas united in every untutored mind, are implied in them 
all. The variation of force in degree was not designated by a different word, 
but by a slight change in the pronunciation. Harsh and violent action, which 
affected the senses, was expressed by harsher articulations. 

1. To strike or move with swift, equable, penetrating or sharp effect was 
Ag ! Ag ! If the motion was less sudden, but of the same species, Wag. 
If made with force and a great effort, Hwag. These are varieties of one word, 
originally used to mark the motion of fire, water, wind, darts. 

2. To strike with a quick, vigorous, impelling force, Bag or Bwag, of which 
Fag and Pag are softer varieties. 

3. To strike with a harsh, violent, strong blow, Dwag, of which Thwao 
and Twag are varieties. 

4. To move or strike with a quick, tottering, unequal impulse, Gwag or 
Cwag. 

5. To strike with a pliant slap, Lag and Hlag. 

6. To press by strong force or impulse so as to condense, bruise or compel, 
Mag. 

7. To strike with a crushing, destroying power, Nag, Hnag. 

8. To strike with a strong, rude, sharp, penetrating power, Rag or Hrag. 

9. To move with a weighty, strong impulse, Swag. 

These nine words are the foundations of language, on which an edifice 
has been erected of a more useful and wonderful kind, than any which have 
exercised human ingenuity. They were uttered at first, and probably for sev- 
eral generations, in an insulated manner. The circumstances of the actions 
were communicated by gestures, and the variable tunes of the voice ; but the 
actions themselves were expressed by their suitable monosyllable." 

Such theories seem scarcely less absurd than that of the Italian, who con- 
sidered the Greek as the original language, and traced its rise to a few vowel 
pounds gradually generated in the family of Adam. " When Adam opened 
his eyes on the beauties of creation, he very naturally exclaimed, O !, which 
gave birth to Omega. When Eve was taken out of his ribs, he uttered oo I 
oru!, Upsilon. The first child as soon as born cried out e ! e L and this 



10 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

formed Epsilon or Eta. The next, probably, had a little shriller note i ! i !, and 
furnished the parents with a fourth vowel, Iota." — Rousseau represents man 
as originally without language and without society, and having started the en- 
quiry how language was invented, soon " stuck in the difficulty, whether lan- 
guage was more necessary for the institution of society, or society for the inven- 
tion of language." But Maupertuis leaps the obstacle bravely, and " conjec- 
tures that language was formed by a session of learned societies assembled for 
the purpose ! " 

Other writers speak more rationally, although agreeing with our author, that 
the faculty of speech, and not any language itself, was the immediate gift of God 
to man. " The theory which derives the most support from history," says Dr. 
Knapp, " is that the roots, the primitive words, were originally made in imita- 
tion of the sounds we hear from the different objects in the natural world, and 
that these original sounds become less and less discernible in languages in pro- 
portion as they are improved and enlarged." — But it is surprising that any per- 
son, pretending to receive the Mosaic account of the creation of man, should 
attempt to explain the origin of language in any such way. In that account 
Adam is represented as using language immediately on his creation, not only 
giving names to objects, but assigning reasons for the names, and reasons too 
which have not the least connection with the sounds of the words, or any 
sounds in nature. ( Gen. ii. 19 — 23. iii. 20.) 

Men have been led into their speculations on this subject, because, on a superfi- 
cial view, it seems difficult to suppose God to create a man, or any thing else, in 
a. mature state. A little reflection might convince us, that it is just as difficult 
to suppose him to create a man in an immature state. The real difficulty lies 
in conceiving any sort of creation. All the evidence we have as to the actual 
state, in which God did in fact create man, is the testimony of Moses, and that 
is no evidence at all, beyond that of obscure ancient tradition, unless it is sanc- 
tioned by divine inspiration. Tbuose who believe it to be thus sanctioned, it 
would seem, ought to abide by its facts. And is it not the simple, undisguis- 
ed representation of Moses, that Adam had from the first a real and adequate 
language, consisting of articulate sounds ? As to the extent of his vocabula- 
ry, nothing is directly told us ; but is it not as obvious that he had literally a 
language, as that he had literally a hand, a tongue, or an eye ? 

Whatever mode of expression, therefore, any may choose to adopt in refer- 
ence to this matter, whether to say that language was of divine origin, or that 
Adam was created with a language, or that language was an immediate gift of 
God to him, or that God created him with a faculty immediately to form artic- 
ulate sounds significant of thought, it is certain that a spoken language exis- 
ted immediately after the creation of Adam. — If any languages besides this 
original were in use before the flood, they were doubtless derived from it. 
From the flood until the confusion of tongues, Moses explicitly testifies, there 
was but one language in the world. As, then, Adam was the father of the 
many millions that have peopled the earth, so his language was the parent of 
the thousands of dialects, by which they have carried on the mutual inter- 
change of thought and feeling. 

See Knapp, Lectures (cited § 1), B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. § 55. — Herder, ueber den Ursprung der 
Sprache. Berl. 1789. — Monboddo, Or. and Prog, of Lang, above cited. — Maupertuis, Reflections 
on the Origin of Languages, in his Works, 1756. 4 vols. 8. — Id. Smith, Considerations on the 
first formation of Lang, (in Theo. of Mor. Sent. Bost. 1817. 8.) — Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. 
Hist, connected. II. B. — Warburton, Divine Legation of Moses. B. IV. Sect. 4. Lond. 1741. 
— Good, Book of Nature, Lect. IX. — Blair, Lect. on Rhetoric, Lect. VI. — i. Murray, Hist, of 
the European Languages. Edinb. 1823. 2 vol. 8 — Condillac, Ess. sur l'orig des Connois. Hum, 
(in 1st vol. of his Works. Par. 1821. 23 vols. 8.) — irndt, ueber den Ursprung der Europ. 

Sprachen. Frankf. 1827. 8 T. C. Upham. Mental Philosophy. Port. 1837. 2 vols. 8 (vol 2nd, 

p. 431.) 

§ 13. The invention of Writing belongs to a period subsequent to 
the origin of language. By this invention the sounds, which had 
hitherto been only audible, were rendered, as it were, visible, and ac- 
quired a much more extensive and more permanent utility as signs 
of thought. It was an invention in the highest degree important to 
the communication of human knowledge, and still remains essential* 



INTRODUCTION. ART OP WRITING. 11 

ly necessary for its advancement. As it stands in so close and uni~ 
versal connection with literature and science, we ought not merely to 
mention it, but to consider its origin, and the successive steps of its 
progress. 

§ 14. Previously to the art of writing, there were other methods of 
representing thoughts to the eye, and thus imparting them to a great- 
er number of individuals, and even to posterity. They were, how- 
ever, very inadequate methods/ and were chiefly employed to pre- 
serve the memory of some remarkable event or person. Of this 
kind are monumental structures, pillars, or even rude masses of 
stone. Established festivals, and historical ballads transmitted orally, 
might give to such monuments a significancy, otherwise not belonging 
to them. On the return of a festival, the occasion in which it origin- 
ated and its history would be sung or rehearsed. Traces of such 
methods may still be found among savage or but partially civilized 
tribes. 

§ 15. Superior to any such mode was the imitation or picturing 
of objects, which is considered as the first step towards a written lan- 
guage. This presupposes some idea of the art of drawing, or a rude 
sort of painting. Such imitation, however, could express only sepa- 
rate individual thoughts without their connections and relations, and 
must be limited to visible objects. It is chiefly mere actions and 
events, that can in this way be made known, and even of these only 
what transpires at a particular instant can be represented by each sin- 
gle picture. 

lu. There are vestiges of this mode of writing in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, 
which, we remark, however, received various successive changes in form and 
signification ( § 16 ). It was in use among the Mexicans, who apprised their 
king Montezuma of the landing of the Spaniards by means of a linen cloth, 
on which this event was represented by pictures of visible objects. 

See JVarburton, Div. Leg. (as cited § 12. 3.) Bk. IV. Sect. 4. where he gives a curious speci- 
men of Mexican picture-writing. — For a notice of other specimens, see Astlc cited § 32. — 
Edinb. Encyclop. under Alphabet* 

2. This mode is said to have been practiced by some of the North American 
Indians. " In Schoolcraft's Journal cf Travels through the North-western 
regions of the U. S. we are told that the party, in passing from the river St. 
Louis to Sandy Lake, had, with their Indian attendants, gotten out of the 
way, and could not tell where they were. The Indians, not knowing what 
might be the result, determined to leave, at a certain place, a memorial of their 
journey for the benefit of such of their tribe as might come in that direction, 
afterwards. In the party there was a military officer, a person whom the In- 
dians understood to be an attorney, and a mineralogist ; eight were armed ; 
when they halted they made three encampments. The savages went to work 
and traced with their knives upon a piece of birch bark a man with a sword 
for the officer, another with a book for the lawyer, and a third with a hammer 
for the mineralogist ; three ascending columns of smoke denoted the three en- 
campments, and eight muskets, the number of armed men." 

Vpliaw?s El. Int. Phil. First Ed.— For specimens of the picture-writing of N. Am. Indians, 
see Archceologia, vol. 6th. p. 159, as cited below ( § 242. 3). 

§ 16. These imitations or pictures afterwards became symbolical, 
and represented not so much the objects pictured, as others having 
some resemblance to them, and incapable of imitation by painting. 
In this way many spiritual and invisible things might be indicated 
by bodily and visible signs. The necessity of something of the kind 
must soon appear among a people, not wholly occupied with impres- 



12 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

sions on the senses, but engaging in reflections upon God and nature* 
Accordingly the Egyptians, especially their priests, at a very early 
period employed the hieroglyphics in a symbolical and allegorical 
manner. The eye, for instance, became a symbol of providence, the 
bird an emblem of swiftness, the scaling ladder a representative of a 



1. The late discoveries of Champollion respecting the Egyptian hieroglyphics 
have awakened much interest. The following short account is from the Am. 
Quart. Reg. vol. iv. p. 52. 

" According to Champollion, the hieroglyphics are divisible into three dis- 
tinct classes : 1. Figurative signs ; 2. Symbolic ; 3. Phonetic, or expressive of 
sound. The figurative occur often, either in an entire or an abridged form. 
Thus the sun is represented by an exact image ; the firmament, by the section 
of a ceiling with* or without stars. The first is termed figurative proper , the 
second figurative conventional. The plan of a house is given instead of the 
house itself. This is termed figurative abridged. The second form of hiero- 
glyphics is the symbolical. These are the characters generally alluded to by 
the ancients, when they speak of hieroglyhics. Two arms stretched up to- 
wards heaven expressed the word offering ; the four quarters of a lion, strength; 
an asp, power of life and death. As the Egyptians were a very civilized na- 
tion, it is clear that hieroglyphics like those described were not by any means 
sufficient to designate their various wants, occupations, and ideas; and this 
want may have led to the invention of what Champollion calls the third 
class of hieroglyphics, phonetic, or designating a sound. He has also dis- 
covered the principle, on which these signs were chosen to express one cer- 
tain sound ; it is this, that the hieroglyphic of any object might be used to rep- 
resent the initial sound, or as we should say, the initial letter, of the name of 
that object.^ [E. g. the picture of an eagle stood for the sound or letter A the 
first letter or sound in the word Ahom, the Egyptian name for eagle ; and the 
picture of a mouth for R, the first so und]in Ro, the Egyptian name for mouth.] 
" As the great number of hieroglyphics, which this principle would assign to 
each of the 29 elementary sounds (the number in the Egyptian alphabet), 
would have been a continual source of error, the characters were soon reduc- 
ed to a few. As far as ascertained, 18 or 19 is the largest number assigned, to 
any one letter, while few have more than five or six representatives, and sev- 
eral only one or two." 

For farther information see J. G. H. Greppo, Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of M. 
Champollion, &c. Translated hy I. Stuart. Bost. 1830. 12mo. Noticed in Spirit of the Pilgrims. 
iv. 98, 197.— M. Champollion, 2d ed. Par. 1828.— see also § 91. 7. 

The following notice of the views of Seyffarth respecting the hieroglyphics is from the Christ. 
Sped. Vol. viii. p. 433. " These venerable characters have lately found another erudite ex- 
positor in Professor Seyffarth, of Leipsic. From the celebrated inscription on the Rosetta 
Stone, and from examining many rolls of papyrus, this laborious inquirer is of opinion that the 
hieroglyphics in general are simply hieratic letters, ornamented agreeably to a calligraphic 
principle. He also infers, that both the hieratic and demotic letters had their origin in the 
most ancient Phoenician alphabet. The Leipsic Literary Journal, which contains a notice of 
this theory, mentions farther that the learned professor reckons the hieroglyphic signs or char- 
acters to amount to about 6000, as four or more figures are frequently conjoined in the forma- 
tion of one of them. We feel more and more convinced that, by arranging and comparing the 
multitude of ancient Egyptian records, inscriptions on stones and monuments, sarcophaguses, 
papyri, mummy cases, &c. &c. which now abound in Europe, we shall at length be enabled 
to decipher this long buried language of the early world. 5 ' 

An Italian scholar, by the name of Jannclli, has attempted a new method of interpreting 
the Egyptian hieroglyphics altogether different from that of Champollion. Not much expecta- 
tion ofhis success seems to have been awakened in others. — See J. Cullimore, on the system of 
Hieroglyphic Interpretation proposed by Signor Jannelli ; in the Transactions of the Royal So- 
ciety of Literature, vol. 3d. Lond. 1837. 

2. A hieroglyphic system of writing, itis said, was possessed by the Tultecans, 
a nation formerly existing in the southern part of North America. — See Amer. 
Bill. Repos. No. xxvii. July, 1837. p. 229.— 

§ 17. In proportion as these pictural signs became more common 
and familiar, curtailments or abbreviations of them were introduced, 
for the sake of convenience. The figure was made in a more sim- 
ple form. Often particular parts were substituted for the whole, espe- 



/ 

INTRODUCTION. IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING. SYLLABIC. 13 

dally such parts as were most essential to the significancy of the pic- 
ture, and most important for its present use. For example two hands 
and a bow might take the place of the full image of an archer. The 
picture of an effect might be employed to represent its obvious cause, 
or that of an instrument to represent the person customarily using it; 
thus, in an abridged image, rising smoke might denote a conflagra- 
tion, and an eye and sceptre might signify a monarch. To these 
were added doubtless many other signs, wholly arbitrary in their na- 
ture, and obtaining a definite meaning by agreement and frequent use. 

§ 18. But all these means served only to represent things, not the 
icords and sounds, by which we express them in speech. At length, 
men began to apply the simple figures, which by a course of abbre- 
viation had taken the place of the original pictures, to spoken lan- 
guage and its separate organic elements. Probably it was first done 
with whole words, to each of which was appropriated a certain sign, 
as in the written language of the Chinese; and afterwards with sylla- 
bles, as the frequent recurrence of the same syllables in different 
words was observed, and so certain common signs were applied to 
represent them. These signs expressed at the same time both vowels 
and consonants. Among the Ethiopians and several people of the 
East there was some such system of syllable-writing, and it is found 
at the present day among the Siamese. 

1. The first information received by Europeans respecting the written lan- 
guage of the Chinese was from the Catholic missionaries. They represented 
it as comprising 80,000 arbitrary characters. Later researches have shown 
that the elementary characters are much fewer. In an account of this lan- 
guage published in 1825, Dr. Morrison gives first a collection of 373 ancient 
symbols, with explanations of their meaning and origin. These ancient sym- 
bols are said to constitute the first principles of the language. From them 
were derived 214 characters, which are the leading ones, or heads of classes, 
in modern usage, and are called radicals. He next gives a table of 411 sylla- 
bles, of which, exclusive of tones and accents, the spoken language consists. 
The 214 radicals and 411 syllables are considered as forming the materials of 
the whole written language. It is obvious, therefore, that the idea of its hav- 
ing a distinct character for every word cannot be correct, and yet it is wholly 
unlike to an alphabetic or syllabic system. " Its characters are not intended 
to be the signs of simple articulate sounds. They are sometimes denominated 
hieroglyphic and symbolical. It originated in a sort of picture-writing, from 
which it has, after the lapse of many years, become what it now is. In its 
present state, the best idea of its character would be derived from comparing 
it with the Arabic figures. These figures, characters, or symbols, are now al- 
most universally understood throughout the world, however differently named 
by the people of different nations, and the primitive signs are now to most na- 
tions quite arbitrary, whatever the reasons of their first formation may have 
been. But supposing 2 and 3 to be entirely arbitrary, the union of these two, 
23 or 32, presents to the eye a definite idea, which is the result of combination, 
and which remains the same whether pronounced by an Englishman, a Hin- 
doo, or a Chinese, in the spoken language peculiar to each nation." It has 
been asserted, that in consequence of this peculiarity of the Chinese written 
language, it is understood and read in all the regions of eastern Asia, by peo- 
ple whose spoken languages are very different, and who cannot maintain the 
least oral intercourse with each other. Duponceau, however, denies this as- 
sertion, in his work below cited. 

See Chinese Miscellany, &c. By Morrison, Lend. 1825. 4. — Chinese Repository, (published at 
Canton,) vol. 3d No. 10. Cf. Miss. Herald, vol. xxxi. 197. 387.— P. L. Duponceau, Dissertation 
on the Nature of the Chinese system of writing &c. Phil. 1838. 8. Cf. For. Quart. Rev. No. xlii. 
p. 316. — In a recent German work, by C. F. Neumann, entitled Asiatic Studies, (1837.) is a 
Dissert, on the Chinese language, and on the history of writing among the Tartar Tribes. 

2 



14 ARCHAEOLOGY OP LITERATURE AND AKT. 

2. Respecting the written language of the Siamese, the knowledge of Hit* 
ropeans does not appear to have been hitherto very exact. According to 
the most recent account, which has been noticed and which is from Mr Rob-' 
inson, an American missionary in Siam, the system of writing is not properly 
speaking syllablic. The characters do not individually represent the sounds 
of syllables. The alphabet is said to consist of thirty-five characters which 
represent consonant sounds, and a small number of points or marks which rep* 
resent vowel sounds ; and different syllables are formed according as the latter' 
are placed before or after, above or below, the former. 

See Missionary Hcrald,vo\. xxxii. p. 177. — Rees' Cyclopaedia, under Siam. — Asiatic Researches^ 
vol. x.— An imperfect copy of the Siamese alphabet is given in Greg-. Sharpens Syntagma Dis^ 
sertationum.— Founts of type in this alphabet have recently been cut for the use of the Amer- 
ican mission in Siam. Ms. letter of Rev. Dr. Jlnderson. 

3. A most remarkable instance of the syllabic alphabet is found in that of 
the Cherokee Indians. This was invented, about the year 1824, by a Chero- 
kee named Guess or Guyst, who was notable to speak English, or read a word 
in any language. 

Having learned the principle of alphabetic writing, viz. that certain characters are signs of 
sound, he conceived the idea of expressing all the syllable-sounds of his native language by 
separate marks. On collecting the different sounds which he could recollect, he found the 
number to be eighty-two. Four others were afterwards discovered by himself or some one else ; 
making all the known syllables of the language only eighty-six ; a very curious fact ; especial- 
ly when it is considered that the language is very copious, a single verb undergoing, it is said, 
some thousands of inflections. The syllables all terminate, as in the Polynesian languages^ 
with a vowel sound* To represent these sounds, Guyst took the English Capital letters from 
a spelling-book in his possession, and combining them with other marks of his own invention, 
formed his alphabet consisting of eighty-six characters. With this alphabet he commenced 
writing letters, and a great interest was soon awakened thereby among the Cherokees. The* 
youth of the land traveled a great distance to learn the new art of writing and reading, which, 
from the peculiarity of the alphabet and language, they could acquire in three days sufficient- 
ly to practice themselves and to teach others. Types for printing in this character have been 
cast. A newspaper, partly in the Cherokee language with the same character, was sustained 
among that unfortunate people for a short time. The appearance of the language thus printed 
is singularly uncouth and barbarous. — See Missionary Herald, vol. xxii. p. 47. xxxii. p. 269. 
also Encyclopaedia Americana, under Indian Languages. 

4. There are extant some remains of an ancient system of writing irt which 
all the characters are formed by different combinations of one simple elements 
The character has been very commonly termed arrow-headed from the form 
of this elementary sign, which in most specimens is shaped almost exactly like 
the head of an arrow or spear. It is also called Persepolitaii, because it is 
found chiefly in inscriptions on the ruins of Persepolis. The inscriptions upon 
the bricks brought from the site of aftcient Babylon arC evidently in the same 
general character, although marked by considerable variations. Different con- 
jectures respecting the principles of this method of writing had been thrown 
out, but no attempt at an interpretation of it had been made, it is believed, be- 
fore Champollion's discoveries in reference to the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
Some had thought it to be an alphabet of syllables ; and some had supposed 
it must consist of signs of words or of ideas. 

The first hint towards deciphering the character seems to have been obtained by Champolliori 
from a twofold inscription upon an Egyptian alabaster vase, presenting' the name of Xerxes, 
one part having it in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the other in the Persepolitan arrow heads.. 

Since that discovery several scholars, especially Liechtenstein, Grotefend, and Dr. Lassen of 
Bonn, have turned their attention to the subject ; and although De Sacy asserted in 1833, that 
no satisfactory method of interpretation had then been suggested, yet it is said, that many 
orientalists both of Germany and France have received the method of Grotefend. This de- 
cipherer makes three varieties of the arrow-headed or wedge-shaped alphabet ; all of which are 
found in the inscriptions at Persepolis. The oldest character is supposed to be in the Zend 
language, the sacred idiom of the Magians ; the characters of the second kind are supposed to 
belong to the Pehlvi language ; and those of the third, to the Babylonian or Assyrian. 

Our Plate In. presents, m fig. d, an inscription taken from a Babylonian brick ; and, in fig. g^ 
the inscription on the vase above mentioned, and several other specimens of the arrow-headed 
character from Median or Persian monuments, with Grotefend's interpretation. See Descrip- 
tion of Plates.— Cf. Cdlmefs Diet, of the Bible, with Fragments &c vol. 4th. p. 198. as pub- 
lished, Charlestown, 1814. 4 vols. 4. — Dr. Jenks, in the Comprehensive Commentary, vol. ii.- p;533s 
— Lieber, Encyclopaedia Americana, under Persepolis. — American Bib. Repository. No. xxvii. 
July, 1837. p. 248.— G. F. Grotefend, Neue Beitrage zur Erklarung der Persepolitanischeh Keil- 
Schrift. Hannov. 1837. 4. 

§ 19. The last step in bringing this art to its maturity was alpha* 
betic or letter writing. This method combines the use of the eye 
and the ear, in as much as it represents not the objects of thought 



INTRODUCTION. ALPHABETIC WRITING. 15 

themselves, but the sounds by which these objects are indicated to 
the ear in our spoken language. The exact time of this most useful 
invention cannot be ascertained ; but passages in the Bible, in the 
writings of Moses (Ex. xvii. 14), and the book of Job (xix. 23, 24), 
where it is spoken of as well known, prove its existence at a very- 
early period. It is impossible to decide who was its author, or even 
to what people the honor of its origin belongs. Probably it may be 
claimed by the Assyrians or the Egyptians, their social organization 
having been the most ancient. The Greeks and Romans generally 
ascribed the invention of letters to the Phoenicians. 

" Some think letters were perfectly known before the confusion of Babel, 
and imagine them to have been in common use in the antediluvian world (cf„ 
§ 6), and that Noah and his family brought them into the new world, in which 
they have been continued through a vast variety of changes until now. Some 
attribute the invention to Moses, others to Abraham, others to Abel, and some 
of course, to Adam. The Jewish Rabbins say, God created them on the even- 
ing of the first Sabbath" 

Adam Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature. Lond. 1830. 2 vols. 8.— This writer main- 
tains, that alphabetic writing was of divine origin ; being taught to Moses by God when he 
wrote with his own finger the Decalogue on the tables of stone. — Rollin also considers the art 
of writing as of divine origin. " Only God could teach mankind to establish certain figures 
to signify all sounds or words." See vol. 2d, p. 459, of his Ancient Hist, as cited § 32. 1. — 
Cf. Murphy's Tacitus, vol. 2d, p. 416 of ed. Boston, 1832.— Also Astle and Hug, as cited § 32.2. 

§ 20. While the art of writing was known to but few nations, and 
only to particular individuals in these, its use was rare, except upon 
public monuments, where the letters were generally engraved on 
stone, metal, or wood. Such substances were the first employed for 
the purpose of writing ; afterwards were used skins, bark, leaves 
(especially of the palm-tree), tablets covered with wax, ivory, linen, 
parchments, and the Egyptian papyrus, prepared from the fibres of 
the plant of that name. The chisel, style, pencil, and reed were an- 
ciently the most common instruments for writing ; the place of the 
last was first yielded to the quill in more recent times. It was com- 
mon to proceed from right to left, rather than from left to right as in 
modern practice. 

§ 21. The contents of the first writings, both on monuments and 
in books, were historical. Letters, on their invention, were natural- 
ly applied to commemorate remarkable events upon pillars, altars, 
pyramids, obelisks, and the like, and to record the sayings and tales 
which had hitherto been transmitted orally from one generation to 
another. As this historical matter generally received something of 
the form of poetry in oral communication, it resulted of course that 
poetical tales were written earlier than narratives in prose. Even 
moral and political maxims were framed into song, and accompanied 
with music. Of all books now in existence, the writings of Moses 
and the book of Job are the most ancient, although many probably 
were written before these. Whatever claims have been urged for the 
antiquity of any other books, they are all certainly of later origin. 

Much has been said by some respecting the high antiquity of the records 
among oriental nations. But more full investigation proves, that there is 
nothing authentic in their histories belonging to a very early date. A dis- 
tinguished scholar, Klaproth, has given, as the result of a thorough examina- 
tion of the subject, that there is no hope of finding, among the Asiatics, ma- 
terials for the early history of man, beyond what is found in the books of 
Moses. He remarks, that the history of ancient nations is naturally divided 



16 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

into three parts ; (1) mythological, which may contain some portion of truth 
enveloped in an impenetrable veil of allegories and fables ; (2) uncertain y 
in which the main facts are true and the personages real, but the chronology 
undetermined; and (3) true, in which the facts and the time are clearly 
and satisfactorily recorded. The true or certain history of the Hindoos does 
not reach back so far as the time of Christ, and that of China extends not 
quite 800 years before Christ, and even the uncertain history of these, which 
are the most ancient of the Asiatic nations, does not go much beyond the 
time of the Mosaic deluge, or between 2000 and 3000 years before Christ. 
See Christian Spectator, vol. vii. p. 544. 

§ 22. By the aid of these and other helps, scientific knowledge 
among ancient nations gradually became more various and general. 
But not until a comparatively late period could it receive a systemat- 
ic form, in which general principles were separated from particular 
facts and perceptions, and arranged according to some regular meth- 
od or properly scientific classification. Here necessity was the first 
teacher, and conducted human intelligence to those truths and sci- 
ences, which were most indispensable to the supply of human wants, 
and most useful in advancing the improvement of social life. Such 
were especially medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and ge- 
ography. 

§ 23. The natural instinct for self-preservation and for guarding 
against every thing, which threatens danger to health and life, occa- 
sioned the first observations and rules of medicine. Various acci- 
dental opportunities for such observations and experience as consti- 
tuted its original foundation, were presented while men used only 
vegetable food. It was long, however, before the art of medicine 
was reduced to definite principles, and became an object of special 
attention by a particular class or profession. The Assyrians, Egyp- 
tians, and Phoenicians were the first to cultivate it ; although the 
time of its being brought into any regular or scientific form, cannot 
be accurately determined. The art was at first directed more espe- 
cially to external maladies, and anatomy probably owes its origin to 
the care and healing of wounds. 

Th. Sprengel, Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneykunde. Halle, 1821-28. 
5 vols. 8. 3d ed. There is a French translation (from the 2d ed.) entitled Histoire de la Medi- 
cine, &c. Par. 1815. 9 vols. 8. — W. Royston, Rise and Progress of the Medical Arts. Lond. 1818. 
8. — Le Clerc, Histoire de la Medicine. Amst. 1723. 4. — T. Mason Oood, History of Medicine. 
Lond. 1795. 12. — Wm. Hamilton, History of Medicine, Surgery, and Anatomy. Lond. 1831. 
2 vols. 12. 

§ 24. Of mathematical sciences arithmetic seems to have been the 
most ancient. It probably consisted at first only of a few simple op- 
erations, of which no theory had been formed. The first organiza- 
tion of civil society and division of property required the use of num- 
bers, weight, and measure. The practical part of this science there- 
fore unquestionably must be very ancient, and probably existed first 
among the Egyptians and Phoenicians, whose commerce and naviga- 
tion rendered its assistance indispensable. This must have been the 
case also with the Babylonians, on account of their early attention 
to astronomy and chronology. Pebbles, seeds of grain, and the 
like, were used as the first helps in enumeration; but ere long cer- 
tain written characters were employed as indicative of numbers ; of 
which there are various traces upon the earliest Egyptian monuments. 

See Montucla, Histoire des Mathematiques.— Ch. Bossut, Histoire des MathematiqueSj Pitf\ 
1810. 2 vols. 8. Translated by Bonnycastle, Lond. 1803. 8, 



INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF SCIENCES. 17 

§ 25. The origin of astronomy likewise belongs to the earliest pe- 
riods, since some of its truths are necessary for the dividing and 
reckoning of time, and not only in the management of navigation, 
but also in the orderly arrangement of civil business, and in all the 
labors of agriculture. The Egyptians, and the Babylonians and Chal- 
deans especially, were allured to the study of the heavens by the 
mildness of their climate and the extent and openness of their hori- 
zon. The early origin of astrology, which was so prevalent among 
the Chaldeans, is full proof of their early observation of the stars. 
And the most ancient civil histories show, that the idea of the con- 
stellations, and even the discovery of the planets was a very early 
attainment of man. 

See Ideler, Untersuchung ueber d. Ursp. und. d. Bedeut. d. Sternnamen. Berl. 1809. 8. — J. S. 
Bailly, Histoire de l'Astronomie ancienne. Par. 1781. 4. — Dclambre, Histoire de l'Astronomie. 
Par. 1817. 2 vols. 4. — Cassini, on the origin of Astronomy, in the Mem. de PAcad. des Sciences, 
vol. viii. — History of Astronomy, in the Library of Useful Knowledge. 

§ 26. Geometry, in its practice, is very old, but was originally lim- 
ited to a few elementary principles and manual operations. It was 
at first probably confined to longimetry , or the measuring of lengths 
and straight lines, which would be indispensable in the rudest at- 
tempts at building. Planimetry , or the measuring of surfaces, was 
more difficult, and required for its discovery a greater degree of im- 
provement and attention. The first occasion for it seems to have 
been the division of lands. Stereometry, or the science of measur- 
ing solid bodies, was probably last in the order of discovery, although 
the invention of the balance, early in use, presupposes it. In these 
branches of science, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians 
also led the way. Several mechanical instruments must undoubtedly 
be referred to a very high antiquity, as, for instance, the balance, the 
lever, and also the sledge and the wheel carriage. 

§ 27. The origin of geography must be ascribed to the necessity, 
which would soon be felt, of determining the situations and distance 
of countries already known and inhabited. The use of certain marks 
or memorials for recognizing places visited and left, the tracing of 
journeys from one spot to another, and the establishing of public 
routes, all conduced to a development of this branch of knowledge. 
Of its existence to some extent, there is proof both in the conquests, 
and in the travels by sea and by land, which took place in the earli* 
est times. It was however then, as in fact it was in the later and 
more enlightened periods of antiquity, exceedingly limited and defect- 
ive. Neither the historical and statistical, nor the physioal and matta 
ematical parts of this science were so regularly and carefully cultivate 
ed as were other sciences. 

J. Blair, History of Geography. Lond. 1784. 12.— J. R. Joly, Ancienne Geographie, comp. 
a la moderne. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 8. — W. Vincent, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients 
in the Indian Ocean. Lond. 1807. 2 vols. 4.— C. Hawkins, Observations on the Tin Trade of 
the Ancients. Lond. 1811. 8. — M'Pkerson's Annals of Coiamerce. Lond.. 1805. 4. vols. 4. — 
J. P. Oosselin, Recherches snr la Geographie Systematique et positive des anciens, pour ser- 
vir de base a l'histoire de la Geograpbie~ Ancienne. Par, 1794. 4. vols. 4.— Also, Recherches 
sur la Geographie Ancienne, in the Mem. de VlnstJtut Rnjal, Classe d' Hist, et Lit. Ancienne, 
vol. i. p. 41.— Especially, M. C. Sprengcl, Geschichte dear wichtigsten seographischen Ent- 
deckungen. Halle, 1792. 2d. ed. 

§ 28. It appears Irom the foregoing remarks, that the first seat, 
and, as it were, the cradle, of the sciences was in Asia and Egypt, 
The cause is to be found in the numerous population of the coun* 



18 ARCH/EOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART, 

tries, and the early organization of their civil state, so that the pri- 
mary wants of life were easily supplied, and the human mind enjoyed 
freedom and leisure for improvement. These countries also were 
not disturbed by tumult and war ; Egypt particularly enjoyed a long 
period of happy tranquillity. The intercourse of the Phoenicians with 
other people, by means of their commerce and navigation, was pecu- 
liarly favorable to their advancement in knowledge. In general, 
however, the progress in the arts and sciences was far less rapid in 
the first ages, than afterwards. The proper helps were comparative- 
ly few, and there was especially wanting the means of an easy and 
ready intercommunication of knowledge, until the invention of alpha- 
betic writing furnished one so appropriate and so useful. 

II. — The importance and usefulness of a knowledge of classical 
literature and art. 

§ 29. From Asia and Egypt the arts and sciences were introduced 
into Greece. Here they attained that culture and perfection, which 
renders ancient history and literature so agreeable and so valuable a 
branch of modern knowledge. Through the Greeks, the Romans 
afterwards came into possession of the same treasure. These two 
nations preeminently distinguished themselves by their merits and 
accomplishments in literature and the fine arts. Hence it is that 
there is so much in what pertains to Greece and Rome, that is wor- 
thy of our admiration and study. 

Much has been written both for and against classical studies. The variouB 
arguments cannot be presented here. But some references ought to be given. 

1. Shortly after the revival of letters the famous question respecting the 
comparative merits of the ancients and moderns began to be agitated. The 
earliest writers were Italian. In France the controversy began in 1687, and 
advocates were found for both sides. In England the discussion commenced 
shortly after the formation of the Royal Society, and soon called forth emi- 
nent writers. In Germany the subject has not been much canvassed, except 
as involved in the controversy of the Humanists and Philanthropists. 

The following references pertain to the controversy. — In Italy; A. Tassoni, Pensieri di- 
versi. Carp. 1620. 4. (10th B.)— S. Lancelotto, L'oggidi, ovvero gl'ingegni moderni non inferi- 
ori a'passati. Ven. 1658. 8.— P. Beni, Comparazione di Tasso con Homero, &c. Pad. 1612. 4. 
—In France. Ch. Perrault, Le Siecle de Louis le Grand. 1687. By Same, Parallele des Anc. 
et Modernes. Par. 1688.— Longepierre, Disc, sur les Anciens. Par. 1687. 12.— P. D. Huet, 
Lettre sur le merite des Anc. et Mod. (in his Pieces fue. d'Hist. et de Litt. Par. 1702. 12.) — 
Boileau, Reflex. Crit. in his Trans, of Longinus. Par. 1694. 12. — Tourneil, Disc, de la fameuse 
Q,uest. sur le Mer. des Anc. et des Mod. (in his Works. Par. 1721. 4.) — La Motte, Disc, sur 
Homere, (in his Works. Par. 1754. 12.) — Gedoyn, Comp. merits of ancients and moderns, in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 80. — Mad. Dacier, Des causes de la corrupt, du gout. Par. 1714. 12. — 
In England. Sir Win. Temple, Essay upon the ancient and modern learning, — in his Mis- 
cellanies. Lond. 1696. 8. — Wm. Wotton, Reflect, on anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1705. 8. 
— Swift, Battle between ancient and modern Books, in his Works. N. York. 1812. 24 vols. 12. 
(3d vol. p. 200.) — Addison, Disc, upon anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1739. 4. — See also J. 
Dennis, Advancement and Reformation of mod. poetry. Lond. 1701. 8. In Germany. 
Holler, Quantum Antiqui eruditione et industria antecellant Modernos. Bern. 1734. 4.— J. B. 
Carpzow, De antiq. et recent, doctrinse compar. Helmst. 1748. 4. — O. E. Otroddeck, Ueb. d. 
Vergleich. d. alter, besond. d. griech. mit der deutschen und neuern sehoenen Lit. &c. Berl. 
1788. 8. 

2. Liberal learning was designated among the Romans by the term human- 
itas. Hence, on the revival of letters, the study of classical literature was 
very naturally called studium humanitatis. In Germany the lovers and advo- 
cates of the ancient classics received the name of Humanists (Humanisten) ; 
and their views on this subject were followed in the general system of educa- 
tion, until the middle of the last century. After that period, different views 



INTRODUCTION. VALUE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES. 19 

were advocated by a class of reformers in education, who obtained the name 
of Philanthropists ; several of whom established schools on their peculiar prin- 
ciples and called them Philanthropina. Basedow, the leader of the Philan- 
thropists, opened his school at Dessau in 1774. Salzmann opened another at 
Schnepfenthal in 1784. Classical studies were nearly excluded from their 
system. In other respects also they proposed to amend the former modes of 
instruction. 

The views of the Philanthropists are presented and advocated in the following works ; 
£asedow , s Elementanverk, 1774. — Campus Revisionswerk. Hamburg, 1785 ss. 16 vols. 8. (a 
sort of periodical.) — Trapes Paedagogik, 1780. and Ueber der Unterricht in Sprachen. Brunsw. 
1788. 8.— Cf. J. TVeitzel, Was soil man lemen ? Oder Zweck des unterricht. Lpz. 1828. 12. 

contending that in European schools, too much time is devoted to Latin and Greek. The 

views of the H u m a n i s t s in the following ; Funk, Ueber den Nutzen richtig getriebener Phi- 
lologie. 1784.— JViethammer, Streit des Phjlanthropismus und desHumanismus. Jena, 1808.8. — 
For a fuller notice on this subject, Schwartz's Erziehungs-lehre, vol. 2d. — Cf. American Journal 
of Education, New Series, vol. i. No. 6. 

3. The utility of classical studies has been strongly controverted in this 
country. But the public conviction is evidently settling firmly in their favor. 
The Greek and Latin classics are now considered as indispensable in a good 
education, more generally than before the recent discussions of the question. 

The following are some of the many pieces relating to this topic. T. Grimke, Address bef . 
Lit. and Phil. Soc. of S. Carolina. Charleston, 1827. — Rumford, (signature of unknown writ- 
er) in the Boston Centinel, 1825, or 6. — Pax (signature of an anonymous writer), on the Course 
of Study in the Oneida Institute, JV*. Y. Observer, Vol. XII. 1834.— Bib. Repository, Oct. 1832. 
Amer. Jour, of Science, Vol. XV. p. 297. — Chris. Spec. 1826, p. 456. — M. Stuart, Quar. Journal 
Amer. Ed. Soc. July, 1828. — R. B. Patton, in the Bib. Repository, No. xxv. Jan. 1837. p. 46. — 
J. Packard, in Bib. Repository, No. xxix. Jan. 1838. p. 28. — See also Beecher's Plea for Colleges. 
1836. 18. 

For an account of classical learning in this country in the last century, see Miller, Retro- 
spect of the Eighteenth Century, New York, 1803. 2 vols. 8. 

4. Respecting the peculiar excellence and spirit of the ancient classics, we 
refer to the following. 

Abbe Dubos, Reflections critiques sur la Poesie et la Peinture. Transl. by Nugent. Lond. 
1743. 3 vols. 8. — A. Blackmail, Introduction to the classics. Lond. 1727. 8 ; publ. also in Latin 
under the title, De Prcestantia Class. Auct. Lips. 1735. 8. — G. Manwaring, On the Classicks. 
Lond. 1737. 8.— G. F. Gellert, sammtl. Schriften. Th. 5th.— D. Jenisch, Geistder Alten. BerL 
1789. 8. — We may add also, on the utility of classical learning, — Gregory's Letters, Phil. 1809. 
— Vic. Knox, Liberal Education, or Pract. Treatise on the methods of acquiring useful and po- 
lite learning. Lond. 1789. 2 vols. 8. (in the Introduction.)—!). G. Hubler, Werth der class. 
Schriftsteller in Rucksicht auf Bildung des Geistes, &c. Bresl. 1800. 8. — Bitaube, Sur l'etude 
des anciens, Mem. de VInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. Vol. i. p. 259. — Fukrmann, Kl. 
Handbuch, p. 5—9, as cited below (P. II. § 7. 9). 

§ 30. In what we term the Archaeology of Literature and Art, 
among the Greeks and Romans, it is not designed to enter into very 
minute details. The object will be to give a correct general view of 
the subject, presenting the most important circumstances of the ori- 
gin and progress of refinement in these nations, and enabling the 
reader to form a just idea of the actual state of letters and arts 
among them, as well as of the monuments which they have left to 
posterity. This object cannot be accomplished fully, if the history 
of knowledge and art is wholly separated from what may be called 
their antiquities. 

§ 31. The utility of such archaeological information cannot be 
questioned. It furnishes us with the best illustrations of many pas- 
sages and allusions in the Greek and Roman authors. It helps us to 
understand the peculiar excellences and beauties of their writings 
and those also of the works of art. It puts us in a situation to form 
more correct opinions on these and kindred topics. In short, it 
serves in respect to our own literary taste, not only to secure to it a 
solid basis, but to impart refinement and delicacy. 

§ 32 w. The following works may be consulted for further details on the 
subjects presented in this introduction, and likewise on some of the topics of 
the subsequent archaeological sketches. 



*20 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART, 

1. On the origin and progress of civilization and knowledge ; Ant. Y. Goguet, De l'Origiue' 
des Loix, des Arts et des Sciences chez les anciens Peuples. Par. 1758., 3 vols. 4. 6me ed. corr. 
Par. 1820. 3. vols. 8. Eng. Transl. Edinb. 1775. 3 vols. 8.— Schiller's Thalia, vol. 9. p. 3, ss. 
—Addung, Versuch eine/'Geschichte der Cultur des menschlichen Geschlechts. Lpz. 1800. 8. 
—Christcrph. Melners, Geschichte des Urspru gs, Fortgangs und Verfalls der Wissenschaften 
in Griechenland und Rom. Lemgo, 1781. 2 vols. 8. Not finished.— By Same,, Grundriss der 
Geschichte der Menschheit. Lemgo, 1786. 8, " Not Critical."— Le Tens, Recherches sur 
1'origine de decouvertes attribues aux Modernes, &c. Par. 1766.— Bailly, Lettres sur POrigine 
des Sciences. Par. 1777. 8.—Irwing, Versuche ueber den Ursprung der Erkenntniss d. Wahr- 
heit u. d. Wissenschaften. Berlin, 1781. 8.— Virey, Hist. Natur. du Genre Humain. Bruxelles, 
1827. 3 vols. 12.— Rio, L'Histoire de l'Esprit Humain dans l'Antiquite. Par. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 

— Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts im Aherthume. 1836. 2 vols. 8.— 
C. Rollin, History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients, in his Ancient History, New York, 
1835. 2 vols. 8.-^-Beckmann, Hist, of Inventions and Discoveries. Lond. 1814. 4 vols. 8. 

2. On language and writing ; Herm. Hugo, De prima scribendi origine ; cui notas adj. Tro- 
Vzius. Traj. ad Rh. 1738. 8. — Ch. de Brosscs. (le President), Traite de la formation mechan- 
ique des langues. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 12. — Tho. Astle, The Origin and Progress of Writing. 
Lond. 1803. 4. — T. L. Hug, die Erfindung der Buchstabenschrift, ihr Zustand und fruehester 
Gebrauch im Alterthum. ° Ulm. 1801. 4. — Chr. Fried. Weber, Versuch einer Geschichte der 
Schreibkunst. Goett. 1807. 8.— J. L. Saalsehutz, Forschungen in Gebiete der Heb. ^Egypt. 
Archaeologie. First Part, on the History of Letters, the Hebrew, Phoenician, Greek, and Egyp- 
tian. Konigsb. 1838. 

3. On various topics of Archeology ; T. H. Christ, Abhandlungen ueber die Literatur und 
Kunstwerke, vornehmlich des Alterthums, durchgesehen und mit Anmerkungen begleitet von 
/. K. Zeune. Lpz. 1775. 8. — I. A. Ernesti, Archfeologia literaria. Ed. II. emendata atque aucta 
opera et studio G. H. Martini. Leipsiae, 1790. 8. — /. I. Rambach, archaeologische Untersuchun- 
gen. Halle, 1778. 8. As third volume to his Translation of Potter's Archasol. Graeca.— J. C. 
L. Schaaff, Encyklopaedie der classischen Alterthumskunde. Magdeb. 1826. 2 vols. 8. 3d ed. 
u Very valuable." 

4. On art more particularly : Joh. Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums. Neue 
Aufl. Wien, 1776. 4. — Same in French, Histoire de PArt chez Les Anciens avec des notes his- 
toriques et critiques de differens auteurs. Paris. An 2e la Rep. — Winckelmann, Saemtliche 
Werke, ed. by Fernow, Meyer, and Schulze. Dresd. 1808-17. 7. vols. 8, with an Index by Sie- 
belis. Dresd. 1820. 8. and Supplement by Forster. Berl. 1825. 3 vols. 8. " Winckelmann 
the greatest critic in ancient art in his time, but now surpassed." — Seroux d' Agincourt, His- 
toire de l'Art par les Monumens depuis la decadence au IVme Siecle jusqu' a son renouvelle- 
ment an XVIme pour servir de suite a l'histoire des Arts chez les anciens. Paris, 1810-23. 
6 vols. fol. — C. G. Hcyne, Einleitung in das Studium der Antike. Gott. 1772. 8. — A. F. Bues- 
ching, Entwurf einer Geschichte der zeichnenden Kunste. Hamburg, 1791.. 8. — Orbis An- 
tiqui Monumentis Suis Illustrati Primae Lineae. Iterum duxit /. I. Oberlinus. Argentor- 
1790. 8. — P. F. A. JYitsch, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Kunstwerke fuer Kuenstler und 
Kunstliebhaber. Leipz. 1792. 8. — A. L. Millin, Introduction a l'Etude des Monumens An- 
tiques, ed 2. Par. 1798. 8.— Same, Monumens Antiques Inedits. Par. 1802-4. 2 vols. 4.— T. 
Ph. Siebenkees, Handbuch der Archaeologie, oder Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Kunstwerke des 
Alterthums und zur Geschichte der Kunst der alten Voelker. Zwei Abtheilungen. Nuernb. 
1799. u. 1800. 8. " Uncritical." — T. Gurlitt, Einleitung in das Studium der schoenen Kunst 
des Alterthums. Magdeb. 1799. 4. — Petersen, Allg. Einleit. in das Stud, der Archaeol. &c. 
trans, from the Danish. Lpz. 1829. — K. O. Mueller, Denkmaeler der alten Kunst. Gott. 1834-7. 
2 vols. 4. — K. O. Mueller, Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kunst. Lpz. 1835. 8. 2d ed. — Same, 
translated into English. Lond. 1837. 8. " Best Manual by far." — A. Hirt, Geschichte der bild- 
ende Kuenste bey d. Alten. Berl. 1833. " Very valuable." 

5. There are some periodical works to which there will be occasion to refer in the Part of 
the Manual treating of the Archaeology of Literature and Art, and also in other Parts. 

The Society of Antiquaries at London was incorporated in 1751. One of the works pub- 
lished by them is entitled Vetusta Monumenta. Another, which was commenced in 1770, and 
is still continued, is entitled Archaologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts pertaining to Antiquity, 
comprising 26 volumes, quarto, from 1770 to 1836. 

The Royal Society of Literature for the United Kingdom of Great Britain was established 
about the year 1830. Its periodical publication is entitled Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Literature, &c, comprising, down to 1838, 5 volumes, quarto. 

The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres at Paris was commenced in 1663, and sup- 
pressed by the national assembly in 1793. We shall have frequent occasion to refer to its pub- 
lication under the title, Mem. de VAcad. des Inscriptions, which consists of 50 volumes in the 
Paris edition in quarto. The Institut de France was established in 1795, and is still continued, 
consisting of five branches or classes, each of which publishes its labors under the general title 
of Memoires de V Institut. 

A glance at the progress of archaeological studies maybe found in the following workj 
Rapport Historique sur le Progres de I'Histoire et de la Literature Ancienne depuis 1789, <fec. 
Par. 1810. 4 It belongs to the Memoires de V Institut de France ,• having been presented to the 
Institute in 1808. 

The Classical Journal, an English publication of considerable value to the scholar, was com- 
menced in 1810, and issued in numbers, forming usually two volumes a year.. For the. first 20. 
volumes, there is a separate Index. 



ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



/. — Of the origin and Jirst steps of Grecian culture. 

§ 33.* The most ancient traditions, that have been preserved re- 
specting the first population of Greece, exhibit the country as occu- 
pied in various parts, by a race called Pelasgi. There is some con- 
currence of testimony, that they were the primitive inhabitants. (Stra- 
bo, I. viii. § 10.) According toother accounts, they were emigrants 
from Asia, located first in Thrace, afterwards extending themselves 
through Thessaly even to the Peloponnesus. Almost impenetrable 
darkness, however, hangs over their origin. But, whether they were 
originally natives of the land (<Wo/<Wjc), or emigrants primarily 
from countries beyond the Mediterranean, it is certain, that more 
than 1800 years before Christ they were dispersed over Greece, and 
a part of Italy. They consisted of a great number of independent 
tribes. 

See Herbert Marsh, Horse Pelasgicas. Camb. 1815. — Raoul-Rochette, Histoire Critique de 
l'etablissement des Colonies Grecques. — Oibert, Les premiers habitants de la Grece, in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 25. p. 1. — Oeinot, Origine des Pelasges, in the same, Mem. &c. vol. 14. 
p. 154, and 16. p. 106. — Dupuis, Sur les Pelasges, Mem. de.PInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaus 
Arts, vol. ii. 44, and iii. 37. — Karl. Ottf. Mueller, Geschichte d' hellenischer Staemme. Breslau, 
1828. 3 vols. 8. — Clavier, Histoire des premiers temps de Ja Grece, &c. Par. 1822. 3 vols. 8. — 
Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind (cited $ 12, 1), B. 5. Ch. 4.—H. Leo, Lehrbuch der Univer- 
sal Geschichte. Lpz. 1835. 8.—H. G. Plass, Vor- und Ur- geschichte der Hellenen. Lpz. 1831. 
8.— Schlosser, Univers. Uebersicht d. Geschichte d. alter Welt, &c. Cf. P. II. § 7. 7. (d). 

§ 34.* It is the general representation of the ancient writers, that 
the inhabitants of Greece, in the earliest periods to which tradition 
extended, were in a condition of extreme barbarism. Their food is 
said to have been the fruit of the earth spontaneously produced and 
gathered by accident or under the impulse of hunger ; their sexual 
intercourse to have been regulated by no law but animal passion ; and 
their science and art insufficient even to direct them to the use or 
discovery of the common element of fire (§ 7). There is no evi- 
dence, that they made any advances from such a state, independently 
of the colonies from Egypt, or Phoenicia, or other eastern countries, 
which ere long were planted among them. There seem to have been 
two periods of this colonization, somewhat distinct ; the first about 
1800 years, and the other about 1500, before Christ. 

1. From the first of these periods civilization began to advance. If the Pe- 
lasgi were the original inhabitants represented as once so barbarous, they 
were from this period elevated somewhat above their previous state. If the 
term Pelasgi was a common name to designate all the early occupants of 
Greece, that had come from beyond the sea, and so included the colonists of 



22 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

this very period, then we must say, that the Pelasgi from about 1800 B. C. 
were in a state more elevated than the previous inhabitants. Or, whatever 
may be the truth as to the Pelasgi, some advancement in civilization aciually 
took place among the people of Greece not far from this time. 

By some writers on this subject, especially the more recent, the Pelasgi are 
described as possessing, before the arrival of the later colonies, a system of 
religion, with priests and mysteries ; as having some knowledge of architec- 
ture, navigation, and military arts, particularly fortification ; and even using 
some sort of written language, if not an actual alphabet of letters. 

For such views of the culture of the Pelasgi, see Schlosscr and Leo, as referred to above, 
§ 33 ; — also Waclismulh, and Hermann, as cited P. IV. $ 13 and 33. — Compare § 45. 1. 

2. The second period alluded to was distinguished by the colony of the 
Phoenician Cadmus, who settled in Boeotia, B. C. 1493, and founded the city 
originally bearing his own name, afterwards called Thebes. This colony is 
the most celebrated of all, as having contributed more than any other to the 
cultivation of the Greeks. The greatest benefit conferred by it was the art of 
alphabetic writing, which, according to the common opinion, was introduced 
by Cadmus (§ 45). 

Schoell, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, L. I. Ch. I. as cited P. II. $ 7. Q.—Larcher, Hist, 
de Cadmus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 48. p. 37. 

The following passage from Wachler may he pertinent here ; it indicates his opinion re- 
specting the Pelasgi, while it confirms the remarks above respecting the influence of the colo- 
nies on Greek civilization. " The early history of Greece is obscure, and depends mostly on 
historical combinations and conjectures. Its inhabitants came from Asia through Thrace. 
The first emigrants were called Pelasgi, and appear to be connected with the original inhabit- 
ants, who had already received something in their culture and language from Asia. They 
were followed by the Hellenes, probably a kindred tribe from the Caucasus. By the contempo- 
raneous settlement of foreigners more civilized, in different places, the foundations of social 
order and civil government were laid; as by the Egyptian Cecrops (B. C. 1530), in Attica ; 
by Danaus (B. C. 1500), in Argos ; by the Phoenician Cadmus (about B. C. 1500), in Bceotia ; 
andpthe Phrygian Pelops, in Peloponnesus." — JVachler's Geschichte der Literatur, vol. i. p. 99. 
Lpz. 1833. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 35.* Respecting the origin of the Greek language, it must be 
remarked, that there has been much discussion, with comparatively 
little light. Various theories, conflicting with each other, and some 
of them sufficiently absurd, have been advocated. Nothing very defi- 
nite and satisfactory has yet been adduced. The researches made 
within a few years past, in what has been called the science of com- 
parative philology , have enabled the later critics to class many of 
the ancient languages, including the Greek, in families, on the 
ground of certain common resemblances. But it seems beyond the 
reach of learning to determine precisely the descent of the Grecian 
tongue. 

There are two facts recorded in the Bible, which must be kept in 
view, in every just inquiry respecting the origin of the inhabitants 
of Greece and the descent of their language : viz. the confusion of 
tongues at Babel (B. C. 2247), and the consequent dispersion of the 
human family. 

Before we notice the bearing of these facts, we will advert to some of the 
accounts which have been given of the origin of the Greek language. 

1. The following are the remarks of Eschenburg, presented in the original 
of this work in another place, but appropriate here. 

Of the origin of the Greek language it may be said, that it was partly domestic and partly 
foreign. Its origin was domestic in as much as its basis and primary stock was the vernacu- 
lar tongue of the earliest inhabitants, who are by many considered to have been the Pelasgi, 
although, as has been suggested, this may be a name, under which were comprehended all 
the early occupants of Greece that had come from beyond the sea. But the language must 
have experienced a very great foreign influence not only from the colonies successively plant- 
ed in Greece, but from the intercourse, by commerce and otherwise, with the people occupy- 
ing the coasts of Asia, with the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. In the most ancient monu- 
ments of the language, especially the poetical, and in some very old proverbial fragments, 
there are evident traces of orientalism. (Comp. § 38. 1.) 

2. Some of the various theories are glanced at, in the following extract from 



ORIGIN OP THE GREEK LANGUAGE, 23 

a "Synopsis of a course of Lectures on the History of Greek Literature/' by 
Edward Everett ; which, it is much to be regretted, he did not complete and 
publish. 

" 1. The descent of the nations of the earth has naturally led to inquiries into the descent 
of their languages. The permanence of the radical forms of language, amidst the changes of 
what is external, has encouraged these inquiries. 

"2. In inquiring after the supposed original language, various theories have respectively 
ascribed that character to the Hebrew, the Teutonic, the Celtic, the Flemish, the Gothic. A 
writer of the present day maintains, that German was the court language of Rome in the time 
of Augustus. (Cf. Postellus de originibus seu de Hebraicre linguae et gentis antiquitate et de 
variorum linguarum affinitate, &c. V. Mueller, ueber die Ursprache.) 

" 3. The Greek has been derived by some from the Asiatic, and by others from the northern 
languages ; and by a third hypothesis has been made itself the original language. The de- 
fenders of this last opinion are Von dei Hardt and Ericus. (Cf. Harlesii Intro, in Histor. Ling. 
Graec. i. 12, 13, and Davies' Celtic Researches, p. 243.) 

" 4. Descent of the Greek from the Scythian or Gothic maintained by Ihre. (Cf. Dissertat, 
de originibus ling. Lat, et Graec. inter Masso-Gothos reperiundis. Also Analecta Ulphiana.) 
From the Egyptian by Marsham, (Cf. Canon. Chronic, p. 119.) and Lord Monboddo. From 
the Hebrew by Koenig, Oger, and many others. From the Ethiopian by Allwood. (Cf. Liter- 
ary Antiquities of Greece, by P. Allwood, Loud. 1799. 4to. p. 344.) By Nils Iddman from the- 
Finnish. By Linhard from the Sclavonian. By Webb from the Chinese." 

For a notice of some of these theories, see also Harles, Introduction, &c. (as cited P. II. 
$ 7. 9.) Prolegomena, § 4. 

§ 36.* The vernacular tongue of the first inhabitants of Greece 
was somehow formed from that one language which survived the 
deluge and was the sole language of the earth until the confusion of 
tongues at Babel. (Cf. Gen. xi. 1.) This must be admitted in alt 
correct reasoning on the subject. The confusion of tongues and 
the consequent dispersion of the human family occurred only about 
300 years earlier than the period to which the traditions already 
mentioned respecting the population of Greece must be referred. It 
is not certain precisely what changes took place in that language at 
the confusion ; but probably no one will suppose them to have been 
such as to form several absolutely new and essentially different 
tongues. The effect of confounding and separating the people sure- 
ly might be accomplished by such changes in pronunciation and 
structure as would leave the original language remaining substan- 
tially the same in all the new ones, as their basis. 

1. The languages of western Asia, although differing from each other in va- 
rious particulars, are found to constitute a family possessing some radical char- 
acteristics in common. There can be little doubt, that a resemblance, some- 
what analogous to this, although less obvious, and confined probably to the 
roots in their simplest forms, may be traced among all the early oriental 
tongues. 

Whether the '-one language and one speech," that underwent the changes 
of the confusion, was the language of Adam altered and improved by the 
successive generations of the Antediluvians, all using the same tongue, or 
was one of several varieties formed out of it before the flood, is of no great 
importance to decide, even if we had the means of doing it with certainty. 
J^or does it seem of much consequence, whether, or not, we consider the He- 
brew as the best representative of the language of Noah and his descendants 
previous to the confusion. It is, at least, quite certain that the Hebrew is one 
of the earliest of the languages known to have existed in western Asia. Ma- 
ny have believed it the original language of Eden, preserved from age to age 
in those families, that maintained in the greatest degree the fear of God and 
cherished most the arts and duties of social life. 

See Shuckford (as cited § 6), Bk. ii. The Armenians have a notion, that they still speak 

the language of Noah. — Smith and Dwight, Researches in Armenia. Bost. 1833. 2 vols. 12* 
<i. p. 16.) 

2. It may be important to remark here, that since the modern researches ifi 
comparative philology, and the investigations made by Bopp and others in re- 
lation to the Sanscrit language, the critics have discriminated particularly two 
classes or families among the languages of Asia. One is called the Semitic 
family, and the other the Sanscrit family, or the Indo- Germanic. 



24 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Striking affinities, it is asserted, unite together, in each of these families, their respective 
members. It is also admitted that some resemblances, although slighter, may be traced be- 
tween the two families. Cf. EwaWs Hebrew Grammar, 1835. (pp. 4-8.)— Robinson's He- 
brew Lexicon of Gesenius. Boston, 1836. (p. iv.) 

3. The Semitic or Shemitish family comprehends the Hebrew and Syriac and 
other languages of southwestern Asia. All these are supposed by most of the 
German philologians to have been derived from one common original. Some 
imagine this original to have been richer than any of its offspring, and think 
that the Arabic has preserved more of the character of the primitive stock 
than any other member of the family. 

Cf. M. Stuart, on the Shemitish languages, in his Hebrew Grammar (Introduction). Ando. 
1823. 8.— J. Perkins, in the Bib. Repository. Oct., 1837. p. 489.— Hengstenberg is said (A. D. 
1835) to teach in his lectures, that the Arabic is the oldest language of the Semitic family, and 
most resembles the supposed original (Ursprache). 

4. The Sancrit family includes the languages of India and Persia. The 
Latin and Greek are assigned to the same family, on account of certain affin- 
ities which are pointed out ; and likewise the Teutonic, by which term the 
whole stock of German languages has been designated. This family is some- 
times called also Indo- Germanic, because it includes languages thus traced 
from India to Germany. The Sanscrit is considered as the oldest of the fam- 
ily; the Persian and Latin are ranked next ; and then the Greek. — The Chi- 
nese is not included in this family. 

F. Bopp, System of the Sanscrit Language, &c. Berlin, 1825. 4.— Cf. Bib. Repertory, vol. 
ii. 1826.— F. Bopp, Vergleichende Gramrnatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, 
Gothischen, &c. Berlin, 1833. 4. — Encyclopedia Americana, articles, Indian Languages, German 
Language, Teutonic, &c. — A classification of all the known languages of the world is given in 
the work entitled Mithridates, by J. C. Adelung and J. S. Vater.—A brief view of the various 
languages is also given in Balbi's Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. Par. 1826. fol. 

§ 37.* The fact of the dispersion mentioned by Moses must also 
be kept in view in our inquiries respecting the first inhabitants of 
Greece and the origin of the Greek language. The common opin- 
ion ascribes the first settling of Asia Minor, the isles of the ^Egean, 
and the coasts of Greece, to the descendants of Japheth. These 
families or tribes, of course, carried with them their languages as 
modified by the confusion. How soon some of these families may 
have reached the southern parts of Greece cannot be known. Some 
etymologists have supposed the name Ionians ( 3 'iuvsg), by which the 
Greeks were very early designated, to be derived from Javan, the 
son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2). The name Javan was used by the He- 
brews to designate the people and country of the Ionians. And it is 
admitted by some who place no confidence in this etymology, that 
the Greeks were called Ionians before the time of the Ion ("ion-) 
mentioned in the Greek traditions. 

See J. Parsons, Remains of Japhet, or Historical Enquiries into the Affinity and Origin of 
the European Languages. Lond. 1767. 4. — Jamieson, Dissertat. on the Origin of the Greeks. 
— Shuckford, Conn. Sac. and Prof. Hist. B. iii. — Gesenius, Heb. Lex. by E. Robinson, Boston, 
1836.— Cf. Rosenmuller, Schol. in Vet. Test. Gen. x. 2 ; and his Biblische Geographie, vol. 
3. p. 389. 

§ 38.* The various and learned researches into the origin of the 
Greek language seem to furnish nothing more satisfactory than is 
suggested by these few facts and considerations. From the seats oc- 
cupied by the human race immediately after the flood in a central 
part of Asia, the families of Japheth migrated towards the northwest 
to their assigned portions of the earth, carrying with them a language 
or languages radically the same with those left in Asia in the fami- 
lies of Shem. Whatever length of time therefore might elapse be- 
fore the rich vales of Greece were occupied by them, or whatever 
family may have first entered them, the real basis of the language 
may be considered the same. In this view of the subject, some va- 






ORIGIN OP THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 25 

riety of the language of Noah, kindred to the early languages of cen- 
tral Asia, and possessing a radical resemblance to them, was the 
foundation on which was built the beautiful and polished superstruc- 
ture of the Greek. 

It is easy to account for the disappearance of a great part of the original 
resemblance between the Greek and the oriental dialects. The tribes of 
Greece, being removed from the centre of civilization, gradually sunk down 
to a state of almost perfect barbarism, and in this state their own traditions 
first present them to us. And after they began to awake, under the impulse 
from the colonies already spoken of, there were frequent emigrations, revolu- 
tions, amalgamations, and other changes of society, calculated greatly to mod- 
ify the language. So that, admitting a much greater degree of resemblance 
to have once existed, the subsequent traces of it might not be more numerous 
than are actually found. 

Bopp, as above cited § 36. — Barthelemy, Sur les rapports des langues Egyptienne, Phenici- 
enne, et Grecque. Mem. Acad. Inscrip. xxxii. 212. — J. A. Ernesti, de Vestigiis linguee Hebrai- 
cffi in lingua Graca ; in his Opuscula Philologica, Leyden, Bat. 1764. 8. — Mltford's Hist. vol. i. 
p. 122. ed. Bost. 1823. 

§ 39.* The causes of the great perfection, to which the Greek 
language attained, are in vain sought for. No theory of its first ba- 
sis and origin affords an answer to the question, how it acquired, in 
form, harmony, and power, that wonderful degree of excellence, 
which it has universally been acknowledged to possess. This it cer- 
tainly gained at a very early period, for the language existed in all its 
essential perfection in the time of Homer ; this it gained also in cir- 
cumstances apparently not very favorable to the refinement of lan- 
guage, in the midst of the migrations, the wars, the conquests and 
expulsions, the enthusiasm and lawlessness, of the heroic ages. 

1. Some, in explaining this, refer to the delightful climate and beautiful 
scenery of Greece, as these undoubtedly tended to soften the character of the 
inhabitants and inspire them with delicate sensibilites, and so indirectly to 
mellow and adorn their language. Another source of improvement to it has 
been pointed out in the early rise of republican institutions, and the obvious 
advantages enjoyed by a speaker in the popular assemblies, who could best 
win attention and sway the judgment by the superior excellence of his dic- 
tion. Some regard is likewise due to the conjecture, which ascribes much of 
the polish of the Grecian tongue to those bards of the heroic ages, who cele- 
brated with poetry and music the deeds of their ancestors, or of bold and en- 
terprising chieftains, or sung the praises of the gods ; as their rythmical effu- 
sions, their hymns and invocations, might naturally promote the flexibility 
and sweetness of the language. But after all that can be said, the perfection 
of this language remains an unexplained phenomenon in the history of letters. 

2. It is not more so, however, than the wonderful copiousness, flexibility, 
•and apparently artificial structure, of several of the aboriginal languages of 
America. The truth is, no theoretical reasoning can be relied on in rela- 
tion to a subject, which in its nature is so changeable as human language, 
a thing so airy and fleeting as " winged words " and sounds of breath. We 
may explain facts if we can, but as in all other cases, so here, whether we can 
explain them or not, we must take them as they are. 

See Barton, New Views on the Origin of the American Aborigines. — Duponceau, Prelim. 
Dissertation, Transactions of Lit. and Hist. Depart, of American Phil. Soc. vol. i. Cf. North, 
-Amer. Review, vol. ix. first Series, p. 179. — Prichard, Phys. Hist. B. viii. 

§ 40.* It has already been remarked, that the first impulse that 
served to rouse the Greeks from the torpor of barbarism, was given 
by colonies from the east planted among them. Various descriptions 
and allusions in Homer make it evident, that a very considerable im- 
provement had taken place in the condition of Grecian society ante- 

3 



26 Archaeology of greek literature. 

cedently to his time. The general source of this culture was the 
knowledge and civilization of the east. The influence upon the 
Greeks from the east was felt in other ways, besides through the col-' 
onies just mentioned ; and particularly by means of commerce. Com- 
merce was at this early period chiefly in the hands of the Phoeni- 
cians. This adventurous people carried their merchandize to the 
western extremities of the Mediterranean, and surely could not over- 
look the numerous islands and cities of Greece. Nor is it improb- 
able that some of those bold enterprises against the people of the 
east, which are related of the heroic ages, exerted upon the Greeks 
some favorable reflex influence, especially the siege and capture of 
Troy. 

See A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece, translated by O. Ban- 
croft. Bost. 1824. 8. (ch. iii.) 

§ 41. The influence of eastern nations upon the early culture of the 
Greeks manifests itself in several particulars. It appears in their religion, in 
one point especially ; and that is, the fact, that the gods of Greek mythology 
were at first viewed merely as symbols, or representatives of sensible objects, 
such as rivers, mountains, the sun, &c. or of the invisible powers of nature. 
As such symbols, these gods, under the same or similar names, existed in the 
eastern nations, especially the Egyptians. In the same sense, that is, as de- 
signed to represent allegorically the appearances and changes of the material 
world, they were first used by the Greeks ; but afterwards came to be consid- 
ered as possessing personal attributes, and at length the popular creed em- 
braced them as beings having a real and present existence. 

Some of the peculiar early institutions of the Greeks, as the mysteries' 
and the oracles, show also this influence of the east. Great as is the obscu- 
rity hanging over the nature and design of the Greek mysteries, their foreign 
origin is not doubted, and the prototypes of many of them are found in the 
rites and superstitions of Egypt, Phoenicia, and Crete. To such a source may 
be traced the mysteries of Bacchus and Adonis, the rites of the Curetes and 
Dactyli, and the Eleusinian, most celebrated of all. One of the earliest ora- 
cles, that of Dodona, seems to have been started by a female slave once em- 
ployed in the service of an Egyptian temple ; and that of Delphi, which 
gained the highest renown, is ascribed to the artifice of a company of Cretan 
priests. 

See Heeren, as cited § iO.—Mitford, History of Greece, ch. iii. $ 2. cited P. II. § 7. 7. (d).-~ ■ 
F. Schlegel, Lect. ii. cited P. II. § 7. 8. 

§ 42. The influence of eastern cultivation may be noticed likewise in re- 
lation to the arts. Even in the time of Homer, Phoenician artists were con- 
sidered by the Greeks as superior in skill and elegance. Whenever the poet 
speaks of an article of peculiar beauty and excellence, it is usually said to be 
of Phoenician workmanship ; as, for instance, the silver bowl which Achilles 
proposed as a prize in the games at the funeral of Patroclus (II. V. 743) ; 
" Sidonian artists wrought it, and Phoenicians brought it over the sea." 
Hence it is obvious where Grecian artists were looking for patterns and 
models. 

It also may be worthy of remark, that we perceive an oriental stamp in the 
Subjects and spirit of the fragments of the earliest Greek poetry. They are 
chiefly hymns to the gods, or metrical fables respecting the origin of" the 
world, the formation of man, the primeval happiness, the subsequent aposta- 
cy, and the miseries which soon overwhelmed the race. They exhibit views 
respecting the nature and attributes of one supreme God much more spiritual 
than subsequently prevailed, and more consonant with the truths of revelation. 
They seem to be tinctured with traditionary recollections of the patriarchal 
and antediluvian ages of Asiatic society. 

See F. Schlegel, Lect. on Hist. Lit. (Lect. ii.)— Cf. P. II. § 12, 15. — Also, on various coinci- 
dences in Grecian fiction with facts in Scripture history, see references, P. III. § 5. 1. 

§ 43.* In alluding to the circumstances connected with the early 



ORIENTAL INFLUENCES. 27 

culture of the Greeks, it is proper to notice the bards or minstrels, 
*Aoi8bi, already mentioned (§ 39). They were of a class such as is 
generally found in every age of semi-barbarous heroism and chivalry. 
They strolled from one prince's hall to another's, or were attached 
to a favorite chieftain and family, or employed and supported in con- 
nection with the temples and worship of the gods. They either sung 
their own verse, or recited, as was generally the practice of those 
called rhapsodists ( c Paxpcod6i), the compositions of others. Greek lit- 
erature had its origin in these performances. After the time of Ho- 
mer, his poems were the principal theme of the rhapsodists, who 
rehearsed his poetry accompanying it with music, and sometimes add- 
ing comments or explanations of their own. 

§ 44.* Nor should we overlook here those meetings for purposes 
of festivity, and trial of bodily strength and activity, to which the 
Greeks were very early accustomed. They exerted, beyond doubt, 
some influence on Grecian culture, especially when they became such 
illustrious occasions as were, in particular, the four national games. 
It is only necessary here just to advert to these, as having their rise 
in this early period. The Olympian, after many years of occasional 
suspension and renewal, were at last solemnly established 776 B. C, 
and were subsequently supported with increasing splendor. The 
other three, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, were not fully estab- 
lished as regular festivals until a much later time ; but still had been 
long in existence, and occasionally much frequented. 

The Amphictyonic Council, which was of very early origin, may 
also be supposed to have exerted some influence upon the general 
improvement of the Greeks. It has commonly been considered as 
from the beginning an institution more strictly of a political charac- 
ter than the festivals just named ; and as probably designed to sup- 
port a kind of law of nations among the different states, and promote 
the tranquillity and happiness of the whole country. Some writers, 
however, have maintained, that it was not a political assembly but 
wholly a religious one. 

For further notice of the four national games and of the Amphictyonic Council, see P. IV. 

$ 84—87, and § 105. 



II. — Of the Greek Alphabet, Method of Writing, and Books. 

§ 45. Alphabetic writing, according to the general opinion, was 
introduced by Cadmus, a Phoenician leader who settled in Boeotia, 
and founded Thebes, B. C. 1493. There may be grounds for the 
conjecture, that the Greeks possessed before this some written char- 
acters, or at least a sort of picture-writing. Perhaps, however, these 
more ancient characters, called Pelasgic, were originally Phoenician, 
since the Pelasgi (cf. § 33, 34) were probably of Phoenician origin. 
There is an obvious resemblance between the letters of the Phoeni- 
cian and those of the Grecian alphabet. Indeed the Phoenician may 
be considered as the primary source of all the European alphabets, 



28 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ancient and modern. We need not, from this, suppose the Phoeni- 
cians to have been the actual inventors of alphabetic writing, which 
perhaps had its origin in Egypt (cf. § 19), commencing in an abbre- 
viation of hieroglyphics. 

1. The common opinion ascribing to Cadmus the introduction of letters is 
founded upon an assertion of Herodotus (1. v. 28, 58). But it is contradicted 
by Diodorus Sieulus (1. v. 57, 74), who relates that the Greeks possessed letters 
several generations before Cadmus, and used them for public monuments, and 
that a deluge destroyed these first elements of civilization. Pausanius (1. i. 43.) 
speaks of an inscription read by him at Megara, on the most ancient monu- 
ment in Greece. The date of this monument, according to Larcher, was 1678 
B.C. The inscription was therefore anterior to Cadmus, and of course Pe- 
lasgic. 

But the alphabet of the Greeks bears, in the names, order, and forms of its 
letters, a striking resemblance to those of nations belonging to the Semitic 
race, i. e. the Phoenicians, Samaritans, and Jews. How is this to be reconciled 
with the idea, that the Pelasgi had an alphabet before the arrival of Cadmus ? 
Or if there was a previous alphabet in Greece, was it given up on the arrival 
of Cadmus, and the Phoenician adopted in its place ? It is conjectured by 
some, that the Pelasgi had the Phoenician alphabet from the first, and that 
Cadmus only introduced a new material for writing. Before him, stones and 
metals were the chief materials. If he introduced the art of writing on the 
palm-leaf, which was used for the purpose by the Egyptians before the papy- 
rus, it would very naturally be adopted instead of the more difficult and la- 
borious use of metals. And the letters traced on the palm-leaf might with 
propriety be termed yqauuara fpoivixeta, the epithet referring not to the form, 
or nature, or originof the letters (those of Cadmus being the same with those 
of the Pelasgi), but to the material on which they were written. 

Schoell, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. iii. ch. 3.— Cf. Weber, Geschichte der Schreibkunst, cited § 32.— 
Renaudot, Sur l'origine des lettres Grecques, in Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. vol. ii. p. 231. 

2. Respecting the origin of the Phoenician alphabet, see Hug, Erfindung 
der Buchstabenschrift (cited § 32).—" This writer," says Schoell, " has shown 
that the Phoenician letters are hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphics, Egyptian. 
Aleph signifies ox, and its primitive form resembles the head of that animal. 
Beth signifies house, and its first form represents an Egyptian house or hut 
pointed at the top. Gamel (gimmel) would signify a camel, and this letter 
was originally the head of the same." The reader will not fail to perceive, 

. that in each of these the principle of Champollion's system of interpreting 
the Egyptian hieroglyphics (cf. § 16. 1) is exactly exemplified. 

For a comparison of the Greek and Hebrew alphabets, see Buttman's Gram, by Robinson, 
p. 459 ; Stuart's Heb. Gram. p. 385 ;— of the Greek and Phoenician, Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. 
Hist. B. iv. — See also Plates in Astlc, cited $ 32, and those in Edinb. Encyclopedia, illustrating 
alphabets ; and table of Alphabets in O. Higgins, The Celtic Druids. Cf. Southern Review, 
Aug. 1829. p. 1.— Also E. Fry, cited § 47.— In our illustrations, Plate la, fig. e. a few corre- 
sponding letters of several alphabets may be compared. Cf. Explanation of Plates. 

On the Phoenician language and writings, see W. Oesenius, Palatograph. Studien ueber 
Phoenische und Punische Schriften, &c. Lpz. 1835. 4.— Same, Scripture Linguaeque Phoenician 
Monumenta, &c. Lpz. 1837. 4.— Cf. For. Quar. Review, No. xlii. p. 445. 

On the hieroglyphic origin of alphabets, see Lamb's Hieroglyphical Alphabet of the He- 
brews.— J. O. L. Kosegarten, De Prisca ^Egyptorum literatura, cum tabulis. Vimar. 1828. 4. 

§ 46. The alphabet of Cadmus was incomplete, consisting, as is 
commonly thought, of only sixteen letters, viz. A,B, r, J, E, J, K, 
J, M, N, o, zz, J°, z, T, T. Soon after, z, 0, H, and $ were added, 
and subsequently, <£, x, w, and n. The former were termed Kadustu 
or ffioivixeia yQupuara, Cadmean or Phoenician letters. The addition- 
al characters are ascribed to Palamedes, Simonides, and Epichar- 
mus. These letters soon were received among the Ionians, and being 
somewhat changed by them, formed what was called the Ionian al- 
phabet, which contained twenty-four letters, and of which Callistra- 
tus the Samian is considered as the author. The Ionians imparted 
these improvements to the other Grecian nations, and after the mid- 



PLATE I a. 




1 *r i\/f^I<^plOC5<NHpOCOYKeTTOpeY 
OHGNBOYAHXCeBCDN 



3p- 5 CD 



H TIT I SkDK 

H B H I A 2 J K e 

ro x 

Kvijiov ' J y iao u,a h 



I 
I 



II 



I 



I 



1 



■IS! 



Ttli? 



*<T. <??>«'. <rr. tf?:<<s> 



rr.w.Et.K' 



t?.<YY.«A. 

E . U .SCH . . . 



s« vt.«: m.r<-.Y<y.r?.y«^: 

;{ 1 .SCH. § . H . I .8 .H ... 

(«rf.<<.m.y<-.y<y.?r.K-i<.\ 



O . H ,.TCH. 



4 «ri[«.Y<>nr.3.«m\: 

KH .SCH.H .§.. R.SCH.E .• 



■m. 



r.Y 







«h^mnm^ 




• 



C c 



-■■ 



^EBKH 



■ 



t ^'"- :' ;-"; ■" 



3>Z^i \>ZglSETl 



■■.;;:■.., :, , ■■ ■, •• : 



ill 






fe^il:.^ ; ";^^fe. 



frl- 



i 



30 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

die of the 94th Olympiad, about B. C. 403, the Athenians made use 
of this alphabet in the public writings of the state. 

1. " The common assertion of writers on the old Greek alphabet has been, 
that it consisted originally of only sixteen letters. But this assertion is built 
upon no definite and certain testimony. The oldest writers, Herodotus (v. 58) 
and Diodorus Siculus (v. 24), who relate the story of Cadmus, say nothing of 
the number of letters ; and the accounts of later times disagree. Aristotle 
makes eighteen (Plin. Hist. Nat. 7. 56) ; another account seventeen (Plut. 
Sympos. 8. qusest. 3. Isidor. Orig. I. 3.)" 

Stuart's Heb. Gram. p. 385.— See Wolf, Proleg. Horn. § 70.— Hug's work before cited ($ 45, 
32) p. 15. — Also Buttmann's Gram, by Robinson, p. 459. 

2u. Cadmus is also said to have introduced the art of reckoning, and the 
use of several important signs (tTciarjua) to express number; as pav (gcr p) 
for the number 6, v.oTcna (9 or q) for 90, and oauni ( 3 ) for 900. 

Respecting the use of letters to designate numbers, see P. IV. § 176. 

§ 47. The exact form of the earliest Greek letters cannot be de- 
cided, because there are now no written monuments of so high an- 
tiquity. That they underwent many changes in shape is, from the 
nature of the case, in the highest degree probable, and it is possible 
that characters, afterwards supposed to be new, were merely inten- 
tional changes of this kind. Their resemblance to the Phoenician in 
form was no doubt greater at first than at a later period. Indeed 
evidence of various changes is still found upon existing medals and 
inscriptions, although, in a matter where so much may be arbitrary, 
the epoch of the changes, or the age in which each different form 
was used, cannot be accurately determined. 

Buettner, Vergleichungstafeln der Scbriftarten verschiedner Voelker. Goetting. 1771. 4. — 
Astle, before cited. — Edm. Fry, Pantographia, containing copies of all the known alphabets, 
<fcc. Lond. 1799. 8.— Knight's Analyt. Ess. on the Greek Alphabet. Lond. 1791. 4. § 26.— 
Montfaucon, Palaeographia Grseca. Par. 1708. — Wilson's Essay on Grammar. Phil. 1817. Ch. I. 

§ 48. The direction of the letters and lines in the writing of the 
most ancient Greeks was the same as among the eastern nations, from 
right to left. This might be expected if their alphabet came from 
Phoenicia. Ere long the direction was in the first line from right to 
left, in the second from left to right, and so on in alternation, each 
line being connected to the next by a curve. This method, as it 
represents the course of the ox in ploughing, was termed povorQcxpySbv. 
In this manner, for example, the laws of Solon were written, and ma- 
ny public monuments, of which some yet remain. Another mode 
was termed xtovrtfov, in which the letters were arranged perpendicu- 
larly, as by the modern Chinese, in the form of a pillar ; there was 
another, in which the lines were successively shortened, in the form 
of a basket, ouvqiSov ; these, however, were only for amusement and 
scarcely deserve to be mentioned. At length came into general use 
the method followed by the moderns, of writing wholly from left to 
right ; its introduction among the Greeks is ascribed to Pronapides, 
who according to some was a preceptor to Homer. (Diod. Sic. 
iii. 66.) 

§ 49. In more ancient times the large form of the letters, or the 
uncial character (Uteres majuscules, or quadrates, capitals), was al- 
ways used in writing. It constantly appears on the old Greek coins 
and inscriptions, and is found also in the earliest manuscripts. The 
smaller form, or the cursive (Uteres semi-quadrates), became common 



FORM OF LETTERS. ACCENTS. 31 

first in the middle ages, in the eighth or ninth century, and grew, it 
is likely, out of abbreviations and alterations of the larger letters, 
which were always written singly, with no grouping or contracting. 
An earlier use of this character is, however, proved by some remain- 
ing specimens ; it is found on a roll of papyrus, to which a date as 
early as 104 B. C. has been conceded. Abbreviations of words were 
rarely made in ancient writing, although not altogether unusual upon 
coins and inscriptions. Such as were used were termed o^ui-ia, biyX&i, 
and uovoyQuiiuara. They consisted chiefly in this ; that sometimes, and 
principally in writing proper names, only the initials were employed; 
or the middle of a word was omitted^and either written over it, or 
the omission indicated by a small dash : or several letters were com- 
bined into a single figure. 

J. Nicolai, Tractatus de siglis Veterum. Lugd. Bat. 1706. 4. — Corsini, Notae Graecorum. 
Flor. 1749. 4. — Placentinius, de siglis Vet. Grac. Opus. Rom. 1757. Fol. — <2. Backh, Erklarung 
einer iEgyptischen Urkunde auf Papyrus in griech. Cursivschrift. Berl. 1821. 4. — Cf. §107. 4. 

On the origin and form of the Greek letters, and the modes of writing, see also Harles, In. 
in Ling. Gr. $ A.— Ooguet, Or. Laws, &c. P. ii. B. 2. Ch. 6.— Cf. §104. 

§ 50. The breathings, as they are now called, were, in the most 
ancient writing of the Greeks, characters occupying a place in the 
line along with the letters. Among the Ionians the character was H, 
and among the iEolians it was F, or what is called the Digamma. 
The former was joined to the smooth consonants to render them as- 
pirates, as in khfoNos for Xqoroq. Subsequently, two smaller signs 
were formed out of H by dividing it, h andn, and these were used to 
indicate respectively the presence and absence of aspiration. After- 
wards they were changed, by transcribers for the sake of conve- 
nience, into another form, L and J, and again after the ninth centu- 
ry into a form, ' and ? , still easier for writing. The ancient Greek 
grammarians sometimes introduced the breathing into the middle of 
a word, on the ground of its derivation or composition, as, for ex- 
ample, vsmg, nfojoiuiog. This practice Mazochi observed in the Her- 
culanean inscriptions, and Villoison also in a valuable manuscript of 
Homer which was found in the library of St. Mark at Venice, be- 
longing to the tenth century. 

See Lemgoisch. Anserles. Bibliothek. V. iii. p. 78. — Knight, Analyt. Ess. on Greek Alphabet. 
Dawes, de Consonantis sive Adspirationis VAU virtute, — in his Miscellanea Critica. Lpz. 
1800. 8. (Sect. iv. p. 89. 332.) 

§ 51. The marks called accents were not commonly used by the 
Greeks, because the true intonation of the language was sufficiently 
known to them, and of course such helps were unnecessary. There 
is, at least, no mention of them in the ancient authors, nor any trace 
of them in the oldest monuments of Greek writing. But, when in 
the speech of common life many words received wrong tones, the 
grammarians began in such cases to use signs to indicate the correct 
utterance. About the year 200 B. C. the present accentual system 
was introduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium ; yet considerable time 
elapsed before it came into general use. Upon inscriptions belonging 
to the first century after Christ, the accents have been found, but 
rarely. Perhaps these marks were not wholly unknown to the more 
ancient Greeks, being designed not to point out tones for the reader., 
but to serve as musical notes for the singer. 

The accented verse on a wall in Herculaneum, adduced by Winckelmann, [cf. his Works, 



32 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

(cited § 32), ii. p. 124. — Cf. Pittureant. d'Ercol. II. p. 34,] is not considered genuine. Harles, 
Int. in Ling. Gr. Supp. I. p. 9. 

The doctrine of the Greek accents is amply treated by Prof. K. F. Chr. Wagner (Helmst. 
1807. 8), who refers also to the principal works on the subject.— See Villoison's Anecd. Greec. 
II. 131. — Harles, Int. in Ling. Gr. §$. — Irnaud, Sur les Accents de la langue Grecque. Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. xxxii. 432. — For other" references, see P. II. § 5. 2; §7. 4. (g). 

§ 52. Originally, likewise, sentences and their constituent mem- 
bers were not distinguished by any interpunction or intervening signs 
of separation. Not only were the sentences without punctuation, 
but the words themselves were often as near each other as the several 
letters of a single word. Sometimes, however, on inscriptions the 
words are separated by points placed between them. The invention 
of marks for punctuation is to^e ascribed to Aristophanes, the Greek 
grammarian before mentioned. 

\u. The whole system consisted in the different locations of a point or dot ; 
if placed after the last letter at the top or above it (rs?.ha anyuij), the dot in- 
dicated the close of a sentence, or a period ; if placed after the last letter of a 
word at the bottom or under it (vrcoanyui,), then the dot was equivalent to a 
comma ; and if placed after the last letter in the middle (onyutj ui07j), it cor- 
responded to a colon or semicolon. The comma or hypodiastole was by the 
grammarians often placed between words which otherwise might be incor- 
rectly divided, as, for example, sonv, a'iiog, with the sign between, that they 
might not be read tan vuttog; and the hyphen, a curved stroke under the line, 
was sometimes used to indicate that two words constituted one compound 
word, as in yjiqio-oyog. Breaking off the lines was sometimes made to serve 
instead of punctuation ; in this method (an/iiQcog, ori/y]8bv) every complete 
sentence was made to begin a new line, and often even the several members 
of the sentence were thus- arranged, in a form like that of verse. 

2. Interpunction is not found in the earlier manuscripts now extant, although 
written some centuries after the time of Aristophanes. Cf. § 104 below. 

In modern printing, the following signs of interpunction are used ; viz. 
comma ( — ,), colon ( — •), period ( — .), interrogation ( — ,•), and lately, exclam- 
ation ( — !). The diastole, or hypo diastole , is used in some cases ; asino,rt 
(neuter of hong) and to, rs (article) to distinguish them from on and tots. — 
For other marks, see Robinson's Translation of Buttmann's Gr. Grammar, §15, 
29, 30. 

§ 53. The materials, on which it was customary to write in Greece, 
were different according to the different purposes of the writing. 
Stone, brass, lead, wood, and the like, were employed when the de- 
sign was to record memorable events for posterity, or to promulgate 
public decrees or laws. For common and private purposes, the more 
usual materials were leaves, inner bark of trees (cplotbg) ; afterwards, 
parchment, wooden tablets simple or covered with wax, ivory, linen 
cloth, and Egyptian paper. The latter, formed from the fibres or 
bark of the papyrus (pL§?.og), was, according to the opinion of some, 
first used in Greece in the time of Alexander the Great, but most 
probably earlier. There was also another variety of paper formed of 
the layers of inner bark (£v?.oxuqtiov), and another made from cotton 
(xuonov pou§vxLag, cliarta gossypina or bombycina). These two how- 
ever were common only in the later ages. Still later was the inven- 
tion of paper made from linen (cliarta lintea) and from rags as at the 
present day, belonging perhaps to the middle of the 13th century. 

The laws of Solon were inscribed on tablets of wood, called at-ovsg, which 
are said to have been of a pyramidal shape, and so fixed as to turn on a pivot 
or axis. (Gellius, Noct. Att. ii. 42.) The term xvySeig was also applied to 
such tablets. — The term xuQnjg was general, designating any substance em- 
ployed for writing. Skins of animals rudely prepared (dupQiqcu, axvrog) seem 



MATERIALS USED IN WRITING. 33 

to have been used at an early period. — Parchment was first prepared at Per- 
gamos, whence its name JZagyauipjy. Three kinds are mentioned ; "'that of 
the natural color; the yellow, the bicolor membrana of Persius (Sat. iii. 10), 
which seems to have been so called because one side of the leaf was white 
and the other yellow ; and the purple, the parchment being tinged with that 
color, when silver or golden letters were to be used." Cf. § 55. 

The pyramidal or triangular tablets above mentioned, said to have been turned upon a pivot 
or axis, may be illustrated by a specimen of ancient British writing, which our Place la. pre- 
sents, in fig. B, taken from Fry's Pantographia (cited $ 47). It exhibits a method practiced by 
the aboriginal Britons. The letters were cut on sticks, most commonly squared, sometimes 
triangular ; so that one stick had three or four lines. The triangular sticks were specially used 
for a peculiar kfnd of metre, called triban or triplet, three lines forming a stanza. Several 
sticks were put together in a frame, and fitted so that they could be turned on their axes ; thus 
each side might be easily read. Something similar to this method was practiced in the Ru- 
nic icands, which were sticks of willow inscribed with certain characters, and used by the 
heathen tribes of the north of Europe for magical ceremonies. The Runic almanacs are simi- 
lar wands or sticks used by the peasants of Sweden and Norway, for noting time or keeping 
accounts. Cf. W. C. Grimm, Ueber Deutsche Runen. Gcett. 1821.— J Warton, Hist. Eng. Po- 
etry. Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8. (i. p. xxvi. ss.) 

A. H. L. Heeren, Geschichte des Stud, der griech. und rcem. Litteratur. Gcett. 1797-1801. 
2 vols. 8. — O. F. Wehrs, vom Papier und den vor der Erfindung desselben ueblich gewesen 
Screibmassen. Halle, 1789. 8.— Supplement. Han. 1790.8.-^2. F. Pfeiffer, Ueber.Buecher-Hand- 
schriften. Erlang. 1810. 8.— Caylus, Mem. de P Acad, des Inscr. xxvi. — For an account of 
the ancient materials for writing, see also Jlmer. Quart. Rev. vol n. p. 307. — Taylor, as cited 
$ 58.— Schwartz, as cited $ 118. 1. 

§ 54. The usual instrument for writing on the harder materials, 
and also on the tablets covered with wax, was the style (an'ioq, ynu- 
(paiov, y?.v(f£tov). This was pointed at one end, and broad at the other 
for the purpose of erasing letters and smoothing the surface of the 
wax, if a mistake were made, or the writer for any reason wished an 
alteration. It was usually made of iron, sometimes of ivory. For 
drawing the letters with colors or some sort of ink, sometimes a pen- 
cil (yoacpig) was employed, but more commonly a reed (*u;.ai/oc, d6vat). 
The reed or cane chiefly used was that from Egypt or Cnidus. It 
was sharpened and split for the purpose, like our pen, which was not 
known to the ancients, the beginning of the 7th century being the 
earliest period of its use. 

Persons of fortune and rank often wrote with a calamus of silver ; some- 
thing probably like cur silver pens. Both the styles and the reeds were kept 

in cases. The earliest evidence of the use of the quill is given by Isidorus, 

a Latin writer of the 7th century, who employs the word penna, to designate 

a writing pen. The pencil (called by the Romans peniciilus or peniculus) 

was properly an instrument for painting. Its invention is ascribed to Apollo- 
dorus, an Athenian painter, B. C. 408. Cf. § 2-22. 

Beckmann's History of Inventions (cited $ 32). — Isidorus, Origines. lib. vi. c. 13. For 

different forms of the style and reed, see Plate I. fig. 3, 4, 9 ; also in fig. 1. 

§ 55. The ink was commonly black (uiXdv, uiXav yoaipiy.ov) ; and 
was prepared, according to Pliny and Vitruvius, from soot and gum. 
Among the ancients, the titles of books and sometimes of particular 
sections were written in red ink (uUrog, minium, rubrica). In the 
middle ages, red ink was much used, particularly for initial letters, 
signatures, borderings, and ornaments; a superior, very brilliant 
kind, called iyy.avoruv (encaustum), was used in the signatures to the 
public documents of the Greek emperors. The practice of adorning 
the large initials with gold, silver, and images, and of writing upon 
purple or violet-colored parchment with letters of gold or silver, 
seems to have commenced in the later ages, introduced perhaps by 
the Byzantines. With the ancients, however, it was customary to 
polish the parchment or paper with pumice-stone, and, for the sake 
of durability as well as fragrance, to spread over it the oil of cedar. 



34 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

" From ancient authors, as well as from the figures in manuscripts, we learn 
that they used a sponge to cleanse the reed, and to rub out such letters as were 
written by mistake ; a knife for mending the reed ; pumice for a similar pur- 
pose, or to smooth the parchment; compasses, for measuring the distances of 
the lines ; scissors for cutting the paper ; a puncher, to point out the begin- 
ning and end of each line ; a rule, to draw lin^s and divide the sheets into 
columns ; a glass containing sand, and another glass filled with water, proba- 
bly to mix with the ink." 

On ink, &c. F. A. Ebcrt, zur Handschriftenkunde. Lpz. 1825. 8.— Cf. Horace, Art. Poet. 331. 
Pliny, 1. xvi. c. 39. 

§ 56. The ancient form of books was that of Rolls (h?.iluata), re- 
sembling modern charts or maps when rolled up, with writing only 
on the inner side. The several strips or leaves of the parchment or 
paper were glued to each other at the ends, either before or after the 
writing ; from this circumstance the first strip or leaf, that uppermost 
on the roll, was called jiqutuxoUov, and the last iaxaroy.oUov. The 
whole was then wound upon a rod, or cylinder {uor^aliaxo?, ouyattg), 
which was ordinarily made of wood, or ivory, and had at both ends 
projecting ornaments, knobs or the like, called hxqouyodia, or xiqara. 
The title {avUa^oq) was written on the back of the protocol visible 
after the winding of the roll, or on a small separate strip (tvittuxiov) 
attached to the edge of the roll. The book itself, or whole roll, was 
encompassed with bands, or enclosed in a case. 

Heeren and Gibbon allude to a singular manuscript, said to have existed in 
the library at Constantinople (§ 76) : " an ancient manuscript of Homer, on 
a roll of parchment one hundred and twenty feet in length, the intestines, as 
it was fabled, of a prodigious serpent.' — Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. 
ch. liii. (N. York, 1822, vol. v. p. 367.; 

§ 57 u. Although the roll was the most common form, yet the Greeks had 
books of a quadrangular form, with the writing on both sides of the leaves 
(uTcia&uyou(poi). Such were termed SLiroi, a name first applied to tablets or 
pieces of writing, resembling in shape the letter Delta. The invention of the 
quadrangular form is generally ascribed to Attalus king of Pergamus, but came 
into general use first in the 5th century after Christ. Several leaves or sheets, 
folded double, were placed in layers one upon another and joined by thread or 
strings ; and these were said to be TQioaa, rsTQudia, uavrudax, territories, quater- 
niones, &c. according to the number. The term rsTQudia, quaterniones , was 
also used sometimes to signify whole books of this form. The kind just de- 
scribed was different from the folded tablets, called Sinrvxa (cf • diploma, § 118), 
which became specially remarkable in connection with affairs of state. 

1. The writer has in possession a manuscript copy of the Syriac New Testament, on parch- 
ment, of unknown hut very ancient date, procured'hy Rev. J. Perkins, from the Nestorians of 
Persia. The form is quadrangular: the leaves are folded and placed in layers in the manner above 
described. Generally, four leaves or sheets are folded together double, making eight pages; 
sometimes there are five, making ten pages ; sometimes but three. These are stitched together, 
and the layers united somewhat after the manner of a modern book. 

2. Tablets of wood or metal were often connected together by means of rings 
or parchment bands, thus forming a book of several leaves. — " In the year 1699, 
Montfaucon purchased, at Rome, a book of eight leaden leaves (including two 
which formed the cover), four inches long and three inches wide. Leaden 
rings were fastened on the back, through which a small leaden rod ran to keep 
the leaves together." 

The terms pip/.og and fiip.iov designated a book or volume of papyrus, and 
[tsutinura a book of parchment, when they were used distinctively. Cf. 2 Tim. 
iv. 13. 

For the forms of rolls, books, and tablets, see Plates I. and I a. — Cf. Calmet's Dictionary (as 
cited §18.4.), vol. in. p. 93. 

§ 58. There were among the Greeks copyists, who made it their 
business to transcribe books. Those, who had distinguished skill in 



» 
FORM OF BOOKS. COPYISTS. 3# 

writing, were called y.an.iyyayoi. Those, who applied themselves to 
take down discourses or addresses, and so made use of notes and abbre- 
viations, were named otjusioyQuyoi and raxvyQayot. Such as wrote in 
golden letters, or ornamented with golden initial letters manuscripts 
in which places had been left for that purpose, were termed xQvooyQuyoi, 
Among the later Greeks, transcribers received the Roman appellation 
of notaries (notarii). In the middle ages, the work of transcribing 
was especially the employment of ecclesiastics and monks in the con- 
vents and abbeys, in which there was usually an apartment expressly 
fitted for the object, called the scriptorium. 

Alexandria was the principal resort of the copyists in the later periods of 
Grecian literature. In the same edifice with the celebrated library in this city 
(cf. § 76), were extensive offices completely fitted up for the business of trans- 
cribing books. Here the Calligraphi were very numerous even until the irrup- 
tion of the Arabs. About thirty years before that event, the circumstance is 
mentioned by an eye-witness. (Tkeophyl. Simocatta, Hist, viii, 13.) 

See J. Taylor, History of the Transmission of ancient books to modern times. Lond. 1827. 8. 
Cf. New York Review, No. vi. Oct. 1838. 

§ 59. In the most ancient times, in Greece, the use of writing was 
infrequent. Many affairs of civil life, afterwards transacted in writing,, 
were then conducted orally; as, for example, judicial causes, contracts, 
and treaties. The earliest written laws were those of Draco. Even 
inscriptions upon public monuments and tombs were very rare in the 
first ages. 

1 u. There is scarcely a trace in Homer of written orders or despatches ; every 
thing of the kind being transacted by oral intercourse or messages. In a sin- 
gle instance only, does he allude to a written communication (Iliad, vi. 168 — 
178), where Prcetus is represented as sending something like a letter with 
written characters (o'^uara yQaxf'ag sv jiLvazt tctvxtuj) by Bellerophon to Jo- 
bates; but there are different explanations of this passage. 

2 u. The writing of books seems to have commenced in the time of Pisistratus 
and Solon, and its first fruits were perhaps merely the recording of traditionary 
poetry. It is not an improbable supposition, that the poetry of Homer was not 
committed to writing by himself, but that this was first done at a later period, 
and with the insertion of many passages not belonging to it. 

Quarterly Review, No. lxxxvii.— Ooguet, Or. Laws, &c. P. ti. bk.ii. $6. — Mitford's Greece; 
ch. ii. §3. (note p. 132. vol. i. Bost. ed. 1823).— On the question whether Homer committed his 
poems "to writing, cf. also P. II. §50. 4. 

§ 60. Instruction in the early periods was also of course chiefly oral, 
The name of sages, or wise men (ooyor, ooyiorai) , was conferred on all 
who were distinguished for their knowledge and thereby enjoyed a 
conspicuous rank and influence in the state. These men delivered 
orally their doctrines and precepts, which in later periods were col* 
lected and recorded. In the first ages, when the compass and sum 
of all known attainments was not very great, many and various kinds 
were united in one individual, who was at once theologian, physiolo- 
gist, speculative and practical philosopher, statesman, lawgiver, poet r 
orator, and musician. The subsequent division and separation of the 
branches of knowledge, contributed to its advancement and perfection, 
although probably not to any increase of its direct and immediate in- 
fluence. 



36 ARCHAEOLOGY OP LITERATURE AND ART. 



III. — Of the most flourishing period of Greek Literature, 

§ 61. During the time intervening between Solon (B. C. 594) and 
Alexander (B.C. 336), Greek literature rose to its greatest splendor, 
In this period, the circumstances of the Greeks generally, and of the 
Athenians in particular, were such as very happily conspired to pro- 
mote literature and the arts. Among the causes which contributed 
to their progress, may be mentioned, in addition to the circumstances 
already noticed, the native disposition of the people, favorably influ- 
enced by the climate and the physical features of the country, the free 
and republican form of the government, the general influence of their 
•customs and usages, their commerce with other nations, especially the 
Egyptians, and their system of education, which was expressly adapted 
to the public interests of the community, and which cultivated in for- 
tunate harmony both body and mind. With such advantages, the 
Greeks became highly distinguished in the arts, and were the first to 
place them on established principles, and reduce them to appropriate, 
consistent, and useful rules. 

1 u. Their language, which had already acquired so much flexibility, copi- 
ousness, and harmony, was carried to its highest perfection in the period of 
which we now speak. From the works of their best writers, they deduced a 
system of rhetorical truths and precepts, embodied with great discrimination 
and skill, and taught both orally and in writing. Eloquence and poetry they 
raised to the greatest eminence. They composed history with taste, judgment, 
and fidelity. Philosophy was one of their favorite studies, and was taught in 
various schools with order and precision. They discussed with much pene- 
tration many of the principles of government and public economy. They cul- 
tivated likewise with great success the mathematical sciences. And their 
good taste, the elements of which they possessed as it were by nature, and 
which was highly improved by their devoted attention to the fine arts, enabled 
them to impart to the sciences generally a livelier aspect, and to render them 
more attractive and useful. 

2. " The opposite character of different Hellenic tribes, exerted a powerful influence upon 
the culture and literature of the Greeks. This appears the most striking in the case of the Io- 
nians and Dorians, both externally and internally. Ionian republicanism and Dorian aristocracy 
were long arrayed in hostility against each other, and contended desperately in the Peloponne- 
sian war. The views of life entertained by each were Avidely different. The sprightly Ionian 
Bought, with a light heart, to clothe life with various forms of beauty, and enjoyed the pleasure 
of the moment, and readily exchanged what was old for something new. The Dorian, reared 
among mountains, loved repose and time-hallowed usages ; enjoyed contemplation and serious 
enjoyments, and strove for the vast and the sublime. Among the Ionians sprung up, from real 
impressions, the plastic form of epic poetry ; from tradition, epic history ; from reflection upon 
experience, moral sayings, scornful iambics, and elegy ; and, from pleasurable emotions, the 
sensual, mirthful song. To the Dorians, the higher lyric poetry is indebted for its formation 
and culture ; it originated in a fine sensibility, and rose to an earnest enthusiasm and a deep 
contemplation of the divine and the human. The Ionian philosophy commenced with the ma- 
terial world and its origin ; the Dorian, with the spiritual world and with essential existence, 
and separated the mental phenomena from physics ; the former applied itself to the real world, 
the latter, to the ideal. — Between the two stood the iEolians, with a lax political constitution, 
tending to disorder. With them originated the didactic form of poetry ; and their tumultuous 
passions were poured forth in lyrics of a fervid character, accompanied by similar music. — The 
Athenians united, in part, (as far as their public life and their original character would allow,) 
the peculiarities of the Ionians and the Dorians, — a lively imagination and a lofty earnestness, 
— carrying both to the highest pitch of perfection." Wackier, Literatur-geschichte, i. p. 103. 

§ 62. It is not designed here to give a minute history of the progress 
of the various branches, or to specify and describe particularly the 
writers in the different departments. On these subjects something 
more full will be given in another place (Part II). It is only pro- 
posed now to point out the most remarkable circumstances and fea- 
tures of this illustrious period, and mention the principal institutions 



SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. GYMNASIA. 37 

and customs, which served to awaken intellectual activity, and call 
forth talents of every kind, and employ them in the most successful 
manner. 

§ 63. The whole system of education among the Greeks, was pe- 
culiarly calculated for the development and improvement of the powers 
of the mind and of the body in common. Gymnastics {yvuvaony.i) con- 
stituted an essential part of it, and was taught and practiced in the 
Gymnasia (yuuvuoia), or schools for bodily exercise. All that part of it, 
which related more especially to the cultivation of the mind, went un- 
der the term music (uovaizl,) ; and in this comprehensive sense, the 
term is used by Plutarch and other ancient writers, when they speak 
of music as so indispensable in the education of the young, and as 
exerting so great an influence on the temper and character. 

" Plato (Leg. 6. Rep. 2. 17.) includes the whole of education (TvaiSsia) under 
the two parts above named; (ru uadi]uara tial-dtrrci- ) ?j usv ItcI Oojuacri, yvu- 
raony.ij ; r, 8' Irci ipv%rj uov&ixrj. The former was divided by him into 7ru/?;and 
oo//;a<c. The latter embraced all the arts and sciences over which the muses 
presided. The term uovaix^ was sometimes used, especially in later times, in 
the restricted sense." — It may be important to remark, that the Spartans and 
Athenians differed very much as to their grand aim in education. 

On the education of the Athenians, see Bartkelemj, Anacharsis, ch. xxvi. — On that of Sparta, 
and other states, Mueller, History and Ant. of the Doric Race, bk. iv. ch. v. and vi. — On the 
schools of the Greeks, see Schwartz, as cited below, § 75. — Perizonius ad JElian. V. Hist. n. 16. 

Respecting the music of the Greeks, and its connections, see G. A. Villoteau, Recherches 
sur l'Analogie de la Musique avec la Language. — B. J. Burette, Sur l'ancienne Musique, in the - 
Mem. Acad, des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 116, v. 133, vm. 27, x. p. 111. xv. xvir. 61. — Chabanon, in the 
same Memoires, vol. xxxv. p. 360. xlvi. p. 285. — F. Nolan, on the Theoretical Music of the Greeks; 
in the Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. 1834. — C. Burncy, History of 
Music. Lond. 1776. 3 vols. 4. — Barthelemy, Anach. ch. xxvii. — For a notice of the works which 
treat of the music of the ancients, see J. JV*. Forkel, Allgem. Geschichte der Musik. Leipz. 1792. 8. 
— Salzer's Allg. Theor. der schesn. Kunste, art. Musik. 

§ 64. The following remarks on the Gymnasia, are from Barthelemy's Travels 
of Anacharsis, cited P. II. § 153. 2. 

" A magistrate, named the gymnasiarch, presides at [has the charge of] the 
different gymnasia of the state. It is his duty to furnish the oil made use of 
by the athletce to give suppleness to their limbs. He has under him, in each 
gymnasium, several officers ; such as the g}nnnastes [who attends to the health 
and diet of the youth, and is sometimes called lutqoc] ; the paidotribes [whose 
duty is to teach the arts exercised in the paleestra] , and others : some of whom 
maintain order among the youth, and others teach them different exercises. 
At the head of these are ten sophronists, nominated by the ten tribes, to whom 
the superintendence of the morals of the youth is more especially committed, 
and all of whom must be approved by the Areopagus. 

As it is of the greatest importance that confidence and scrutiny should pre- 
vail in the gymnasium, as well as in all numerous assemblies, thefts committed 
there are punished with death, when they exceed the value of ten drachms. 
The gymnasia being deemed the asylum of innocence and modesty, Solon had 
prohibited the people from entering them at the time when the scholars, cele- 
brating a festival in honor of Mercury, were less under the eye of their pre- 
ceptors ; but this regulation has fallen into disuse. 

The exercises practiced there are ordained by the laws, subject to certain 
regulations, and animated by the commendations of the masters, and still more 
by the emulation that subsists among the scholars. All Greece considers them 
as the most essential part of education, as they render men active, robust, and 
capable of supporting military labors, as well as the leisure hours of peace. 
Considered relatively to health, physicians prescribe them with success. Of 
their great utility in the military art, it is impossible to give a higher idea than 
by citing the example of the Lacedemonians. To these exercises were they 
indebted for those victories which once made them so formidable to other na- 
tions ; and, in later times, in order to conquer, it was first necessary to equal 
them in the gymnastic discipline. — But if the advantages resulting from this 

4 



38 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

institution be eminent, its abuses are not less dangerous. Medicine and phi" 
losophy both concur in condemning these exercises, when they exhaust the 
body, or give more ferocity than courage to the mind. 

The gymnasium of the Lyceum has been successively enlarged and embet» 
lished. The walls are enriched with paintings. Apollo is the tutelary deity 
of the place. His statue is at the entrance j and the gardens, ornamented with 
beautiful alleys, were restored in the last years of my residence in Greece. 
Those who walk there, are invited to rest themselves, by seats placed under the 
trees." 

§ 65. The fact that the term music was used in the comprehensive 
sense above noticed, and was united with poetry, rehearsals, and imi- 
tative gestures, will, if properly considered, help us to appreciate more 
justly the musical contests of the Greeks. These were regarded as 
among the most valuable means of intellectual improvement. The 
love of glory was stimulated by them, and became the moving spring 
of the most intense efforts, They exerted the greater influence from 
the circumstance of their being usually connected with public and 
festival occasions, especially with the four solemn games of the Greeks, 
the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean. At Athens they were 
united with the Panathensen festival, one of the highest interest, and 
attended by vast multitudes of people, and by the appointment of Peri- 
cles they were held in the Odeum, an edifice specially appropriated 
for the purpose. 

1. " All the violence of the early ages was unable to repress that elegance of 
imagination which seems congenial to Greece. Very anciently a contention 
for a prize in poetry and music was a favorite entertainment of the Grecian? 
people ; and when connected, as it often was, with some ceremony of religion, 
(Thuc. 3. 104. Zen. Mem. Socr. 3. c. 3,) drew together large assemblies of both 
sexes. A festival of this kind in the little island of Delos, at which Homer as- 
sisted, brought a numerous concourse from different parts by sea ; and Hesiod 
(Op. and Di. 1. 2. v. 272) informs us of a splendid meeting for the celebration 
of various games, at Chalcis in Eubcea, where himself obtained the prize for 
poetry and song. The contest in music and poetry seems early to have been 
particularly connected with the worship of Apollo. When this was carried 
from the islands of the iEgean to Delphi, a prize for poetry was instituted ; 
whence arose the Pythian games. But it appears from Homer that games, in 
which athletic exercises and music and dancing were alternately introduced, 
made a common amusement of the courts of princes ; and before his time, the 
manner of conducting them was so far reduced to a system (Od. 8. v. 258), that 
public judges of the games are mentioned as a kind of established magistrate.'* 
Mitford, Hist. Greece, ch. iii. § 4. 

2u. Shortly after the time of Solon, these Contests existed, under systematic 
regulations. They were termed aycorsg tiovontol, and thus distinguished from 
the corporeal exercises, which were called ayoirsg yvuvty.ol. Poets, rhapsodists, 
actors, pantomimes, and musicians took part in them. The judges, aywvoSixetu 
ayonoQtTut, aiOviivijTai, (}Qa(}EVTai, were men specially distinguished for know- 
ledge and taste.' They assigned the theme of the contest, and their judgment 
on the comparative merits of the performers was decisive. 

See Martini, Abhandlung von der Odeen der Alten. Leip. 1767. S.—Battig-er, Andeutungen 
&c. ueber Archaeologie. Dresden, 1806. 8.— Aufsatz von d. Musik. Wettstr. d. Alten, in the JV. BibL 
der sch. Wisscnchaften, 7th bk. — Du Resnel, Combats et Prix proposes aux poetes &c. parmi les 
Grecs et les Romains, Mem. Acad. Insc. xiii. 331. 

§ 66. The competitors in these contests were required to possess 
natural abilities, long and laborious preparation, theoretical and prac- 
tical knowledge of their art, a well modulated voice, and skill upon 
the musical instruments which accompanied the exercise, usually the 
lyre or harp. The order in which they performed was decided by 
lot, and their conduct during the contest was prescribed by fixed 



LITERARY CONTESTS. REHEARSALS. 



39 



laws. The name of the victor, the one to whom the judges assigned 
the prize, was proclaimed by a herald. His reward was a garland 
or wreath and public applause. Sometimes he received a medal, 
statue, or poem, dedicated to his honor. 

lu. On these occasions, not only did musicians and poets contend, but ora- 
tors also made public their works ; as, for example, Isocrates recited his Pan- 
egyric at the Olympic festival. Such recitals were sometimes called luyot 
clvuTtiy.oi ; among them may be included what were called tTtidsi'ssig, public 
discussions of the sophists. Even historians were allowed to engage in those 
exercises. We have an example in Herodotus, who is said to have recited 
his history at the Olympic games, in the hearing of Thucydides, then a mere 
youth. 

2. At the festivals held in honor of Bacchus at Athens, especially those 
termed Jiovvoia u£yu?.a (cf. P. IV. § 77. 3), there were contests, in which the 
representation of dramatical pieces had a place. The poet who sought the 
prize must produce four or at least three, forming together one complete fa- 
ble, each of which might be compared to a single statue belonging to a group. 
The four dramas must consist of three tragedies and one satyre. The com- 
plete suit of lour pieces constituted what was called the rsrQa?.oyla ; the three 
tragedies formed the rqi/.oyla. On the days of the exhibition, the theatre was 
opened at sunrise, and it seems that the people could sit out all the pieces of- 
fered, sometimes to the number of nine tragedies and three satyres. Five 
judges then decided upon the merits of the competitors and bestowed the prize. 

Schcall, Hist. Litt. Gr. liv. in. ch. S.—Barthelemy, as cited P. IV. $ 90. 

3. " A tripod seems to have been the peculiar reward bestowed by the peo- 
ple of Athens on that choragus [700/776$, cf. P. IV. § 103], who exhibited the 
best musical or theatrical entertainment ; and we find that this custom ob- 
tained for these tripods the name of choragic tripods. It was customary for 
the victor to dedicate the tripod he had won to some divinity, and to place it 
either on one of the temples already built, or on the top of some edifice erect- 
ed and consecrated by him for the purpose. A tripod thus dedicated was al- 
ways accompanied with an inscription ; so that it became a permanent, au- 
thentic, and public monument of the victory, and of the person who ob- 
tained it." • 

Stuart, Diet, of Architecture. — Cf. P. V. § 115. — For choragic monuments, see Plate VI. 
fig. a. and c Cf. Description of Plates. 

§ 67. Usually the Grecian writers were accustomed to make 
known their works in prose and poetry by recitation or rehearsal, 
rather than by circulating manuscripts. They read or rehearsed them- 
selves, and procured it to be done by others, in order to avail them- 
selves of the opinions of hearers and judges. This was done some- 
times publicly, sometimes privately. When it was public, the reader 
had an elevated seat (&Q6vog), and the hearers sat around on benches. 
They communicated their judgment of his work, and of particular 
parts of it, either by silence, which according to the motions and ex- 
pressions of countenance connected with it, might signify, on the 
one hand, admiration and praise, and on the other, censure and con- 
tempt ; or by audible testimonials of approbation, with the words 
xalwg, aofpcog, and the like, and by loud applause (y.Qorog), at the close 
of the reading. They sometimes gave more decided applause by 
conducting the author to his residence with marks of honor. — Some- 
times, however, the author submitted his manuscript to the perusal 
of others, who then might place their criticisms and remarks upon 
the margin. 

§ 68. It was very common for the Greeks to avail themselves of 
the service of a class of persons, whom they called Lvayvworai, read- 



40 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ers, who made it their business to read aloud or recite to hearers the 
works of the more distinguished authors. The times selected for 
the purpose were the hours of the greatest leisure, those assigned to 
meals, or for bathing and so forth. These readers themselves culti- 
vated letters, and especially strove to acquire a correct, agreeable, 
and commanding style of elocution. They usually read the works 
of poets, orators, and historians. Pythagoras is supposed to have in- 
troduced this practice. It doubtless took its rise from an early Greek 
custom, mentioned by Homer ; according to which, lyric songs and 
epic rhapsodies were sung by the poets themselves, or by other sing- 
ers, who, as well as the poets, played upon musical instruments. 

The custom of reading at meals still prevails to some extent in the east. — 
" The mind was also fed during the repast, by a long story about Echmiadzin, 
read by a monk from a sort of Orchestra above us. A still longer oration foh- 
lowed, pronounced from a manuscript, by the vartabed at the head of the ta- 
ble." — See account of convent at Echmiadz. in Smith and Dwigkt, cited § 36. 

§ 69. The literary feasts of the Greeks, termed symposia (ovuttookx), 
are evidence that they sought to avail themselves of every opportuni- 
ty for the mutual interchange of literary acquisition, even in the 
hours of recreation and social amusement. Such table-intercourse 
the philosophers, especially, maintained with their young scholars in 
the Prytaneum, the Academy, the Lyceum, &c. There were rules 
for directing the conduct and conversation at these repasts of the 
schools ; as, for example, a code or system of the kind was prepared 
by Xenocrates for the symposia of the Academy, and by Aristotle 
.for those of the Lyceum. Banquets of this sort were also adopted 
as a mode of celebrating the birth-day and memory of teachers and 
founders of the schools, or other distinguished persons. The excel- 
lent dialogues of Plato and Xenophon, entitled Svunooiov, and 2v,n- 
nooiov (pi?.oo6<pan>, the piece ascribed to Plutarch with the title r Ema 
oo(p£v ovu7c6oiov, and the work of Athenasus styled Junvoooipiorai, fur- 
nish the reader with the best idea of this form of social entertain- 
ment among the wise men of Greece. 

See EscMnbach's Diss, de Symposiis sapientum, in his Dlssertt. Academ. Norimb. 1795. 8. 
Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev* vol. xxiv. p. 421. 

§ 70. Among the Greeks, there were not, as in modern times, sep- 
arate and distinct learned professions, or faculties as they have been 
termed. The compass and objects of knowledge were far less de- 
fined, and the studies and attainments of the individual more miscel- 
laneous. The study of the national language, the constitution of the 
state, and the nature of man, constituted the main scope of liter- 
ary exertion : and whatever methods of discipline, whatever knowl- 
edge, or whatever practical skill, could apparently subserve this, was 
received as an important part of the common education of youth. 
There was constant occasion to apply the general knowledge ac- 
quired, to actual life, which interfered with long or eager pursuit of 
theory and speculation in particular branches. 

§ 71. In the system of mental training or education (itaidsia t) Inl 
(pvxy), one of the first parts was grammar. Although this had ref- 
erence solely to the native tongue, it was yet a study comprehending 
much more than is now usually understood by the term. The art 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 41 

of speaking and writing correctly, which was made a primary thing 
in the Grecian system, was termed r^auuurioriy.^ and the teacher, 
rQauuanoT/.g. But under r^auuany.',;, or grammar, was included not 
only a knowledge of the language, but also something of poetry, elo- 
quence, and history, and even the elements of philosophy, at least in 
its applications to these branches ; and the teachers, who were called 
grammarians, rqauaan-Koi, imparted this various instruction. Plato 
especially called the attention of the Greeks to the necessity and 
utility of such knowledge. The usual division of grammar, in its 
more appropriate sense, was into two parts ; iiE&o$iyJ h which present- 
ed the rules and principles, and i% n yr^ixi h which explained the nature 
fnd meaning of words and phrases. 

See ft D. Beck's Commentar. de Uteris et auctoribus Grac. atque Lat. Lips. 1789. 8. p. 47. 

§ 72. A very favorite study of the Greeks was 'philosophy. The 
name of philosophy was originally applied to all inquiries about the 
nature of the Deity, the origin and destiny of men, and the phenom- 
ena and powers of the physical world. Afterwards the consideration 
of physical topics was in a considerable degree excluded. It was a 
special effort of Socrates to direct the investigations of philosophy to 
the various subjects of morals and religion, to questions of private 
and public virtue and right. A glance at the several sects and 
schools of Greek philosophy will be given (P. II. § 166, ss.), when 
we speak of the history of literature, and the principal writers. But 
this is a proper place to notice an important distinction made among 
the philosophers, between their exoteric and esoteric doctrines, ?.6yoa 
i^raoiy.ii, and iowTsoty.bi. The exoteric comprehended only the prin- 
ciples and precepts, which they taught publicly to all their hearers 
and to the people ; the esoteric included also their secret views and 
maxims (ioKooQyra), which were disclosed only to their particular dis- 
ciples and adepts, and upon which in public, both orally and in their 
writings, they expressed themselves obscurely in enigmatic and fig- 
urative language. (Warburton, Div. Legat. of Moses.) 

§ 73. Various methods of giving instruction were employed by 
the philosophers. The one most adapted to their object was, with- 
out much doubt, the dialogistic, the form of an actual dialogue be- 
tween the teacher and pupil. The philosopher beginning with the 
simplest and most obvious truths or admitted principles, advanced 
step by step with his disciple, hearing and answering his questions 
and doubts, and thus conducting him imperceptibly to a conviction 
of what the master would teach. This manner was first used by 
Zeno of Elea, but was improved by Socrates into a regular and skill- 
ful art, and is thence called the Socratic method. The method, 
however, was employed chiefly with such disciples as were supposed 
to have already acquired the first elements of philosophy, and to be 
now prepared to pursue investigations after truth, in common with 
their teacher. Plato adopts this dialogistic form in his writings. 
Other methods were used, however, in philosophical instructions, as 
the eristic (tyctmxj/), the syllogistic, and the mathematical. 

§ 74. The first and most celebrated public school at Athens was 
the Academy, a building which belonged to the Ceramicus (Kequ- 
fisiy.bc), without the proper limits of the city, surrounded by a grove. 
4* 



42 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

with shady walks. Plato was the first teacher here, and was suc- 
ceeded by various disciples, who, from the place of instruction, re- 
ceived the name of Academics. The Lyceum, the school of Aris- 
totle, was an enclosure on the banks of the Ilyssus, also without the 
proper city, and sacred to Apollo ; as Aristotle and his successors 
were accustomed to give instruction in the place for walking (tuqI- 
narog), they were called the Peripatetics. Another building in the 
suburbs of Athens, called Cynosarges, and originally a gymnasium 
or school for the bodily exercises, was the place where philosophy 
was taught by Antisthenes and his followers ; and this, without re- 
gard to their doctrines, may have given them the name of Cynics. 
Within the limits of the city was the celebrated portico, called P#- 
cile (iioiyAXtj), from its various paintings, and, by way of eminence, 
the Stoa (sroa) ; here Zeno from Cyprus opened his school, and 
thus attached to his disciples the appellation of Stoics. The garden 
of Epicurus should also be mentioned here, as it was in this, his own 
private retreat, that he taught his disciples, who are thence sometimes 
called philosophers of the garden. After Greek philosophy was 
transplanted to Alexandria, the Museum, in the part of the city 
called Bruchion, was famous as the place where instruction was given 
"by numerous teachers. 

Besides these public schools of philosophy, there were at Athens common 
schools, established at an earlier period by Solon, in which elementary in- 
struction was given in the different branches of education. The schools of 
the sophists must be distinguished from both. (Cf. P. II. § 108.) 

§ 75m. The teachers in these and other schools among the Greeks, enjoyed 
unlimited freedom in the expression of their views and principles, both upon 
theological and philosophical subjects. The government provided for the ex- 
ternal management and discipline of the schools (§ 64), and some regulations 
on this subject are found in the laws of Solon. The teachers were constant- 
ly attentive to the preservation of this discipline. The rigid discipline, es- 
pecially of the Lacedemonians in their early education, was celebrated in an- 
cient times, although it was sometimes more severe than judicious ; as, for 
instance, in the annual scourging (^8Luuaoriyo)Oig) of boys at the altar of Dia- 
na Orthia. 

See Craqii C Craig- J, de Rep. Laced. 1670.— Potter, Arch. Grcec. bk. ii. ch. 20.— Mueller, Hist. 
and Ant. Doric Race, bk. ii. ch. 9. § 6. — F. H. O. Schwartz, Erzieliungslehre— (Geschichte der 
Erziehung). 1829. Vol. i. p. 231-430.— Wachler, Geschichte der Liter. Vol. i. p. 105. 

§ 76 1. Among the means of promoting knowledge enjoyed by the 
Greeks, we must mention their libraries, some of which are celebrat- 
ed in history. 

In. The first considerable collection of books at Athens was made by Pis- 
istratus. This collection is said to have been borne away with other booty by 
Xerxes on his capture of that city, and to have been restored by Seleucus 
Nicator, king of Syria. Sylla gained possession of it when he took the city 
of Athens, B. C. 85, and removed it to Rome. 

2u. Another library of much value is said to have been gathered by Aris- 
totle aided by the munificence of Alexander, which also, after many accidents, 
according to the account of Strabo, fell into the hands of Sylla at the same 
time, and was carried to Rome. 

3 u. King Attains and his son Eumenes collected a large library at their cap- 
ital Pergamus. This contained 200,000 and according to some statements 
300,000 volumes, most of which were conveyed to Egypt, and being added, 
by Cleopatra or Antony, to the still more famous library of Alexandria, finally 
shared in its miserable fate. 

4. The library of Alexandria, the most celebrated of ancient times ,was com- 
menced by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and numbered among its keepers various 



LIBRARIES. TRAVELS. 43 

distinguished Greeks, as Demetrius Phalereus, CallimacliUS, Eratosthenes, 
Apollonius Rhodius, and Aristophanes of Byzantium. It suffered repeated 
disasters and losses and was again improved and enlarged ; the largest number 
of volumes mentioned as belonging to it is about 700,000 ; the library in the 
Bruchion containing about 400,000, and that in the Serapeion containing about 
150,000. Different accounts are given of its final destruction, some ascribing 
it to the mistaken zeal of Christians in the time of Theodosius the Great, and 
others, to the fury of the Saracens under Omar, A. D. 642. 

5. There was also at Constantinople a large library of Latin and Greek 
authors, commenced probably by Constantius, the son of Constantine, and 
greatly augmented by Julian. Its contents gradually increased to 120,000 vol- 
umes. It was finally, with valuable collections in the arts, committed to the 
flames amid the dissensions in the time of Zeno and Basiliscus or Basilices, 
about A. D. 477. 

Respecting these libraries, see Heereri's Geschichte des Stud, der class. Literat. as cited 
$•53. — Wackier, Geschichte der Literat. i. 173. — Heyne, de Interim Operum artis priscas etc. in 
Commentat. Soc. Gott. vol. xn. — " Rheinisches Museum, No. i." — Cfi. D. Beck, Specimen His- 
toric Bibliothecarum Alexandrinarum. Lpz. 1779.4. — C. Reinhard, ueber diejuengsten Schick- 
sale der Alex. Bibliothek. — Bonamy, La Bibliotheque d'Alexandrie. Mem. Acad. laser, ix. 397. 
• — Lond. Quart. Rev. x vi. 329. — See also an account of an Athenian Library in Barthelemy's 
Anacharsis, ch. xxix. 

§ 77. Although the Greeks were exceedingly jealous of their na- 
tional honor, and were especially solicitous to secure to their litera- 
ture the merit and praise of being an original possession carried to 
perfection by native resources, yet they did not wholly reject the ad- 
vantage resulting from acquaintance with the arts and sciences of 
other lands. They frequently traveled in those countries, which were 
most distinguished for their advancement in knowledge, especially in 
Egypt. To the latter the Greeks were much indebted in matters per- 
taining to intellectual culture, as well as in reference to their civil 
and religious institutions. Nor did the Greeks neglect domestic 
travel ; they were accustomed to visit the most distinguished provinces, 
regions and cities, to gain personal knowledge of what might be curi- 
ous or useful, and their observations were sometimes committed to 
writing. By such travels at home and in foreign lands, most of the 
distinguished men of Greece sought to increase and perfect their at- 
tainments. Here might be named, as instances, Homer, Lycurgus, 
Thales, Pythagoras, Solon, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, Pla- 
to, Aristotle, Polybius, Strabo, Pausanias, and many others. 

See Francii Exercitat. Acad, de peregrinatione veterum sapientium, eruditionis ergo suscep- 
ta. Lips. 1679. 4. 



IV. Of the decline of Greek literature. 

§ 78. From its brilliant state previous to the time of Alexander, 
Greek literature gradually declined. Among the causes were the in- 
creasing luxury and consequent effeminacy and remissness of the 
people, and the various internal political commotions, which followed 
the death of Alexander. In fact, the declension began with the first 
loss of their independence under the supremacy of Philip. And 
when at last they became a prey to Roman ambition, at the fall of 
Corinth, and when, somewhat later, Athens herself was plundered, 
partially at least, of her stores of learning and art by Sylla, the 
Greeks, by being wholly deprived of liberty, were bereft of their 



44 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

highest motives to exertion. Their native vigor and originality no 
longer showed itself, except in a few single efforts, and finally sunk 
prostrate under foreign oppression and domestic corruption. 

§ 79. It is worthy of remark, that the knowledge and use of the Greek 
language was greatly extended after the conquests of Alexander. Many cities 
were built by him in the east, which were inhabited chiefly by Greeks. Be- 
fore the time of Christ the language had become familiar throughout Palestine. 
The Latin writers bear ample testimony to the general diffusion of Greek. 
The words of Cicero are, Grceca leguntur in omnibus fere gentibus. The Ro- 
mans were obliged to adopt this for their official laguage, in the eastern pro- 
vinces. Even when the seat of the Roman government was removed to Con- 
stantinople and a special effort was made to introdi^ce the Latin, it was but 
partially successful. The emperor Justinian found it necessary to publish 
his Institutes, Code and Pandects in Greek, as well as Latin, because the lat- 
ter was so imperfectly understood by his subjects and civilians. — In the fourth 
century the Greek language seems to have been employed to some extent in 
Nubia and Abyssinia. 

See Gibbon's Rom. Emp. ch. liii. (vol. v. p. 364, N. York, 1822.)— .Home's Introduction t6 
the Study of the Scrip, vol. ri. P. i. ch. i. $ 2. — Letronne, as cited § 92. 5. Mem. dc PList. &c. ix„ 
p. 170. — The Byzantine Greek was corrupted by the intermixture of many words from the 
Latin and other languages. — See Ducange, Diss, de causis corrupts Grsecitatis. — Gibbon, Hist 
ch. lxvi. (vol. vi. p. 261.) — Sclwll, Litt. Gr. l. vi. ch. lxxi. 

§ 80. From the period whence we date the decline of Greek literature it 
appears less national in its character. This probably was not owing wholly 
to the circumstance that the Greeks were no longer their own masters. Some- 
thing must be allowed for the fact, that the literature of the subsequent peri- 
ods was not the growth of the native soil of Greece, but the product of places 
without her proper limits and remote from the scene of her early struggles 
and successes. It was chiefly at Rhodes, Pergamus and Alexandria, that let- 
ters were cultivated. Athens was no longer the capital and mistress of the 
literary world ; although for a long time after her submission to Rome her 
schools were the resort of youth for completing their education. Even in this 
respect, however, she had rivals. Apollonia on the shore of the Hadriatic was 
celebrated for its cultivation of Greek literature, and honored as the place 
where Augustus finished his studies. Massilia in Gaul, now Marseilles, a 
little later gained still greater celebrity for its schools of science. Antioch, 
Berytus, and Edessamay also be mentioned as places where Greek was studied 
after the Christian era. 

See Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre v. ch. 50. — Heeren's Gesch. des Stud, der griech und roem. Litt* 
$ 28. cited § 53. 

§ 81. At different times during the decline of Greek letters, royal and im- 
perial patronage was not wanting. Very liberal encouragement was afforded 
by some of the first Ptolemies at Alexandria to all the arts and studies, espec- 
ially by Philadelphus At Pergamus, also, great efforts were made by Attalus 
and Eumenes to foster learning. Among the Roman Emperors, likewise, there 
were patrons of Greek literature. Under the Antonini there was a little fresh 
blooming both in Greek and Roman letters ; and Aurelius Antoninus espec- 
ially befriended the cultivation of philosophy and bestowed privileges upon 
Athens. Julian the Apostate cultivated and patronized Greek studies, and 
allowed considerable stipends to teachers in the schools of pagan philosophy. 
He is said to have erected at Constantinople the royal portico, where was lodg- 
ed the library already mentioned (§ 76), and where also was established a sort 
of College for giving instruction in the arts and sciences. At a later period 
some emulation was ^awakened among Greek scholars in the east by the zeal 
and inquiries of the Arabian Caliphs, who were liberal patrons of learning, 
especially at Bagdad. 

See Gibbon, Hist Rom. Emp. ch liii. (vol. v. p. 367, ed. cit.) — Heeren, Gesch. des Stud, der 
griech. und roem. Litter. § 70.— Berington, Literary History of the Middle Ages. Lond. 1814. 4. 
Appendix i. 

§ 82.* In speaking of the circumstances connected with the de- 
cline of Greek literature, the suppression of the philosophical and 



SUPPRESSION OF SCHOOLS. LOSS OF BOOKS. 45 

rhetorical schools at Athens, by the Emperor Justinian, is usually 
mentioned and lamented. 

These schools had existed from the time of Socrates and Plato. In them the 
most distinguished philosophers and rhetoricians had taught numerous disci- 
ples native and foreign. While sustained they kept alive a taste and love for 
Greek literature and philosophy. They were only partially interrupted by the 
subjection of Athens to Rome, and afterwards were warmly supported by some 
of the Roman emperors, particularly by Julian, who, as has just been mention- 
ed, allowed a stipend to the teachers in them. Hadrian also is said to have 
furnished them with the means of procuring books. But they were entirely 
suppressed by Justinian, A. D. 529 ; not, it is said, because be was hostile to 
schools or philosophy, but because the teachers opposed his efforts to exter- 
pate paganism. Damascius, Simplicius, and other philosophers were obliged 
to leave Athens, and fled to the protection of Chosroes king of Persia. 

Although Greek literature had been declining for many centuries, and these 
schools had not hindered its wane, still their suppression probably hastened the 
entire oblivion, into which it soon fell in the west : because after this event 
there was less literary intercourse between the west and the east. 

See Enfield's History of Philosophy, b. ii. ch. ii. (vol. n. p. 327. Dubl. 1792.) Gibbon's Hist. 
Rom. Emp. ch. xl. 7. (vol. iv. p. 90. N. York, 1822.)— Meursiiis, Fortuna Attica, ch. viii. p. 59. 
in his Opera, t. i. — Ritter, History of Philosophy, as cited P. II. § 467.— Ncander, Kirchenge- 
schichte, bk. ii. Abth. i. 

§ 83.* The essential and fundamental contrariety of the Christian 
religion to the whole spirit of pagan philosophy and mythology, is a 
circumstance proper here to be noticed. It was not at all strange 
that Christians should neglect to study the pagan writings, except as 
they wished to arm themselves for the defence of their own faith. 

1. Opposition to the cultivation of heathen literature early appeared, but 
there was not perfect agreement among the Fathers on the subject. The 
council of Carthage, A. D. 398, formally condemned it. Yet many distin- 
guished Fathers recommended the study of Greek learning. Basil wrote a 
treatise in favor of it (cf. P. II. § 292. 2). Origen carefully taught it, and 
was applauded for the same by one of the most eminent of his disciples, Gre- 
gory Thaumaturgus. Chrysostom and Gregory of Nazianzen also advocated 
this study. Indeed the Eastern or Greek Church as a body appears to have 
been inclined to favor it, while the Western or Latin Church was strongly 
-opposed to it. There was, nevertheless, a general disrelish for every thing 
connected with paganism, which would naturally tend to accelerate the grow- 
ing neglect of the productions of Grecian literature. 

The Christians had their seminaries designed for the education of the ma- 
turer class of youth, and such especially as were to become religious teachers. 
But the sacred Scriptures were the basis of instruction. 

See Enfield's Hist. Phil. hk. vi. ch. ii. (p. 276, ed. cited above.)— Mosheim's Ecc. Hist, by 
Jilurdock, vol. i. p. 100. — H. Hallam's View of Europe in the Middle Ages, ch. ix. — Prof. R\ 
Emerson, On the Catechetical School, or Theological Seminary, at Alexandria. Bill. Repos. 
No. xiii. — Tzschirner, Der Fall des Heidenthums. — Meander's Chrysostomus, p. 6. — Ullmann's 
Gregorius von JNazianzen, p. 22. 

2. Nothing in the above remarks implies that Christianity has been in its in- 
fluence unfavorable to the progress of mind. On the contrary it has unspeaka- 
bly elevated the human intellect, and advanced, on the whole, more than any 
other cause, the interests of science and literature. It proposed and has ac- 
complished a mighty mental revolution, opening wider and more extensive 
channels of thought, imparting keener sensibility to the feelings of the heart,, 
and giving ample scope to all the noble energies of man. The happy results 
of this will go on accumulating to the end of the world. 

On the influence of Christianity upon Society, see Christ. Spect. vol. v. p. 409. — On its in- 
fluence upon Literature, see Schlegel's Hist. Lit. (lectures 4 and 6.)— Christ. Spect. vol. vi„ 
p. 57.— See also, on the whole subject, C. Villers, Essay on the Reformation by Luther, (with 
Introduction by Dr. S. Miller.) Phil. 1834. 8. 

§ 84.* The great loss of classical manuscripts, after the Christian 
era, is justly regretted by all. The chief source of this loss was 



46 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

the destruction of the great libraries, which has been previously 
mentioned (§ 76). The destruction of the Alexandrian library was 
-especially felt, because it was in connection with this library that the 
greatest establishment for copying and multiplying manuscripts had 
existed. (Cf. § 58.) 

There were other causes that contributed to diminish the number of classi- 
cal manuscripts. — Private hostility to the writings of particular authors occa- 
sioned some losses. It was a custom, both with the Greeks and the Romans, 
to sentence the writings of individual authors to the flames, as a kind of pun- 
ishment or to hinder the circulation of objectionable sentiments. The prac- 
tice was adopted in the Christian church. In the middle ages this hostility 
was in some instances directed against classical authors, and different emper- 
ors at Constantinople are said to have been induced to burn the existing cop- 
ies of several of the ancient poets. 

Some loss also may be ascribed to private negligence and ignorance, if we 
may conjecture from the statement, which asserts that three of the lost <Ze~ 
.cades of Livy were once made into rackets for the use of a monastery. 

" A page of the second decade of Livy, it is said, was found by a man of letters in thfe 
parchment of his battledore, whilst he was amusing himself in the country. He hastened to 
the maker of the battledore, but arrived too late ; the man had finished the last page of Livy 
about a week before." Israeli, Curiosities of Literature, vol. i.—Lond. Quart. Rev. xvi. 323. 

Another way in which such losses occurred, was by obliteration. The papy- 
rus becoming very difficult to procure after Egypt fell into the hands of the 
Saracens, in the 7th century, and parchment being thereby rendered more 
costly even than before, copyists very naturally began to seek some remedy. 
They adopted the expedient of obliterating the writing of an old manuscript. 
The parchment, after the obliteration, was used again, and thus the manu- 
script, which originally contained perhaps some valuable work of a Greek or 
Roman author, received in its stead, it might be, the absurd tales of a monk> 
or the futile quibbles of a scholastic. 

See Home's Introduction to Study of Holy Scriptures, vol. n. P. i. ch. ii. § 2.— This prac- 
tice of deletion was known in the time of Cicero ; and a manuscript written on a second 
time, as above described, was termed Codex Palimpsestus. Cic.^d Trebat. 4. 16. Cf. CatulL 
20. 5. — Some MSS. of this kind have been deciphered. See ArcML Nares, Historical Account 
of Discoveries made in Palimpsest Manuscripts ; in the Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Lit- 
erature, vol. i. Lond. 1829. Cf. P. II. § 443.— Lond. Quart. Rev. xVi. 331. 

§ 85. To notice particularly the civil history of the Greeks after the Chris- 
tian era would be foreign from the design of this glance at some of the cir- 
cumstances attending the decline of Greek letters. We ought, however, to 
observe, that they underwent a series of political changes, very few of which 
were calculated to exert any beneficial influence upon learning, while many 
of them were exceedingly unpropitious. Among the former, the removal of 
the Roman Court to Constantinople was probably the most favorable. Among 
the latter, we may mention the early inroads of the barbarians ; the encroach- 
ments of the Saracens ; the capture and plunder of Constantinople by the 
Latins ; the internal dissentions after the recovery of the capital ; and finally 
the attacks of the Turks, which were renewed from time to time until the 
final overthrow of the Greeks, A. D. 1453. By the various disasters thus 
suffered, the supremacy of the Greek emperors was ere long confined to a 
narrow corner of Europe, and at last to the suburbs of Constantinople, and 
here learning found its only refuge. 

Respecting the condition of Greek literature at Constantinople, see Berington's Lit. Hists 
of Middle Ages. Appendix I. as cited § 81. 

1. On the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, many of the Greek lit- 
erati fled to Italy and other parts of western Europe, and by their oral instruc- 
tions and their writings contributed greatly to the revival of letters, and es- 
pecially to the study of the Greek language, in the west. 

See Humpf. Hodius, De Grsecis illustribus linguae Graecae instauratoribus. Lond. 1742. 8.— 
Ch. Fr. Bmrnerus, De Doctis hominibus Grsecis, literarum Graecarum in Italia instauratoribus. 
Lpz. 1750. 8.— Also Heercn, Geschichte, &c. cited § 53.— H. Hallam, Introduction to the Liter- 
ature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Century. Lond. 1837. 8. — 7", 
Warton, Diss, on the Introduction of Learning into England, in his Hist, of English Poetry, 
Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8. 



WRITTEN MONUMENTS. 47 

£. Notwithstanding all the disasters above suggested, and a subjection of 
Nearly 400 years to the tyranny of Turkish masters, the Greeks have still an 
existence. By a painful and protracted struggle, commenced A. D. 1820, 
they secured their independence. Their present language differs from that of 
classical times, both in pronunciation and in structure, and contains as yet 
but a slender literature. The hope, however, has been awakened, that Greece 
may again rise to eminence in letters and in arts. 

For an account of modern Greek literature, see Cours de Litterature Qrecque Modernc s donne- 

■a Geneve, par Jacovaky Rizo Neroulos. (Publie par Jean Humbert,) Genev. 1828. 12. 2d ed. 

<%a Mod. Greek language, Class. Journal, v. 401 ; xvn. 39 j iv. 340. 



V. — Of the Remains and Monuments of Grecian Literature. 

§ 86. Besides the many valuable works, which have been pre- 
served, either entire or in part, and published since the restoration 
of learning and the invention of the art of printing, there are extant 
still other written monuments of Grecian antiquity, some acquaint- 
ance with which is important, not only to the antiquarian, but to ev- 
ery lover of literature. We may arrange these under three classes; 
Inscriptions, Coins, and Manuscripts. 

(a) Inscriptions. 

§ 87. The study of inscriptions {iniyqaiiua, inscriptio, titulus) is 
tff great utility in gaining a knowledge of language, and an acquaint- 
ance with criticism, history, chronology, and archaeology. Consid- 
ered as public and contemporary monuments they form a class of 
historical evidence most worthy of credence. Therefore since the 
revival of letters much attention has been devoted to discovering, 
collecting, publishing, and explaining inscriptions, upon which we 
have many writings. 

Some of the principal works relating to Greek inscriptions we will here name.— Qui. Roberta, 
Marmorum Oxoniensium inscriptiones Graecas. Oxon. 1791. 8. Cf. § 91. 4. — Edm. Chishull? 
Antiquitates Asiatic®. Lond. 1728. fol.— Ed. Corsinus, Inscriptiones antiquas, pleraeque non- 
dum editae. Flor. 1752. 4. — Rich. Chandler, Inscriptiones antiquae, plerseque nondum editae in 
Asia Minore et Grascia, praesertim Athenis collectae. Lond. 1744. fol. — Some inscriptions are 
noticed in E. D. Clarke's Greek Marbles at Cambridge (Camb. 1809. 8) ; and also in his Trav- 
els through various countries of the East. — F. Osann, Sylloge Inscrip. Ant. Graec. et Lat. Jen, 
1822. M.—Bocckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. Berol. 1825. fol.— The following may 
also be mentioned. Visconti, (on the Elgin Marbles,) Catal. raisonne des inscript. Grec. de 
la collect, de myl. Compte d' Elgin. — Rose, Inscriptiones Greec. Vetustissimae. 8. — C. Vidua, 
Inscript. Antiq. in Turcico itinere collects. Par. 1826. 8 — Inscriptiones Greecae Ineditae. Col- 
leg, edit. L. Rossius Holsatus. Fasc. I. 1838. 4. 

§ 88. These inscriptions are found upon columns, altars, tombs, 
rases, statues, temples, and other ancient edifices. Their design is 
to narrate some memorable event, or to point out the use and mean- 
ing of the object bearing them. Ordinarily they were in prose, 
sometimes in verse. The Greek inscription was expected to unite 
beauty, perspicuity, and vigor. It was from this circumstance and 
from its taking sometimes the poetical form, that the name of epi- 
gram (iniYQaiiua) was applied to the species of poetry so called, de- 
signating a short poem or stanza which expresses clearly and forci- 
bly an ingenious, pithy sentiment. 

| 89 u. In order to form a correct judgment and decision upon inscriptions;; 
there is need of much critical care and examination, that we may not be de- 



48 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ceived by pieces of doubtful authority or by false copies. There must be some 1 
familiar acquaintance with what pertains to the subject, both philologically 
and historically. In general we should possess a knowledge of the written 
characters of antiquity, of the changes introduced at different periods, and of 
what is called the lapidary style or manner of writing. We should be able by 
means of historical information to compare the contents of the inscriptions 
with the circumstances of the persons, the times and the occasions mentioned. 
We must be qualified also to appreciate with exactness and impartiality the 
proofs and explanations, that may be drawn from particular inscriptions. 

Respecting the abbreviations used, consult Scip. Maffei, Graecorum Siglse lapidarise collects 
atque explicate. Veron. 1746. 8.— Also the works already cited § 87. 

§ 90 t. From the multitude of ancient Greek inscriptions, which 
have been discovered, copied and explained, we will here mention 
only some of the more interesting and important. We notice first 
such as are of a date prior to Alexander, B. C. 336. 

1 u. The Fourmont inscriptions ; on marbles discovered by the Abbe Four- 
mont at Sklabochori (Sclavo-Chorio), the ancient Amyclee, in the year 1728. 
More than forty were found among the ruins of a temple of Apollo ; of these 
one is the celebrated Amyclaean Inscription. That which goes under this 
name, consists of two tablets which may, or may not have been connected, 
and is in the manner of writing called povOTQotptjdov. The tablets contain 
merely a list of the names of Grecian priestesses. The precise date cannot 
be fixed, but most probably the inscription may be referred back to about 1000 
B. C. There have been doubts, however, respecting the genuineness of this 
and the other inscriptions. They are regarded as authentic by Scholl and 
Raoul-Rochette. 

See Mem, de FAcad. des. Inscr. vol. xiv. p. 101. an account, by De Fourmont, of inscription^ 
found on three bucklers in the temple of Apollo ; and vol. xxin, p. 394. on the inscription con- 
taining a list of Grecian priestesses, by Barthelemy. — Heyne's Sammlung antiquar. Aufsaetze, 
St. i.—JVouv. Traite de Dipt. T. i. — Knight's Ess. on Gk. Alph. § vi. — BoecWs Corpus. Inscr. 
Grsec. — Count Aberdeen in Th. WalpoWs Memoirs relat. to Europ. and Asiat. Turkey. — Raoul- 
Rochette, Deux le^tres a myl. Comte d'Aberdeen sur l'authenticite des Inscr. de Fourmont. Par, 
1819. 4 Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 243. 

2. The Elian inscription ; on a brazen or copper tablet found by Sir W. 
Gellj in 1813, under ground, in the region of Olympia in Elis. It is a treaty 
of alliance between the Elians and the Heraeans, in the iEolic dialect. The 
date is supposed to be about 615 B.C. It presents the iEolic digarnma, the 
Elians being named FAJEIOI. 

Museum Crit. Cambridge, vol. i. p. 535. — Class. Journal, vol. xi. 348. xm. p. 113. xxiv. p. 
104.— Lond, Quart. Rev. xm. 349. — Schoall, Hist. Litt. Grecque. livre n. ch. i. 

3. The inscription of Midas ; upon a very ancient monument, situated near 
the village of Doganlu, in Phrygia, probably near the ancient Nacoleia, about 
30 leagues east of the ancient Cotyseum. It is a sepulchral monument dug 
in the rock, and ornamented with a facade of very singular construction, near 
70 feet in height. It bears two inscriptions, written from right to left They 
are in Pelasgic characters, as far as appears. Travelers have been able to de- 
cipher only certain words, among which are 311 J Al and FANAKTE1, to 
king Midas, which would seem to indicate a tomb of one of the kings of thia 
name. The princes bearing this name reigned between 737 and 560 B. C. 
The Phrygian kings appear to have borne alternately the names of Midas and 
Gordius. It is worthy of remark, that, at the point where the facade of thia 
monument terminates, there is an ornament of striking appearance, which 
represents a kind of knot, and at once calls to mind the famous Gordian knot. 



See Schmll Hist. Litt. Gr, lib. in. ch. vii.— R. Walpole, Travels in various countries of the 
East. Lond. 1820. 

4 u. The Sigeean inscription. This was found upon a piece of marble sup- 
posed to have once supported a statue. It has its name from the promontory 
and town of Sigoeum, near ancient Troy, where it was discovered by Sherard, 
English Consul at Smyrna, near a village church. This inscription is written 
in the manner called povarQoytjdbv. It specifies a gift of three vessels (xqcct^q, 
vtcoxqcitSiQiov, 7j6fibg), made by Phanodicus to the Prytanes or magistrates 
of Sigseum. It is referred to the period between 500 and 600 B. C. 

See Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. — Chandler, Inscrip. Antiq. — JVouv. Traite de Diplom. — ShucJcford's 



INSCRIPTIONS. 49 

£ae. and Prof. Hist, connected, bk. ly. — The marble is now in London in the collection of Lord 
•Elgin. — Schcell, Hist. Litt. Gr. lib. m. ch. vii — Catalogue raisonne des. Inscr. de la collect, de 
myl. Comte Elgin, no. 53.— Cf. § 87. 

There is a second Sigaean inscription, belonging to a later period, B. C. 278, which may be 
mentioned here. It was discovered by Lord E. W. Montagu, on a cippus of marble, connect- 
ed with the walls of the same church before which the first was found. It is a decree of the 
senate and people of Sigaeum in honor of Antiochus Soter king of Syria and his spouse. See 
Chandler, Antiq, Asiat. p. 49. 

5. The inscription called the Teian malediction (Teiorum Dirce) ; by this 
inscription found upon a stone lying in the environs of Bodrion, the ancient 
Teos, the Teians devote to the infernal deities the persons whoever may in- 
jure them by resisting their magistrates, plundering their territories, or hin- 
dering foreigners from bringing them grain. An anathema is also directed 
against those who may deface the inscription. It is worthy of notice that the 
letters are termed cpoivixtjia. Its date is placed by Scholl between 450 and 
500 B. C. 

See Schcell t Hist. Litt. Gr. lib. in. ch. vii. — Chiskull, Antiq. Asiat. 

6. We may place nest in rank several obituary inscriptions ; as (a) that on 
the tables of Pentelican marble found by Galland, 1678, in a church in Athens ; 
called sometimes the inscription of Nointel, because they were sent by him to 
Paris ; called also the marble of Baudelot because once possessed by him ; of 
a date about 458 B. C. and in honor of warriors that had fallen in different 
places : (b) an inscription in six distichs on a monument belonging to Lord 
Elgin ; in honor of the Athenians slain at Potideea when their general Callias, 
B. C. 432, defied the Corinthians under Aristasus and purchased victory by 
death : (c) that on a large slab of marble in the collection of Elgin ; supposed 
by Visconti to be a catalogue of the Athenian warriors who fell in the battle 
of Delium, B. C. 424, in which Socrates is said to have saved the life of Xeno- 
phon ; according to Osann, it refers to different battles. 

(a) JVouv. Traite de Diplom. T. i. p. 633.— Lenoir's Museum of French Monuments, Trans- 
lated by Griffith, Par. 1803. 8. p. 73. with an engraving of the monuments as they are adjusted 
after the designs of A. Lenoir, and of the titles in Ionic characters which are upon them. — ULtr- 
seum Crit. Cambridge, No. vi. p. 394. — Desc. des Antiques du Musee royal, par Visconti, et le 
comte de Clarac. Par. 1820. p. 105.— (b) E. Q. Visconti, Lettre du chev. A. Canova, et deux 
memoires sur les ouvrages de sculpture dans le collect, de myl. c. d'Elgin. Loud. 1816. — Class. 
Journal, vol. xiv. p. 1857 — (c) Visconti, Catal. raisonne, &c. as cited § 87.— Published in D 
Clarke's Travels through various countries of the East. vol. vi. p. 368. — Osant^ SylJoge, &c 
(as cited § 87) p. 20. 

7. Next may be mentioned a number of financial inscriptions : (a) that dis- 
covered by Chandler in the citadel of Athens, with the letters arranged otoi- 
XK^"'^ on a mutilated stone, the remaining fragment of which was conveyed 
to England by Lord Elgin ; detailing the expenses of the state for a full year, 
B. C. 424 or 414, as differently assigned by the critics : (b) that on the stone 
called the Marble of Choiseul, sometimes of Barthelemy, now in the royal 
Museum ; containing an account of the finances of the republic for the year 
B. C. 410 ; on the reverse of the same marble are two other inscriptions, also 
relating to finances : (c) several inscriptions among those, for which we are 
indebted to Fourmont, relating to the finances of Athens : (d) several inscrip- 
tions, pertaining to the condition or treasures of certain Athenian temples, as 
the Parthenon and others : (e) the inscription upon what is called the Sand- 
wich marble, brought from Athens to London, 1739, by the earl of Sandwich ; 
it is an account of monies due to the temple of Apollo at Delos, and of the 
expenses of the Theoria or deputation of the Athenians, and is of the year 376 
B. C. 

(a) Chandler, Ins. Ant. P. n. No. 2. lug. Boeckh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener. BerL 

1817. vol. n. p. 182. (b) Barthelemy, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. et Belles-lett. vol. xlviii. 

p. 337, with a plate showing the inscription. iug. Boeckh, as just cited. — (c) Boeckh, ibid. — 

(d) TV. Wilkins, Atheniensia, or Remarks on Topog. and Build, of Athens. Lond. 1816. p. 192. 
■ — Chandler, Insc. Ant. — Boeckh, Staatsh. &c. — (e) Taylor, Commentar. ad Marmor. Sandwicense. 
Cantab. 1743. 4. Class. Journ. xi. 184. — Barthelemy, in his Trav. of Anacharsis, ch. lxxvi. note 
13. 

8. Finally, in speaking of inscriptions previous to the time of Alexander, we 
will refer to the two metrical inscriptions, discovered in 1810, near Athens. 

One of these is upon a marble cippus, in memory of a hero, Python of Megara, who having 
slain seven foes with his own hand, led back through Bceotia"(then hostile to Athens) tin 
Athenian tribes, who owned him as their deliverer. It is anterior to Alexander, perhaps about 
B. C. 356, consisting of nine hexameters, one pentameter, and a fragment of another line, with 

5 



50 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

the verses not separated, if we may trust to the copy sent to Paris by the French consul M, Faii-^ 
vel, and not even the words distinguished. 

The other is of uncertain date ; upon a sheet of lead, folded four times in the length and three 
times in the hreadth (its dimensions not given by Fauvel) ; found in a tomb ; containing a for- 
mula of incantation or enchantment against a certain Ctesias and his family, dooming them to 
the infernal deities. "Visconti declares that nothing like this singular monument has been found 
among palaeographic relics. Tacitus, speaking (Annul, n. 69.) of the evidence on which Piso 
was charged with causing the death of Germanicus, says that in the house of the latter were 
found fragments of human bodies, not quite consumed to ashes, with magic verses, the name 
of Germanicus graved on plates of lead, an||b. variety of those spells which, according to the 
vulgar opinion, are of potency to devote the souls of the living to the infernal gods." 

See Memoires de L'Mst. Roy. de Franc. Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Ancienne, vol. i. (publ. Par. 1815) 
p. 230. where the two inscriptions are given. — Cf. Schmll, Hist. Litt. Grecque, livre in. ch. vii, 

§ 91t. Of inscriptions which belong to later periods in the history 
of the Greeks, a greater number have been discovered. We will now 
mention some, engraved between the time of Alexander and the Chris- 
tian era. 

1. The inscription on the pedestal of a statue to Jupiter Urius (Ovqioc). 
The pedestal was found by the English travelers Wheler and Spon, in a private 
m nsion in Chalcedony, and was conveyed to London. The inscription con- 
si ts of four distichs, presenting not only the name of the divinity to whom the 
■statue was erected, but that of the artist also, Philon, son of Antipater, who was 
the one employed by Alexander to execute the statue of Hephgestion. The date 
is of course about 330 B. C. 

This monument is the more interesting on account of its relation to a passage in Cicero (Verr. 
iv. 57). In speaking of the spoliations committed by Verres, he says, there were three celebrated 
statues of Jupiter surnamed by the Greeks Urius, all of the same kind ; one originally found 
in Macedonia, and removed by Flaminius to the Roman Capitol ; another, still standing at the 
entrance of the Thracian Eosphorus (in Ponti ore et angustiis) ; and the third, that seized by 
Verres at Syracuse. These statues have all perished ; but the pedestal above mentioned un- 
doubtedly supported the second of them, which stood at the entrance of the Eosphorus. 

This inscription is found in Chandler, Antiq. Asiat. p. 49. — See also the Miscellanea of Spon.* 

p. 332 ; the voyage of Wheler, p. 269 ; the Analecta of Brunch ; and the Anthology of Jacobs. A 

more correct copy, taken by F. Osann, is inserted in Fr. T. Friedemann and J. D. O. Sabode, 

. Miscellanea max. part, critica. Hildesb. 1822. vol. i. p. 288. — A copy, fac-simile, and English 

translation, are given in Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. iv. 

2zt. The inscriptions on the Herculanean tablets. In 1732, at or near the 
site of the ancient Herculaneum two brazen or copper plates were found below 
the surface of the earth. They are interesting as among the most authentic 
monuments of the Doric dialect. One of the tablets gives the dimensions and 
geometric or geodetic description of a portion of land consecrated to Bacchus,, 
and the contract for it. The second contains the description of another por- 
tion of land pertaining to Minerva Polias. The plates are now in the Museum 
of Portici ; the second is broken into two pieces, one of which was formerly 
conveyed to England. The inscriptions are assigned to a date a little prior to 
B. C. 300. 

See Mich. Maittaire, Fragment. Britannicum tabulse Heracleensis. Nap. 1736.— Alex. Sym. Ma- 
zochi, Commentar. in aeneas tabulas Heracleenses. Nap. 1754. fol. — Winchelmann, Sendschreib. 
von den Herculanisch. Alterthuemern. (Werke, bd. n.) — Heynii, Opusc. Acad. y. ii. p. 233. — 
Webb's Account of a copper plate, &c. discovered near Heraclea. Lond. 1732. 4. — Pettingul, In- 
scription oh the copper table discovered near Heraclea. 1769. 4. 

3. The inscription which may be called the Olbian decree. It is interesting 
as a palaeographic monument of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxinej 
and also as furnishing some historical and geographical facts. It is a fragment, 
of nearly two hundred lines in two distinct parts, of a decree of the senate and 
republic of Olbia, a Greek city on the Hypanis or Bug, in honor of one Pro- 
tegenes, magistrate and benefactor of the city. It is engraved on a cippus of 
marble, which is preserved at Stolnoie, in the government of Tchernigov, Rus- 
sia. Its date is not certain, but has been placed between 278 and 250 B. C. 

The inscription was published by P. de Kaeppen, in the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur. vol. 
xx. 1822.— also in the work, JYordgestade des Pontus, Wien. 1823. 8.— It appeared likewise under 
the title Olbisches Psephisma zu Ehren des Protegenes. Wien. 1823. 8. — Malte Erun has a trans- 
lation of it in French, with corrections and observations, in the Annates des Voyages, vol. xx. 
p. 132. 

4u. The inscription called the Chronicon Parium, in the collection of Arun- 
delian or Oxford Marbles, brought to England from the island of Paros, by 
Thomas Howard earl of Arundel, and given by him to the University of Ox- 
ford. It is a monument of great value in reference to Grecian Chronology, as 



INSCRIPTIONS. 51 

<; it fixes the dates of the most remarkable events from the time of Cecrops 
down to the age of Alexander the Great." Its date is supposed to be about 
268 B. C. 

The editors Selden, Prideaux, and Mattaire (cited below), have made learned researches up- 
on this subject ; so also Palmerius, in his work eutitled Exercitat. in Auctores Gzcecos. Ultraj. 
1694. 4. — Robertson has endeavored to raise doubts concerning the authenticity of these inscrip- 
tions, in a work entitled The Parian Chronicle, with a dissertation concerning its authenticity. 
Lond. 1788. 8. In opposition to this, see Hewlett's Vindication of the authenticity of the Parian 
Chronicle. Lond. 1788. 8. ; Parson's Review of Robertson's Dissertation, inihe Monthly Review, 
1789. p. 690. : R. Gough, Vindication <fcc. in Arclwologia (as cited §242. 3.) vol. ix. p. 1*57. ; and 
F.C. Wagner, Die Parische Chronik. Gob«.1790. 8. — The Chronicle was first published by Selden, 
Marmora Arundeliana. Lond. 1628. 4. ; afterwards by Prideaux, Marmora Oxoniensia. Oxon. 
1676. fol. ; Mattaire, Marmora Oxoniensia. Lond. 1732. fol. Append. 1733. ; Chandler, Marmora 
Oxoniensia. Oxon. 1763. fol. The latest edition is by W. Roberts. Oxf. 1791. The inscription 
is found with an English version in Hale's Analysis of Chronology. It is given also in Jlf. Rus- 
sell, Connection of Sac and Prof. Hist. Lond. 1827. 2d vol. p. 381, with a specimen of the man- 
ner of writing, p. 337. 

" The Anuidelian marbles sufficiently prove for what a variety of purposes inscriptions on 
stone were used among the ancients. Some of the inscriptions on them record treaties ; others, 
the victories or good qualities and deeds of distinguished persons ; others, miscellaneous events. 
Most of them, however, are sepulchral. By far the most important and celebrated is the Parian 
Chrouicle." [Libr. of Useful Knowledge, Life of Caxton.] 

5. We may notice here the Milesian inscription. It was found and copied 
by W. Sherard. among the ruins of a temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus. 
It is a letter of Seleucus Callinicus, king of Syria, and his brother Antiochus 
Hierax. king of Asia, addressed to the overseers of the temple, when (243 B. C.) 
they had made peace with Ptolemy Euergetes I. king of Egypt. It is accom- 
panied with a catalogue of presents consecrated by them to the god. 

See Ckishull, Antiq. Asiat. p. 65. — Schadl, Litt. Gr. lib. iv. ch. xxvi. 

6. The inscription of Cyretia?. It was discovered in the valley of Titaresius, 
not far from Larissa in Thessaly, by Col. Leake, who published a notice of it 
in the year 1815. It is interesting as a monument referring to the Roman con- 
quests in Greece. It is a letter of Titus Quintius Flaminius, addressed to the 
people of Cyretise, bestowing certain favors upon them. It is without date, 
but is assigned to about 195 B. C. 

This inscription was published by Visconti in the Journal des Savans. 1816. p. 21. — Also by 
Leake in the Classical Journal. Cf. vol. xm. p. 158. xiv. p. 339. 

7. One of the most interesting inscriptions is that known by the name of the 
Rosetta Inscription, or the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered during the ex- 
pedition of Bonaparte in Egypt about the year 1800. As a party of French 
troops were digging for the foundations of a fort at Rosetta, they disinterred a 
large block of black basalt, containing the remains of three inscriptions. This 
stone afterwards fell into the hands of the English, and was deposited in the 
British Museum, London. A considerable part of the first inscription was 
wanting ; the beginning of the second and end of the third were mutilated. 
The third only was in Greek. 

It is a sort of decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, its date being 
the year in which he began his reign, B.C. 193. It recounts the memorable deeds of his minori- 
ty, and pledges the erection of a statue to him in every temple ; and what is specially remark- 
able on account of the results to which it has led, adds, that this decree was ordered to be en- 
graved in three different characters, viz. the Greek, the Enchorial (i. e the common Egyptian 
letter), and the Sacred or Hieroglyphic. This triple inscription, therefore, presents a specimen 
of hieroglyphics with an authentic translation ; and is the foundation of the celebrated discove- 
ries of Champollion (§16). The proper names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, occurring in the inscrip- 
tion, furnished the clue, and the phonetic hieroglyphs which form these names were first dis- 
covered. By means of these hieroglyphs, other names of Grecian kings and queens written in 
hieroglyphics were deciphered, and thus at length the value of all the phonetic pictures or signs 
was ascertained. 

For a more full account of the various efforts and steps connected with this discovery,seeSc/we#, 

Hist. Litt. Gr. lib. iv. ch. xxvi. — Scarf's Translation of Grcppo, cited § 16 Amer. Quart. R v. 

No. ii. — For. Quart. Rev. No. vm. xxiy. xxxn. — Edinb. Rev. No. lxxxix. xc. — Supplement to 
Encyclop. Britann. Art. Egypt.— Gf. Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Obs. July, 1836. p. 249. — Marquis Spi- 
neWs Lectures, Lond. 1819. — Count Robiano, Etudes sur l'Ecriture&c. de l'Egypte. Par. 1834. 
— Sliarpe's Egyptian Inscriptions, Lond. 1836. — Jannelli, Tabulae Rosettanae Hieroglyphics <fec. 
Neap.1830. — Jannelli, Fundamenta Hermeneutica Hieroglyphics crypticae veterum gentium &c 
Neap. 1830. Cf. Cullimore,a.s cited § 16. 1. 

The Greek inscription was published by Granville Penn, under the title, The Greek Version 
of the Decree of the Egyptian Priests, &c. from the stone inscribed in the sacred and vulgar 
Egyptain, &c. Lond. 1802. — Subsequently, the three inscriptions were engraved by the London 
Society of Antiquaries, each inscription of its original size. From these engravings, lithographic 
copies were published under the title, Inscriplio perantiqua, &c. in lapide nigro prope Rosettam 
invento, &c. Monachii, 1837. fol. — A copy of the inscription is also contained in F. Schlichte- 
groll, Ueber die bey Rosette gefundene dreyfache Inschrift, Munchen, 1818. 4. 



52 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

8. The inscription on the pedestal of the obelisk of Philae. This stone was discovered by W. 
J. Bankes in 1816 ; and, with the obelisk, was transported to England by Belzoni. Like the 
Rosetta stone, this monument contains also an inscription in hieroglyphics ; which, although 
not a repetition of the Greek, yet has afforded aid in deciphering the hieroglyphic system of the 
Egyptians. The Greek is a memorial addressed to Ptolemy vn. Euegetes and to his wife and 
sister Cleopatra, by the priests of Isis in an island near Philas in the Nile, requesting protec- 
tion for the temple and servants of the goddess against the civil and military officers.— It was 
published in the Journ. des Savans. 1821. p. 657. 1822. p. 212. — Also by Letronne, as cited § 92. 3. 

9. The inscription of the Marbles of Cyzicus. The French Consul, de Pey- 
sonnel, in the latter part of the last century conveyed to France a number of 
marbles, which are known by this name. The exact date of their inscriptions 
is not ascertained ; but they are monuments belonging to the period of the 
Macedonian* supremacy, not long before that of the Romans. The most in- 
teresting of the inscriptions is a decree of the senate and people of Cyzicus, 
passed on the request of three colleges of Priestesses, authorizing the erection 
of a statue in honor of a priestess of Cybele. 

See Count de Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquites, vol. n. p. 193. pi. lix. 

In connection with the marbles of Cyzicus, it may be proper to refer to a marble found at 
the site of ancient Cius, which was near to Cyzicus. It was removed to France by Count de 
Choiseul-Gouffier, and is now in the Royal Museum. The inscription consists of nine hexam- 
eters well preserved and two nearly effaced. The date is uncertain, but belongs to the time of 
the Ptolemies in Egypt ; and the inscription is chiefly interesting as illustrating the connection 
between several of the Egyptian deities and those of the Greeks. 

It was published inaccurately, by Pocockc, Inscrip. p. 30. and by Muratori, Insc, Antiq. T. i. 
p. 75. as cited § 130. Three times by Jacobs, Anthol. vol. xu. p. 298. vol. xm. p. 789. Anthoiogie 
Palatine, vol. n. p. 846.— See also L. J. J. Dubois, Catal. d'Antiques etc. formant la collect, ds 
feu M. le Comte de Choiseul-Gouffier,— Par. 1818. 8. p. 74. J 

10. The Acarnanian inscription. It is on a stone discovered by Pouqueville, 
at Actium, in 1813, and acquired celebrity from its having found a learned ex- 
positor in France. It pertains to the time when the Roman armies appeared in 
Greece. It is a decree of the senate and people of Acarnania, proclaiming 
the brothers, Publius Acilius and Lucius Acilius, as their friends and ben- 
efactors. 

The comments of Boissonade on this inscription are found in his edition of the letters of 
Lucas Holstenius, Paris, 1817. 8. — Cf. also ClassicalJournal. xvn. p. 366. 

11. The inscription called the decree or Psephisma of Cuma. It belongs to 
the time of Augustus. It is a decree of the senate and people of Cuma in 
iEolia, in honor of Lucius Labeo, a Roman citizen, who refused divine honors 
and the title of xriaxng proposed by them, and to whom therefore they deter- 
mined to erect statues and assign the first place at public spectacles. It con- 
sists of sixty lines, and was the largest inscription of the kind known to have 
escaped the ravages of time before the discovery of the Olbian decree noticed 
above (3). 

See Comte de Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquites. vol. n. pi. 58. p. 179. 

§ 92 t. We notice in the last place a few of the Greek inscriptions 
which have been preserved belonging to periods subsequent to the 
Christian era. 

1. That on the tablet called the Marble of Colbert. This tablet is two fee* 
six inches long and one foot six inches wide ; it was found at Athens in the 
1 7th century. The inscription belong to the reign of Tiberius. It is interest- 
ing as it contains a list of the magistrates of Athens, the archon, the basileus or 
king, the polemarch, the thesmothetse, the heralds, &c, who were in office in 
the consulship of Drusus, A. D. 15. 

A faulty copy of this inscription is found in Spoil's Voyage, vol. in. p. 106 ; one more cor- 
rect in Montfaucon, Palsographia Grasca. p. 146. 

2. The inscription respecting the Galatian spectacles. It was discovered by 
T ournefort at Ancyra in Galatia, and belongs also to the reign of Tiberius. 
It commemorates the game and sports given to the people of Galatia during the 
epace of a year. The first part of the inscription, which probably contains 
the date and occasion of the shows, is illegible. 

This inscription may be found also in Montfaucon, Palaeographia Grseca. p. 154. 

3. The Egyptian inscriptions in honor of Roman emperors. Several have 
been discovered ; as (a) that on the portico of the celebrated temple of Isis at 
Tentyra, near modern Denderah, in honor of Augustus (as interpreted by Le- 



INSCRIPTIONS. 53 

tronne) ; (b) that on a temple at Tentyra, dedicated to Venus, in honor of Ti- 
berius; (c) that in honor of Nero found in the vicinity of the Pyramids ; (d) 
those in honor of Trajan, one upon a portico at Chemnis or Panopolis, another 
on a gate of a temple of Isis and Serapis at Cysis, in the grand Oasis ; (e) that 
on the pedestal of the celebrated column called Pompey's Pillar, supposed by 
many to be in honor of Diocletian. 

(a) Hamilton, iEgyptiaca. — Lctronne Recherches pour servir a l'histoire de l'Egypt pendant la 
domination des Grecs et des Romains. Par. 1823. 8. &c. p. 155. — CIiampollion-Figeac, Lettre a M. 
Fourier, sur l'Insc. grecque de Denderah. Grenoble, 1806. — 1m. Quart, vol. iv. (b) jYiebuhr, 
Inscriptions Nubienses. — Letronne, Recherches, &.c. p. 172. — Hamilton, iEgyptiaca, p. 206. — 
(c) Letronne, p. 388. — Quart. Rev. 1821. p. 179. — (d) Letronne, p. 192,210.— ClassicalJournal, 1821. 
— (e) Classical Journal, vol. xm. — E. D. Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. pt. n. § 
ii. ch. vii. — Leake, Greek Inscription Pompey's Pillar, Archceologia (as cited § 240. 3.) vol". 
xv. p. 59. 

4. The inscriptions on the pillars of Herodes Atticus. These two pillars, of 
green marble (cipollinoverde) called by the ancients marble of Carystus, were 
found at the beginning of the 16th century, on the Appian Way , about 3 miles 
from Rome, near the place called Triopium. They were removed to the gar- 
dens of Farnese, and are often called the Farnesian Columns. One of the in- 
scriptions consecrates a certain portion of land to Ceres and Proserpina, and 
the other states that the land was the property of Annia Regilla, the wife of 
Herodes. The former, in which the ancient Athenian manner of writing is 
followed, has occasioned much discussion. The inscriptions belong to the age 
of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; Herodes died A. D. 185. 

These inscriptions are found in Montfaucon, Palaeogr. Graec. lib. n. p. 135 ; — Lanzi, Saggio 
sulla lingua etrusca, pt. i. ch. 6 ; — Iscrizzioni greche Triopee. con versioni ed osservazioni di 22. 
Q. Visconti, Rom. 1794. 4 ; — and in the remains of Herodes Atticus edited by R. Fiorillo, Leipz. 
1801. 8. See also JYouv. Traite de Diplomatique n. p. 634. — Boeckh, Corpus, &c. — Dob soil's Ora- 
ores Attici. vol. iv. (Cf. P. h. $ 119.)— A specimen of the characters, in Spellmann, Transl. pf 
Dionys. Hal. vol. n. p. 300. as cited P. II. § 246. 2. 

There are two other inscriptions, relating to Herodes, which are considered as very elegant. 
They are upon two square tablets of white marble (cipollino bianco), the Pentelican of the an- 
cients, quarries of which are said to have belonged to this distinguished orator. One of them 
was found in 1607, on the Appian way, not far from Rome ; and the other a few years later m 
the same place They are now in the Royal Museum at Paris. The first inscription, in thirty- 
nine hexameters, consecrates a sepulchral field to Minerva and Nemesis ; the second in fifty- 
nine verses celebrates the virtues of Regilla. 

These metrical inscriptions were published by CI. Saumaise (Salmasius), Inscript. Herod, 
Attic. Par. 1619. 4. They are inserted in J. Spon, Miscellanea erud. Antiquitatis. Lugd. 1680. 
4 ] — Montelatici, Descrizzione della Villa Borghese (where the tablets were formerly lodged in 
a small temple). Rom. 1700 ; — Mattaire Miscell. graec. aliquot. Scriptorum Carmina. Lond. 
1723. 4 ; — and in the Anthologies of Brunck and Jacobs. 

5. The Nubian inscriptions. We refer particularly to those designated by 
the names of Monument of Jldulis, Monument of Jlzum,a.nd Memorial of Silco. 
They are chiefly interesting as they evince an intercourse between the Greeks 
and Christians of Constantinople and the countries of Abyssinia and Nubia in 
the third or fourth century. 

The Monument of Jldulis designates two inscriptions, which were first described by the geo- 
grapher Cosmas (Cf. P. II. § 207) as existing at Adulis. One of them was upon a throne or 
armed chair of white marble. The other was upon a tablet of basanite ((iaaurirou) or touch- 
stone, placed near the chair. The latter related to the conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes. Cos- 
mas supposed both to refer to the same monarch ; the inscriptions, as thus presented by him, 
have seemed to critics to involve such difficulties as to justify them, since the monument itself 
is not now found, in charging Cosmas with credulity or imposture. But the discovery, in re- 
cent times, of the Monument of Axum is thought to have removed the difficulty, as it has sug- 
gested the idea that the inscriptionfon the chair did not reler to Ptolemy, but to a Nubian or Ethio- 
pian prince as late perhaps as the third century. — The Monument of Axum is an inscription 
which was found among the ruins of Axum (Cf. P. V. § 178.) by Mr. Salt, who accompanied 
Lord Valentia in his travels in these regions. It commemorates the victories gained by a 
brother of king Aizanas over a rebellious nation, and furnishes evidence of an intercourse in 
the fourth century between Constantinople and Abyssinia. — The Memorial of Silco was found 
on a temple in upper Ethiopia. It is in honor of the victories of Silco, a king of Nubia and 
Ethiopia ; a long inscription, and interesting particularly from its reference to the introduction 
of Christianity into these regions. 

The two inscriptions of Adulis were published as one, by L. Allatius, Rom. 1631. 4. before 
the Topography of Cosmas had been printed. — They are given in Chishull as cited $ 87. — The 
"best text is by Buitmann ; see the Museum der Alterthums-Wissenschaft. vol. n. — Salt's Travels 
in Abyssinia. — The inscription of A x u m is published in the Travels of Lord Valentia. — Also 
in the Clan. Journ. vol. i. p. 83. Cf. in. 117.— Lond. Quart. Rev. u. llQ.—De Saey, sur in- 
scription d'Axuin, in Malte-Brun's Annales des voyages, vol. xn. p. 330.— The inscription of 
Silco is given in B. C. Niebuhr, Inscript. Nubienses". Rom. 1820. 4.— Letronne, Examen de 
1'inscript. grecque dans le temple de Talmi>, &c. par le roi Nubien Silco, in the Men. de I'ln- 
stitnt, C 1 a s s e d'Histoire et Lit. Andenne. vol. ix. p. 123.— Cf. Gau. Antiq. de la .Nubia, cited 
$, 242. 3. 

5* 



54 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

(b) Coins and Medals. 

§ 93. An acquaintance with ancient coins affords assistance in the 
pursuits of classical literature in several ways. We shall here con- 
sider them chiefly with respect to the inscriptions they bear. In this 
point of view, the Grecian coins, which now remain, present some 
of the most ancient specimens of Greek written characters, and serve 
for evidences of the different changes these have undergone. But 
coins and medals may also, by the inscriptions, legends, and impres- 
sions on them, cast very considerable light upon language, criticism, 
history, geography, chronology, and even natural history. 

1. " Such a number of events have been recorded by ancient medals," says- 
Priestly in his Lectures on History, " and so great has been the care of the 
moderns, in collecting and preserving them, that they now give great light to 
history. It is remarkable that history scarce makes any mention of Balbec, 
or Palmyra, whose ruins are so famous ; and we have little knowledge of them 
but what is supplied by inscriptions. It is by this means that Mr. Vaillant 
has disembroiled a history which was lost to the world before his time. For 
out of a short collection of medals he has given us an entire chronicle of the 
kings of Syria." 

See ./. F. Vaillant, Seleucidarum Imperium, sive Historia Regum Syria, ad Fidem Numis- 
matum aecommodata. Hagae Com. 1732. fol. Par. 1681. — The same author attempted the 
elucidation of Parthian and Egyptian history by the aid of coins and medals ; J. F. Vaillant, 
Arsacidarum Imperium, sive Regum Parthorum Historia, &c. Par. 1728. 8. — By same, HistCK 
ria Ptolemeeorum J3gypti Regum. Amst. 1701. fol. — He also wrote upon Roman coins ; see 
$138. 

2. A peculiar source of interest to the fancy in studying medals is furnished 
by the various symbols impressed upon them. Some of these symbols repre- 
sent the ancient deities; e. g. the laurel is a symbol of Apollo, ivy and grape 
of Bacchus, the poppy of Proserpine, corn of Ceres, the olive and also the otol 
of Minerva, the dove of Venus, a torch of Diana. Other symbols represent 
countries or cities, as pomegranate floioers, Rhodes; owl, Athens ; tortoise, 
Peloponnesus ; wolfs head, Argos ; buWs head, Bceotia ; crescent, Byzantium. 
Others represent abstract 'qualities or offices ; as a caduceus, peace ; a cornu- 
copia, abundance ; an altar, piety ; the lituus, or twisted xvand, augurship ; 
the apex, or cap with strings, Pontificate. — See the coins represented in 
Plate II. 

3. " Medals have likewise been a means of transmitting to us a more perfect knowledge of 
many things which we are desirous of forming an idea of, than any history, by means of ver- 
bal description, could possibly give us. We find upon them traces of customs and manners, 
the figures of ancient buildings, instruments, habits, and a variety of things which show the 
state of the arts and conveniences of life, in the age wherein the medals were struck ; and 
many things, in nature which historians have passed unnoticed,, as being familiar in the times 
in which they wrote, or have omitted as not being aware that they would ever engage the cu- 
riosity of after ages. 

" It is also very amusing to view upon medals the features of the great men of antiquity ; 
which, if they were struck in an age in which the arts flourished, as is the case with many of 
the Soman, and particularly of the Grecian medals, we can have no doubt but that they are 
sufficiently exact. And even if they were struck in an age which did not excel in the arts of 
painting, statuary, and carving ; yet, as faces are chiefly drawn upon coins in profile, any pe^ 
son who has taken notice of shadows, may conceive that a very striking likeness may easily 
be hit off in that way. However, in general, so extremely exact are the drawings of most 
single objects upon the old medals of the best ages, that even those famous painters Raphael, 
Le P.ruyn, and Rubens T thought it worth their while thoroughly to study them, and preserve 
cabinets of them. And indeed the generality of figures on many of the Grecian medals have 
a design, an attitude, a force, and a delicacy, in the expression even of the muscles and veins 
of human figures, and they are supported by so high a relief, that they infinitely surpass both 
the Roman medals and most of the moderns." (Priestly, as above cited. ' Lect. vi.) 

§ 94. We cannot determine, with certainty, either the precise time 
when money was first coined in Greece, nor the country where it 
was first introduced. Ancient writers differ in their accounts. The 
point of precedence has been asserted by different authors in favor 
of the Lydians, the vEginetans, the Thessalians, and the Phoenicians, 
as being the first, who used coined money. 



PLATE II. 




56 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

1 u. Homer makes no mention of coined money ; which renders it probable 
that during the age of this poet, or at least in the time of the Trojan war, 
such money did not exist, and that exchanges were made by barter, or by the 
use of pieces of metal, whose weight and value were determined at each ex- 
change, or by the merchant's mark. The earliest notice of such a use of 
metal is in a passage of Genesis (xxiii. 16) referring to the bargain which 
Abraham made with king Abimelech, for a portion of land. 

2. The Lydians, says Mitford, " were the first people known to the Greeks 
to have exercised retail trades, and the first who struck coins of gold and sil- 
ver. Coins are singularly adapted to convey to late ages and distant coun- 
tries exact information of the progress of art and taste ; and the exact coins 
of the Lydian kings, the oldest known to exist, exhibit remarkable proofs of 
the elegant taste and excellent workmanship of their early era." 

See Wachteri, Archaeologia numaria. Lip. 1740. 4.—Eckhel, Doctrina Num. "Vet. Proleg. 
cap. iii. cited § 99. 1.— John's Heb. Antiquities, by Upham, $ 115.— Kecren's Reflect, p. 193, as 
cited $ 40. 

§ 95. Of the Grecian coins still existing, some authors regard 
those of Phidon, king of Argos, who lived shortly after the time of 
Homer, as of the highest antiquity. Strabo (lib. viii.) and the Arun- 
delian Marbles testify that this king coined money in the island of 
iEgina. But it is doubtful whether the silver coins stamped with his 
name, of which there is one in the royal collection at Berlin, were 
struck during, his reign, or after his death for the purpose of perpet- 
uating his memory. 

lu. The coins of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, who lived about the time of 
Cyrus, if genuine, may be considered as among the most ancient which 
have been preserved. The characters which we find upon their reverse, 
B.AMIMTUY.M. (cf. Plate II. fig. 4), may be explained thus, fluaiMw$ 
jluiurov Maxsdovwv. A golden Cyrenaic coin of Demonax, who was sent 
from Mantinea to settle the affairs Cyrene, in the time of Pisistratus, would 
be still more ancient, had it not the appearance of being a medal stamped at a 
later period as a memorial. 

2u. When the characters upon Grecian coins are found written from right 
to left, it is quite probable that they are of high antiquity, particularly when 
the devices upon them show a rude state of art. Of this class there are a 
number of coins of certain cities in Magna Groecia, as Sybaris, Caulonia, Po- 
sidonia, and some ancient Sicilian coins from the^ cities Leontium, Messina, 
Segesta, and Syracuse. But there are many coins bearing the names of The- 
seus, Achilles, Hector, Ulysses, &c. which are certainly not of a very ancient 
stamp. 

See W. Jacob, Histor. Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the Precious metals* 
Lond. 1631. 2 vols. 8. (Vol. i. p. 145.) 

3. The following table, from the British Encyclopedia, presents a chrono- 
logical classification of ancient Greek coins. 

"1. Those without impression. — 2. With one or more hollow indented marks on one 
side, and an impression in relief on the other. — Of Chalcedon on the Hellespont, Les- 
bos, Abdera in Thrace, Acanthus in Macedon, those said to belong to iEgium in Achaia or 
.ffigina, having the figure of the tortoise. This class continues from about 900 to 700 B. C. — 
3. With an indented square divided into segments, having a small figure in one of them, the 
rest blank, with a figure in relief on the obverse. — Of Syracuse and other places adjacent. — 
Continue from 700 to 600 B. C. — 4. Coins hollow on the reverse, with figures in relief on the 
obverse. — Of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, &c. Supposed by some to be a local coinage 
of Magna Graecia ; but probably of equal antiquity with the former. —5. Coins in which a 
square die is used on one side or both sides. — Of Athens, Cyrene, Argos, &c. — Of Alexan- 
der I. and Archelaus I. of Macedon. Disused in the reign of the latter about 420 B. C. — 
6. Complete coins, both in obverse and reverse, occur first in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 
491 B. C. — Coins of Alexander the Great and. his successors. About the time of this hero the 
Greek coins began to attain to perfection, and were struck of uncommon beauty. It is re- 
markable, that on the coins of this monarch his own image seldom occurs. After his death 
many coins bore his portrait. Trebellius Pollio informs us, that some coins, particularly 
those of Alexander, used to be worn as amulets ; and many medals are met with in cabinets 
bored seemingly with that intention. — 8. Coins of the successors of Alexander. — Those of 
the Syrian monarchs almost equal the coins of Alexander himself in beauty. The Egyptian 
Ptolemies are somewhat inferior. — 9. The coins of the Arsacidae of Parthia done by Greek 
workmen. — 10. The Greek imperial coins, being such as have the head of an emperor or ein- 



COINS AND MEDALS. 57 

press ; such as have not these impressions being classed with the civic coins, though struck 
under the Roman power. None of the imperial coins occur in gold. Of silver there are those 
of Antioch, Tyre,*Sidon, Tarsus, Berytus, C;csarea. The Greek imperial brass coins are very 
numerous. A series of almost all the emperors may be had from those of Antioch, with a 
Latin legend on the obverse and Greek on the reverse." 

§ 96. The number of Grecian coins of gold now existing, is not 
great ; probably there is not one Attic gold coin whose genuineness 
can be proved ; but their variety in size and denomination, together 
with the testimony of authors, is evidence that many were struck. 
They bore the general name of y^vahq sniorjuog, gold stamped. Of 
silver coins we have a very large number, of different values. The 
most ancient of both kinds, have the purest metal. Ordinary small 
coin, as well as memorial devices, were made of copper ; and at La- 
cedemon and Byzantium, of iron. 

1m. The largest coin in common use, was the Stater, and the smallest the 
Lepton. One of the brazen or copper pieces of middling size, in most com- 
mon circulation, was the Chalcus, of which the Lepton was but the seventh 
part. Of golden coins the Chrysus (^ot-ooO?, supp. otut^q) was one of those 
most in use. The Medallions, or pieces which were distributed as tokens of 
gratitude or flattery, at public games or other solemn festival occasions, were 
of a large size and usually of finer execution. 

2. A great number of ancient coins have been discovered. One reason of 
their preservation was the custom, which the ancients had of burying one or 
more coins with their dead, to pay Charon for their passage over the Styx. 
(Cf. P. III. § 34.) 

" From Phidon of Argos to Constantine I. are 36 generations ; and from Magna Graecia to 
the Euphrates, from Cyrene to the Euxine Sea, Grecian arts prevailed and the inhabitants 
amounted to about 30,01)0,000. There died, therefore, in that time and region, not less than 
ten thousand millions of people, all of whom had coins of one sort or other buried with them. 
The tombs were sacred and untouched ; and afterwards neglected, till modern curiosity oj 
chance began to disclose them. The urn of Flavia Valentina, in Mr Townley's capital collec- 
tion, contained seven brass coins of Antoninus Pius and Eleagabalus. Such are generally 
black, from being burnt with the dead. The best and freshest coins were used on these occa- 
sions, from respect to the dead ; and hence their fine conservation. At Syracuse a skeleton 
was found in a tomb, with a beautiful gold coin in its mouth ; and innumerable other instan- 
ces might be given, for hardly is a funeral urn found without coins. Other incidents also con- 
spire to furnish us with numbers of ancient coins, though the above recited circumstances be 
the chief cause of perfect conservatiou. In Sicily, the silver coins with the head of Proser- 
pine were found in such numbers as to weigh 600 French livres or pounds. In the 16th cen- 
tury, 60,000 Roman coins were found at Modena, thought to be a military chest, hid after the 
battle of Bedriacum, when Otho was defeated by Vitellius. Near Brest, in the year 1760, be- 
tween 20 and 30,000 Roman coins were found." 

Yet the number of different coins preserved is not so great as might perhaps be expected 
from the above remarks. The whole number of ancient coins of different impressions is es- 
timated by Pinkerton at 80,000, and by Eckhel at 70,000 ; and as many of these differ from 
each other but very little, a collection of 30,000 might lay claim, it is said, to considerable 
completeness. The whole number of Greek and Roman coins has been estimated at about 
50,000, including about 3,000 of gold, and 6,000 of silver with 31,000 of brass or copper.— Cf. 
5 135. 2. 

§ 97. The inscriptions, particularly upon the more ancient coins, 
are ordinarily very brief and simple, containing only the names of 
the cities or princes that struck them, and often only their initials. 
Upon the coins of the later Asiatic monarchs, the inscriptions are 
more full. They are placed sometimes around the border of the 
piece, sometimes in the center of the reverse ; sometimes upon both 
sides of a figure, a head, vessel, or the like ; sometimes at the bot- 
tom, within a segment, a section line, or what is called the exergue. 
Inscriptions filling the whole of the reverse, are very rarely found on 
Greek coins. 

1. What is meant by the exergue, as above mentioned, is readily perceived 
by recurring to an example. Thus, in the medal which our Plate III. pre- 
sents, in rig. 6, the word Britannia is the legend; the segment at tho 
bottom, which includes the inscription S. C, is the exergue. 



68 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

2m. Upon some Grecian coins we find Phoenician characters, or at least, 
such as bear much resemblance to them. The character x is put for the let- 
ter Z sometimes, and sometimes for £. Instead of S\ we find also the char- 
acter Z. Upon the most ancient coins the 2 often has the form M,and 
on those of later times the form C or C. And C is frequently used for P, the 
combination CIO for & j and the character □ for O ; E is put for H (the 
latter being employed merely as an aspirate) ; O for OY ; 2 for Z ; X for 
K. Upon many coins, especially those of later dates, both under the eastern 
and western emperors, we find a combination of Greek and Latin characters. 
For instance, we sometimes find S instead of the Greek C, R instead of P } F 
instead of <f>. 

§ 98. There are Greek inscriptions not only upon the coins of 
the states of Greece which were struck while they were in posses- 
sion of their liberty, or under the government of Grecian masters, 
but also upon the coin of the Greek cities and provinces after their 
subjugation by the Romans, and likewise upon the later coins of 
Sicily and Magna Grrecia. This renders a knowledge of the Greek 
language the more indispensable to every amateur in collecting med- 
als and coins. — The coins of Greek cities under the Roman domin- 
ion sometimes have on one side a Greek inscription and on the 
other Latin. 

§ 99u. Of the works upon Numismatics, such, that is, as will serve for an 
introduction to the science of coins and medals, or contain copies of the coins* 
and the necessary explanations, we will mention here some of the principal \ 
including such as treat of Roman as well as Grecian coins. 

1. Among the more extensive works are the following. — Ez. Spanhemii Dissertationes de 
praestantia usu Numismatum antiquorum. Lond. et Amsterd. 1717. 2 vols. fol. — Jolt. Eckhel 
Doctrina Numorum Veterum. Vindob. 1792. ss. 8 vols. 4. — J. C. Rasche, Lexicon Universae 
Rei Nmnariae Veterum. Lips. 1785. ss. 10 vols. 8. 

2. The following treat the subject less fully. — J. Evelyn, on Medals Antient and Modern. 
Lond. 1697. fol. — Z. Jobert, La Science des medailles antiques et modernes, avec des rem. 
hist, et crit (par J. Bimard de la Bastle). Par. 1739. 2 vols. 8. — J. C. Rasche, Kenntniss antiker 
Muenzen, nach den Grunusaten des P. Jobert und des Urn. de la Bastie, mit neuen Verbesser- 
ungen. Numb. 1778-79. 3 Th. 8. — (Fr. Ant. Zaccaria), Istituzione antiquario — numismatica o 
sia Introduz. alio studio degli antiche Medaglie. Rom. 1772. 8. (2. Ediz. accresciuta di una let- 
tera del P. Paciaudi. Venet. 1793. 8.)— Erasm Fralich, Notitia eiementaria numismatum. 
Cum figg. Viennae 1758. A.— Ejusd. Utiiitas Rei Numariae Veteris, compendio proposita. (9. 
n. Debiel). Viennae. 1733. 8. — Ejusd. Guatuor Tentamina in lie Numaria Vetere. Vienn. 
1737. A.—Pinkerton, Essay on Medals. Lond. 1789. 2 vols. (Very valuable). Cf. Lond. Quart. 
Rev. i. 112.— Virtuoso'' s companion and coin collector's Guide. Lond. 1797. 12. — F. Schlichte- 
groll, Annalen der gesammten Numismar.ik. Leipz. and Gothe, 1804. 1806. 2 vols. 4. — By the 
same, Geschichte des Studiums der alter Muenzkunde. Munchen, 1811. 4. — C.L. Stiegiitz, Arch- 
aeologische Unterhaltungen. Leipz. 1820. 8. (2d div. treats of Ancient coins).— D. Sestini, ' 
Classes genera! es seu moneta veins urbium, pop. et regum, ordine geogr. et chronol. descripta. 
edit. 2d. Florent. 1821. 4. — Ackerman, Numasmatic Manual. Lond. 1832. 12. 

3. Of works with plates, including Greek coins, the following are among the most impor- 
tant.— Hubcrti Ooltzii, de Re Numaria Antiqua Opera quae extant Universa. Antwerp. 1708. 
5 vols, fol.— JV. F. Haym, Tessoro Britanico, overo Museo Numario. Lond. 1719. 20. 2 vols. 4. 
— A. F. Gorli Museum Fiorentinum, as cited § 191. vol. 4th.— Io, lac. Gesneri, Numismata 
Graeca regum atque virorum illust. c. commentario. Tiguri, 1738. fol. — Ejusd. Numismata 
Graeca populorum et urbium. ibid. 1739. fol.— Ejusd. Numismata Regum Macedoniae. ib. 1738. 
fol. — Pelhrin, Recueil des medailles des Rois des peuples et des villes, avec les Supplemens. 
Par. 1762. 78. 10 vols. 4.— Mag-nan, Miscellanea Numismatica. Romae, 1774. 4 vols. A.—Milli- 
ffen, Recueil de quelques Medailles Grecques inedites. Par. 1812. — T. E. Mionnet, Description 
de medailles antiques, Grecques et romains. Paris, 1806-13. 6 vols. 8. Supplement, Paris, 
1819-22. 2 vols. 8. " containing more than 20,000 impressions of medals." ( Ventouillac, French 
Librarian, p. 310). — C. P. Landon, Numismatiques de Voyage der jeune Anacharsis, ou Me- 
dailles der beau terns de la Grece. Par. 1818. 2 vols. 8.—Barthelemy, Essai d'une Paleographie 
Numismatique. Mem. Acad. Inscr. Vol. xxiv. p. 30. xlvii. p. 140. — For other references, see Sui- 
ter's Allg. Theor. article Schaumuenze. 

(c) Manuscripts. 

§ 100. We must consider the copies of the prose and poetical 
writings of the Greeks as among the most valuable monuments of 
their literature. By means of these we are made acquainted, not 



MANUSCRIPTS. 59 

only with their history, but also with their whole genius and charac- 
ter, and with the most valuable models in every variety of style. It 
is to the discovery of these, that we are, in great measure, indebted 
for the revival of letters. — Although most of the Greek writings ex- 
tant have already been published and circulated by means of the 
press, yet the different manuscripts which are in our possession, and 
particularly the more ancient, are of much value and utility to the 
critic. 

§ 101. In point of antiquity, inscriptions and coins claim a supe- 
riority over manuscripts. Of the latter, if we except the Hercula- 
nean rolls and a few Egyptian Papyri (§ 107), there does not now 
remain a single copy, which was made during the life of the author, 
or which was transcribed directl}' from the original manuscripts. The 
most ancient, now existing, are not dated farther back than the sixth 
century ; and but few of these can be referred to so early a date with 
unquestionable certainty. 

1 u. We must attribute the loss of the earlier manuscripts, partly to the de- 
structibility of their material, partly to the political and physical disasters 
which befel Greece, and partly to the ignorance and superstition of the mid- 
dle ages and the consequent contempt for these monuments of literature. The 
practice of obliteration also occasioned losses. Manuscripts still exist whose 
original writing was effaced that they might receive other compositions ; such 
are those termed codices Palimpsesti (§ 84). Some looses must also be ascrib- 
ed to the carelessness of the first publishers, who printed directly from the 
manuscripts and thereby spoiled them, or after committing a work to the 
press, viewed the manuscript as useless. 

2u. Notwithstanding this destruction, and perhaps through the very igno- 
rance and neglect of the owners of collections then existing, a large number 
of Greek manuscripts were preserved, especially in convents, abbeys, and ca- 
thedrals. Some of these certainly belong to the middle ages, in which there 
were a few men of information and lovers of ancient literature, while others 
for the sake of gain employed themselves as copyists. Many of these manu- 
scripts were written during the dawn of the revival of letters, in the thirteenth 
and fourteenth centuries, and in the first half of the fifteenth century, for the 
use of colleges and of the literati. Even for some time after the invention of 
printing, while the art was yet imperfect and not extensively cultivated, the 
practice of copying manuscripts was continued. 

See the work of Heeren, cited § 53, and Taylor, cited $ 58. 

§ 102. To become well acquainted with manuscripts, and to fix 
their precise dates, is very difficult. Upon this point we cannot lay 
down rules, which shall be applicable in every case, and perfectly de- 
cisive. There are only some general external marks, by which the 
age of the manuscript is to be determined with any considerable de- 
gree of probability. We must form our decision by the characters 
used in writing, by their size, their spaces, the direction of the letters, 
the abbreviations and contractions, and by the whole exterior of the 
manuscript. 

§ 103. In a question respecting the author of a work, or the age 
in which he lived, more reliance can be placed on the internal evi- 
dence, which is presented by the subject, the style, and the historical 
statements and allusions. Sometimes we find the name of the author, 
and the date of the copy, at the close of the manuscript, but usually 
only the name of the transcriber. Often we may be satisfied from 
internal evidence, that a work was not composed by the reputed au- 



60 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

thor, while we are still unable to point out the real author, or the 
writer of the manuscript. 

§ 104. We shall here limit ourselves to a mention of some of these 
external signs, for the sake of example. The most ancient Greek 
manuscripts, as well as inscriptions, are written in capital letters (lit' 
erce unciales), without any space between the words, and without 
signs of punctuation. Accents and aspirates were not introduced 
till the 7th century ; the capital letters in the 8th and 9th were a lit- 
tle longer and had more inclination and slope. At this period, they 
began to make contractions, and a smaller style of writing commenc- 
ed. After the 12th century, new characters and abbreviations were 
introduced, and greater variety appeared in the forms of the letters. 

1 u. The best manner of becoming acquainted with these characteristics, is 
by the study of the manuscripts themselves. They may be learned also by 
means of the patterns, which Montfaucon has given in his Greek Palaeography. 
These marks, however, it must be remembered, are not an invariable and in- 
fallible criterion of the age of a manuscript. Often, in later times, transcribers 
strictly imitated the ancient copies, and preserved all their peculiarities un- 
changed. 

2. Although the signs of punctuation are said to have been devised by Aristophanes (cf, § 52), 
they were not used generally in writing, until a much later period. Bernhardy remarks that 
" interpunction is not found in the manuscripts much earlier than the 8th century." — Speci- 
mens of the manner of writing above described, in uncials, and without punctuation, are given 
in our Plate I a. fig. i, and iii.—The two lines of fig. ii, in the same Plate, are designed to show 
some of the abbreviations or contractions used in writing. The letters in the upper line (the 
Plate being turned upon its side to the right), are employed as abbreviations for the words un- 
der them in the lower line ; kc i. e. ks for kurios ; is for iesous ; chs for christos ; Hem for ierou~ 
salem... Letters used as abbreviations (cf. § 49), commonly, but not always, had a horizontal 
line drawn over them ; as is seen in the specimen in fig. iii, where ois, in the first line, stands 
for o iesous ; but pni, in the second line, is also an abbreviation, standing for pneumati. Con- 
tractions With the mark over them were formerly used in printing. 

Bernhardy, Grundl. zur Encyclopaedic der Philologie., (p, 126.) Halle, 1832.— B. Montfaucon, 
Palaeographia Gracca. Par. 1708, fol. — Pfeiffer, iiber Bucher-Handschriftsn ($ 53.) — Manner? s 
Miscellanea, meist diplomatisch. Inhalts, Niirnb. 1796. 8. — Graeca D. Marci' Bibliotheca cod- 
icum manuscriptorum &c. (" auctoribus A. M. Zanetto et A. Bongiovannio") Venet. 1740. fol. — 
Qn Greek orthography, Class. Journal, xi. 7. 81. 

§ 105. A very profitable use may be made of an extensive know- 
ledge and diligent study of ancient manuscripts. They are of service 
to the critic in determining, correcting, and confirming the readings 
of printed books ; and there is often something to be gleaned even 
from the copies already examined by others. By comparing manu- 
scripts we may be prepared to fill up blanks, to discover false inser- 
tions, and to rectify transpositions. And such an examination may 
give rise to many critical, philosophical, and literary observations. 
Writings may be found also, in searching over the libraries of con- 
vents, which have never been published, and which may have hither- 
to escaped the eye of the learned. But in order to profit by the ad- 
Vantages presented by this study, one must have much previous know- 
ledge of language, criticism, bibliography, and literary history. 

§ 106. It is to the assiduous application of many votaries of class- 
ical literature, after the revival of letters, in the discovery, examina- 
tion, and comparison of ancient manuscripts, that we are indebted 
for the best editions of the Greek and Roman authors. Although 
their attention was confined chiefly to the criticism of the text and 
the settlement of readings, it was laying the foundation for all useful 
criticism upon the matter and contents, which must depend for its 
basis and certainty on such previous researches. The editions thus 
prepared, in connection with the prefaces and commentaries accom- 



MANUSCRIPTS. 61 

panyihg them, will serve, much better than any rules which can be 
given, as guides in similar efforts, and as suggesting the best meth- 
ods of treating this whole subject. 

§ 107. The following may be mentioned as among the oldest Greek 
manuscripts that are known ; the Codex Alexandrinus , the Codex 
Vaticanus, the Codex Cottouianus, and the Codex Colbertinus, a 
manuscript of Dioscorides, preserved in the Imperial library at Vien- 
na, and another in the library of the Augustines at Naples. All these 
manuscripts are in the uncial letter, without accents or marks of as- 
piration. — To these must be added the Herculanean Rolls, and the 
Egyptian Papyri. 

1. The Codex Mexandrinus consists of four folio volumes, containing the 
Septuagint version of the Old Testament, with the Apocryphal books, the 
New Testament, and some additional pieces. It is preserved in the British 
Museum, at London. " It was sent as a present to King Charles I. from Cy- 
rillus Lucaris, a native of Crete, and patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir 
Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to the Grand Seignior in the year 
1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from Alexandria where it was probably 
written." It is referred by some to the fourth century, but by most is con- 
sidered as belonging to the sixth. It is written without accents or breathings, 
■or spaces between the words, and with few abbreviations. An exact fac-simile 
of the part containing the New Testament, was published by Dr. Woide, li- 
brarian of the Museum, in 1766. In 1812 a fac-simile of the part containing 
the Psalms, was published by ReA^. H. H. Baber ; who was subsequently au- 
thorised to publish the rest of the Old Testament at the expense of the British 
Parliament. 

The Codex Vaiicamis contains the Old Testament in the Septuagint version, 
and a part of the New. It is lodged in the Vatican library at Rome. It is 
written on parchment or vellum, in three columns on each page, with the let- 
ters all of the same size except at the beginning of a book, without any di- 
vision of words, with but few abbreviations. Some critics have maintained 
that it was written as early as the fourth century ; but others refer it to the 
sixth or seventh. 

The Codex Cottonianus was brought from Philippi by two Greek bishops, 
who presented it to Henry vm. It was placed in the Cottonian library, and 
a great part of it was consumed by fire in 1731. The fragments are deposited 
in the British Museum, and are in a very decayed state. It is considered as 
the most ancient manuscript of any part of the Old Testament now extant, 
being generally ascribed to the fourth century, or the very beginning of the 
fifth. It was decorated with numerous paintings, or illuminations. 

The Codex Colbertinus contains a part of the Septuagint. It once belonged 
to the collection called the Colbert Mss. but is now lodged in the Royal library 
at Paris. It is thought to be a part of the same manuscript with that now in 
the library of the Academy at Leyden, termed Codex Sarravianus. They are 
referred to the fifth or sixth century. 

On the whole subject of the Manuscripts of the sacred Scriptures in Greek, see T. H. Home, 
Introduc. to the Crit. Study of the Holy Scriptures. Phil. 1825. 4 vols. 8. (vol. n. pt.i. ch. ii. §2.) 
— Also W. Carpenter, Guide to the Reading of the Bible (ch. ii. as given by Dr. W. Jenks and 
J. W. Jenks, in the Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary). — The Plate I a. of our illus- 
trations presents, in fig. i, a fac-simile of part of the 1st verse of the first Psalm, as written in 
the Codex Alexandrinus. — In fig. iii, we have a fac-simile of Matt. xxii. 43, as written in a Co- 
dex Rescriptus, some time since discovered in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. 

2. The manuscript of Dioscorides, in the library at Vienna, is a very curious 
monument. It was purchased at Constantinople for Maximilian II. by Busbe- 
quius, who went, about 1550, an ambassador to Turkey. It is said to have 
been written by Julianna Anicia, the daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius, 
who occupied the imperial throne of the west A. D. 472. It is ornamented 
with miniatures representing plants, birds and serpents, and the portraits of 
celebrated physicians of antiquity. The other copy, once in the library at Na- 
ples, is now in that of Vienna, and is considered as of about the same antiquity 
as the former. 

6 



62 ARCHEOLOGY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

The Vienna manuscript is described by Lamiecius, Commentarium de augustissima bibliotheca 
Caesarea-Vindobonensi libri vm. Vindob. 1665— 1679. 8 vols. fol. — See Schcell's Hist. Litt, 
Grecque, livre v. ch. lxxi. 

3. The Herculanean Rolls (papyri) found in excavating Herculaneum, are 
more remarkable for their antiquity than for their real value, so far as at pres- 
ent known, although they amounted to 1600 or 1700 in number. Most of them 
were too much injured to be unrolled and deciphered, many of them crumbling 
to dust under the hand of the operator. Very great interest and the most san- 
guine expectations were awakened in the literary world on their first discovery. 
But the first-fruits of the indefatigable toil in unrolling and deciphering , were 
very far from meeting these high hopes; the treatise of Philodemus on music : 
being of little value. Piaggi and Merli, Mazocchi, Sickler, and Sir Humphrey 
Davy, successively applied their labors and experiments with but poor success. 

See Cramer's Nachrichten zur Geschichte der herkulanischen Entdeckungen. Halle, 1773. 8. 
— BartePs Briefe iiber Kalabrien und Sicilien. — HcrculanensiumVoluminum quae supersunt. Neap, 
vol. 1. 1793. vol. n . 1809. fol. — Ausonian Magazine, No. i. — Quart. Rev. vol. ill. — Encycl. Britann. 
Supplement, under Herculaneum. — ftrclieeologia (as cited § 243. 3.) vol. xv. p. 114. on method of 
unrolling, &c. 

4. Several papyri, with Greek writing on them, have been found in Egypt, 
which are said to be of more ancient date than any other known manuscripts 
in Greek. They exhibit the earliest use of the cursive Greek letter. 

Three of these are dated before Christ. The earliest was brought to Europe by M, Casati in 
1822, and belongs to the Royal library of France. It is sixteen and a half feet long and eight 
inches deep, and contains 505 lines. Its date corresponds With the year B. C. 113. It is merely 
a contract or deed of the sale of a portion of land near Ptoleniais. The next in point of antiquity 
contains a similar contract, with a date corresponding to B. C. 104. It was found in a tomb, 
and has exercised, in its deciphering, the care of Aug. BSckh, Phil. Buttmann, and Imm. Bek- 
ker. That, which is ranked next in age, treats of the payment of certain funeral charges, and 
is remarkable for containing besides the Greek, an Egyptian writing, in the same character as 
appears in the Rosetta Inscription, called enchorial (i)'X^Q ia )- Its ^ ate is J u({ g ed to De 89 B - c - 
Two other papyri are described as written in the second century after Christ, and all the rest- 
that are known as written in the fifth, or later. 

See Schcr.ll, Histoire de la Litt. Grec. livre v. ch. 50.— Aug. Brnckh, Erklarung einer agypt. Ur- 

kunde in Griech. Cursiv-schrift. &c. Berlin, 1821. 4. Tourn. des Savans, 182L p. 537. 1822. 

p. 555. — Mc. Schzw, Charta papyracea grace scripta Musei Borgiani Veletris. Rom. 1788. 4. 

5. A number of papyri have also been found containing only Egyptian char- 
acters, either enchorial or hieroglyphic, which are considered to be much more 
ancient than those just mentioned. 

" The most remarkable of them all, and very certainly the most ancient manuscript known 
at this day, contains an act of the fifth year of the reign of Thouthmosis HI., the fifth king of 
the eighteenth dynasty. . . . Now Thouthmosis governed Egypt about the time when Joseph 
was carried there as a slave ; and consequently two centuries at least before the time when 
Moses wrote. ... Is it so very astonishing, that the autograph of the Legislator of the Hebrews, 
which was an object of veneration to all the people, and was so long and carefully preserved 
in the ark, could have existed until the reign of Josiah, i. e. about nine centuries after Moses ; 
When the hypogeums of Thebes present us with papyri containing certain transactions which 
Were between private individuals merely, and which extend back 3500 years and even more?" 
—See Greppo, as cited <\ 16. 1. 

One of these papyri, discovered by Champollion, is said to have been sixty feet in length. — 
Some specimens of the papyri, in Egyptian character, are given, by fac-simile, in the Atlas il- 
lustrating the Travels of Denon in Egypt. The same work notices a manuscript on cloth, the 
envelope or wrapper of a mummy, consisting of nineteen pages, separated and bordered by as 
many vignettes. Parts of the writing in these manuscripts are done in red ink. The pictures 
are in different colors. 

6. Mr. Taylor (in his work cited $ 58) remarks, " The most ancient manuscripts extant are 
some copies of the Pentateuch on rolls of leather ; " but in this remark he could not have had 
reference to the Esrvptian remains above mentioned. No extant Hebrew manuscripts are of so 
ancient a date ; althouah some, which are doubtless of a high antiquity, have been preserved 
in the Jewish synagogues. Dr. Buchanan procured from the black Jews in Malabar, an old copy 
of the Law, which he discovered in the record-chest of one of their synagogues, in 1806. It 
consists of thirty-four leather skins, sewed together, measuring nearly 50 feet, by about 2 broad; 
the skins are some of them brown, and others red; some of them much impaired by time, and 
strengthened by patches of parchment on the back. It now belongs to the University at Cam- 
bridge, England. See Buchanan's Researches,— Home, as cited above, pt. l. ch. n. §1.— Amer. 
Quart. Register, vol. ix. p. 59. 

The Nestorians at the village of Koosy, in Persia, have a neat, well preserved copy of the 
New Testaa^eat, in Syriac, upon parchment, in small characters ; written, according to the date 
inserted by the writer, about A. D. 320. It is greatly reverenced both by the people and the 
priests. Smith and Dwight, cited § 36. 1. vol. n. p. 257.— Cf. §57. 

§108. It may be proper here to mention some of the principal libraries, which 
contain the finest collections of Greek manuscripts. — In Italy. The king's 
library, and library of the Augustine convent, at Naples. The Royal library 
at Turin. The Vatican library and some private libraries at Rome. Cathedral 



MANUSCRIPTS. 63 

library at Bologne. Library of St. Mark and several private collections at 
Venice. That of the Medici, at Florence, contains one of the most extensive 
collections of this kind. The Ambrosian library at Milan. — In Spain. The 
library of the Escurial. — In France. The Royal or National library at Paris, 
which contains the Mss. once belonging to several other libraries. — In Eng- 
land. The libraries at Cambridge. The Bodleian library at Oxford. The 
British Museum at London. — In Germany. The Imperial library at Vienna. 
That of the king of Bavaria at Munich. The library of the council or senate 
at Lelpslc. The libraries of the Dukes at Weimar and Wolfenbiittel. The 
Roj^al library of Berlin. That of the king of Saxony at Dresden. — In Den- 
mark. The Royal library at Copenhagen. — In Holland. The University 
library at Leyden. — In Russia. Library of the Synod at Moscoio. 

1. Details on the subject of Greek Mss. may be found by consulting the following works : Bern. 
Montfaucon, Recensio Bibliothecar. Graecarum, in quibus manuscripti codices habentur; in his 
Palaeographia Graeca (ft 104). — Ejusd. Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum manuscriptorum Nova. Par. 
1739. 2 vols, fol.— F. Eckard, Uebersicht der Oerter, wo die bekanntesten griech. Schriftsteller 
gelebt haben ; und Grundlage zur Geschichte der Bibliotheken, wodurch jene in Handschriften 
sind erhalten worden. Giessen,1776. 8. — For some remarks on the Libraries of Greece, whence 
Mss. have been obtained, see Travels by E. D. Clarke. N. York, 1815, vol. it. Append. No. 6. 
where is also a catalogue of the Mss. in the Library of Patmos. — Cf. Class. Journ. vol. vn., in 
which, and the following volumes, is a notice of the manuscripts in the various libraries in Eng- 
land. 

2. The Royal library at Paris contains 70,000 Mss. of various kinds ; the Vatican at Rome 
30,000 ; the Ambrosian at Milan 15,000. In the case of most of the libraries mentioned above, 
there are catalogues of the Mss. preserved in them. The most valuable of these catalogues are 
such as give not only the simple name and title, but also critical and historical notices of the 
manuscripts, their authors, age, rarity, price, &c. See e. g. Catalogue Bibliothecm Bunavianm. 
Lips. 1750 — 56. 7 vols. 4. — Bondini's Catalogue of Mss. in the Library of the Grand Duke at 
Florence, 1764 — 93. 11 vols. fol. — Notices des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Rot. Par. 1787 — 
1818. 10 vols. 4. — " The Catalogues of the Mss. in the British Museum, hitherto (1835) printed, 
fill five folios and four quartos." 



PLATE III 




ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



I. — Of the Sources of Roman Culture. 

§ 109. We have no authentic history of the first inhabitants of 
Italy. The later Romans themselves knew but little in regard to 
this subject, as there did not remain any monuments of the early 
ages; those which had been preserved at Rome having been destroyed 
at the capture and burning of that city by the Gauls, B. C. 390. 
This uncertainty has given rise to many fables. The Romans com- 
monly traced their own descent from the Trojans, a colony of whom 
under ^Eneas amalgamated with the aborigines or most ancient in- 
habitants of Italy. 

1. Different accounts are given of the origin of the name Italy, Italia. 
Some derive it from Italus (a), said to be a chief who came from Arcadia, or 
CEnotria, and established a colony and kingdom ; considered by many, how- 
ever, to be a fabulous personage. Others derive it from the term ira7.bg, a calf, 
applied to the country from the herds of young cattle (b) found in it by the 
Greeks. The name seems to have been first applied (c) to the southern ex- 
tremity of the peninsula, to the province called Calabria ulterior, and after- 
wards extended so as to include the whole land as far as the Alps. 

(a) Virg. Mn. vn. 178.— Thuc. vi. Z.—(b) Varr. de Re rust. n. 5.—6ell. Noct. Att. xi. 1. 

Dion Hal. i.35.—(c)Jlrist. Pol. vn. 10. Cf. Schatll, Histoire de la Litterature Romaine. 

Par. 1815. 4 vols. 8. Vol. i. Intro, p. 4. 

2. The question whence Italy received its population has been much agi- 
tated. Two theories or systems have been strenuously defended, called the 
oriental and the northern. The former system maintains that the early inr 
habitants of Italy came from the east; from Greece, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, or 
Egypt, according to different advocates of the theory. The other system ad- 
mits an eastern origin of all the inhabitants of Europe, but maintains that 
Italy received its population directly from the northern or Celtic tribes. The 
oriental theory (a) is most generally adopted. — " At the period, when light 
is first thrown by authentic documents on the condition of Italy, we find it 
occupied by various tribes, which had reached different degrees of civiliza- 
tion, spoke different dialects, and disputed with each other the property of the 
lands whence they drew their subsistence." These various tribes may be in- 
cluded under the five following classes, ranged in the order of their supposed 
antiquity; viz. the Illyrii, including the Liburni, Siculi, and Veneti ; the Ibe- 
ri, including the people called Sicani ; the Celtce, to which belonged those 
named Umbri by the Romans ; the Pelasgi(b) ; and the Hetrusci, Etrusci, or 
Tyrrheni. 

(a) See J. Dunlop, History of Roman Literature, (vol. i. p. 21 of ed. Phil. 1827.)— Schccll, 
p. 8, as above cited. — These authors <rive references to the principal works in defence of each 
theory. — (b) Dionys. Hal. i. 11.— Schmll, as above, p. 13.— Cf. § 33. 

3. The Etruscans were the most celebrated of all these nations, having attained to a height 
of prosperity and glory before the existence of Rome. The history, institutions, and antiqui- 
ties of this people have been the theme of much interesting discussion. See C. 0. Mueller, 
Die Etrusker. Bresl. 1828. 2 vols. Q.—Aithon's Lemp. Class. Diet, under Hetruria.—Edinb^ 
Rev. vol. l. p. 372.— Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 26. 

4. The early history of Rome is involved perhaps inextricably in fabulous 

6* 



66 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

traditions. There has been an earnest literary controversy respecting the a'Sf-- 
thenticity of the commonly received accounts. 

For the common account of the origin of Rome, see Liny, lib. l.—Dion. Hal. Ant. Roin. 
lib. i. — Plut. Romulus. — For arguments against the credibility of it, see Pouilly, De Beavfort, 
and others, as cited P. II. § 510. 

§ 110. From this it is easy to perceive, that the origin and intro- 
duction of the Latin characters is a subject of much uncertainty. 
Some authors attribute the invention or introduction of these letters- 
to the Greeks, some to the Pelasgians, some to the Phoenicians, and 
others to the Etruscans. It is most commonly ascribed to Ev under r 
who, antecedently to the Trojan war, conducted into Latium a Pe- 
lasgic colony from Arcadia. The affinity and resemblance of the 
most ancient Greek characters to the Latin is unquestionable. It 
was probably by means of the colonists settling in that country frorrr 
various foreign parts, that civilization and the art of writing were 
introduced into Italy and a common alphabet at length formed. The 
Pelasgi coming from Arcadia, and, under the name of Tyrrheni, from 
Asia Minor, seem to have been the first colonists. Soon after them,- 
there arrived other Greek colonists, who established themselves in 
the lower part of. Italy ^ and brought with them their religion, lan- 
guage, and alphabet. If we may credit Quintilian (lib, i.), there 
existed at first but a smaller number of letter's, and they differed in 
their form and signification from those afterwards used. 

See Nammacheri, Comment, de Lit. Rom. Bruns. 1758. 8. — Comp. Dion. Hal. i. 36. — Liv»- 
i. 7. — Tac. Ann. xi. 14'. — Plin. Hist. Nat. vn. 56, 68_ — On tli-e resemblance of the Greek and 
Roman letters, see also Spelmann , s Dissertation, in his Trans* of Dion. Hal. vol. n. p. 297, as 
cited P. II. § 246. 

§ 111 u. The Greeks, who established themselves in the southern part of 
Italy, always maintained their relations and an extensive commerce with the' 
other Greeks, and even preserved their language. From them the country 
which, they inhabited was called Magna Gratia. It was separated from Sici- 
ly, where Greek colonies were also settled, only by a small strait. From this- 
circumstance arises the resemblance found, between, them and the inhabitants 
of this island in their language, sciences, manners, and government. These 
countries having enjoyed the advantages of a long peace, suffered nothing 
from the Romans until a late period, and their intercourse with the Greeks 
always existing, the arts and sciences among them rose to a very flourishing 
state. It is sufficient in this place merely to allude to the school of Pythag- 
oras, which to-:k the name of Italian, and that founded by Xenophanes, some- 
what later, and called the Eleatic. In Magna Graecia and Sicily resided ma- 
ny great men, renowned even at the present day, by the brilliancy of their 
talents and by their writings; as, for instance, Archimedes, Diodorus ; the 
poets Theocritus, Moschus, and Bion ; the orators Lysias, Gorgias, and others- 
See Jao-ernaTm's Geschichte der Kunste und. Wissenschaften in Italien,— Dunlop, Hist. Rom. 
Lit. voLi. p. 49, as cited § 109.— Sainte-Croix, Legislation de la Grande Grece. Mem. Acad.- 
Jnscr. vol. xlii. p. 286, and: xlv. p. 284. 

§ 112. But the circumstances of the Romans must principally 
occupy our attention here. That first and long period, which com- 
prises all the time included between the foundation of Rome and the- 
close of the first Punic war, a period of about 500 years, was very 
sterile with respect to intellectual culture; at least it was far from 
being so fertile as might have been expected in a republic, which ad- 
vanced so rapidly to a flourishing condition, and was surrounded by 
neighbors civilized and instructed in literature and the arts. But the 1 
spirit of aggrandizement which controlled and guided all the intel- 
lectual and political exertions of the Romans^was in no small degree 



ORIGIN OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 67 

itself the cause. This involved them in continual war and compelled 
them to neglect literature and science, which are the offspring of 
peace and leisure. Their whole constitution, and consequently their 
very education, tended only to this end. Hence the opposition which 
the elder Cato made to the reception of the Greek philosophers 
at Rome. Hence also the prejudice which caused the Romans to 
regard all arts and sciences, with the exception of agriculture and 
war, as dishonorable and fit only for slaves. 

§ 113 m. Even in this period, however, there appear a few traces of a dawn- 
ing cultivation. We may specify as particulars, the care which, in the time 
of Tarquin the Proud, the civilian Papirius employed in preparing a collec- 
tion of the laws ; the embassy sent to Athens, about 454 B. C, to examine 
the institutions of Greece, which resulted in the establishment of the laws of 
the twelve Tables ; the preservation of the national history in the pontifical 
books called Annales, or Commentarii, parts of which were written in verse, 
and were sung upon public days; and finally the introduction, about B. C. 
363, of the Etrurian plays, called ludi scenici, in which originated the Roman 
drama. These plays at first consisted of nothing but dancing and pantomime 
accompanying the music of the flute. 

After the Romans had extended their conquests over Italy, they began to 
bestow more attention upon the arts and sciences. There were in Italy at this 
time two nations particularly, by whom the arts had been especially cultivat- 
ed, the inhabitants of Etruria and of Magna Grcecia. (Cf. § 109, 3. and 
§ 111.) Both these nations were subjected to the Romans more than 250 
years before Christ ; the former about B. C. 283 ; the latter, B. C. 266. The 
Romans were thereby brought into greater intercourse with them. The in- 
fluence of this intercourse upon the culture of the Romans was favorable, but 
Was not very great until the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241. 

§ 114. The origin of the Latin language cannot be traced to any 
one primitive tongue, because Italy in the early periods was occupied 
by so many people, and it is so uncertain which of them were the 
most ancient. Among the earliest occupants were no doubt the Cel- 
tae, or the Pelasgi, who came from Thracia and Arcadia, and seem 
to have been of the same race as the aborigines. Grecian colonists 
subsequently planted themselves in the middle and lower part of Ita- 
ly, where also, as well as in Sicily, Phoenicians and Carthaginians 
afterwards settled, as likewise did the Gauls in the northern part of 
the country. The first foundation of the Roman tongue was proba- 
bly the dialect which has been termed Ausonian or Oscan (Lingua 
Osca). Romulus was perhaps educated among the Greeks, and 
seems on this account to have introduced into his city the Grecian 
language, while the native tongue, not having fixed rules and analo- 
gies of its own, must have been liable to arbitrary changes, and 
would borrow many peculiarities from other dialeets. We find in 
the derivation of many Latin words, and in the general structure of 
the language, frequent traces of the Greek, especially the JEolic dia- 
lect. The resemblance between the Greek and Latin alphabets has 
already been mentioned (§ 110). 

1 u. Properly speaking, the Latin and the Roman languages are not the 
same. The former was spoken in Latium, between the Tiber and the Liris, 
until the abolition of the regal government in Rome ; and was introduced at 
Rome after that period. The laws of the twelve Tables were in this dialect. 

2. " The population of Italy being composed of various people, there were of course various 
languages and idioms in the country, as the Ombrian, Etruscan, Sicanian, Latin, and 
others. The Latin Vis the primitive language of the people of Latium, and era dually 
took the place of all the rest. The ancient inhabitants of Latium constituted a part of the 



68 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

Aborigines, but this term indicates, scarcely more than that their real origin was unknown. 
They are sometimes also called Ausonians.' According to Dionysius Halicarnasseus, they were 
Arcadians. But it is more probable they were Illyrians, or Celtae, or rather a mixture of these 
two races with the Pelasgic colonists. In fact, we may see in the Latin language, two funda- 
mental idioms, the Celtic, and the Greek of the iEolic and Doric dialects, which nearly resem- 
bled the ancient Pelasgtc. Every thing in the Latin which is not Greek is from the Celtae, and 
especially the Ombri. Dionysius therefore had reason for his remark that the ancient idiom of 
Rome was neither entirely Greek nor entirely barbarian. As Latium contained anciently sev- 
eral independent tribes, there were several dialects, among them those of the Osci, the Volsci, 
the Latini, and the Samnites. All these dialects gradually disappeared, and were sunk in the 
Roman language, as the Romans became masters of Italy. The use of it was regarded as an 
acknowledgment of their supremacy, and when the allies made an attempt to throw off the 
Roman yoke, they resumed their primitive languages on the money they stamped. The Julian 
law, passed shortly after, B. C. about 90, bestowing upon these states the rights of Roman cit- 
izenship, struck a mortal blow at all these idioms, as it forever banished^them from public 
transactions. The Etruscan alone survived for any considerable time, being favored on ac- 
count of the respect affected by the Roman government towards the rites of the Tuscans." 

See Sckall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 1. p. 37, as cited § 109. 1.— On the origin of the Latin lan- 
guage, see also Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. r. p. 42. "as cited $ 109.2. — Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, 
vol. i. — Class. Journ. iii. 217 ; vi. 375 ; ix 219 ; xviii. 359. — Funccius, De origine Lat. Ling. Tracta- 
tus, Giessae. 1720 ; De Pueritia L. L. Tractatus. Marb. 1720 ; De Adolescentia L. L. Tract. Marb. 
1720. These are separate portions of a History of Latin Literature, by T. N. Funk, of Rinteln, 
published at Marburg between 1720, and 1750, in 8 vols. 4. For the other portions, see P. II. 
§298. (g.)-We refer also to J. C. F. Beshr, Geschichte der Rcem. Literatur. Carlsr. 1832. 8. p. 1. 
— Jwkcl, Germanische Ursprung der Lat. Sprache &c. Bresl. 1830. — Paulino di S. Bartolomeo, 

De Lat. Serm, origine &c. Rom. 1802 Compare the remarks on the families of languages, in 

§ 36, and references there given. 

Zu. During the period preceding the close of the first Punic war, the Ro- 
man language was in no settled sta,te. It was necessarily exposed to he a 
mixture of various idioms, from the diversity of foreigners who composed the 
early population of Rome. Traces of the old forms of the language are found 
in fragments of the earliest poets, and also in the comedies of Plautus. It 
was not until the close of the period of which we have spoken, that any atten- 
tion was paid to the regular settling of the principles and forms of the lan- 
guage, and not until a still later time that any approved author labored upon 
the cultivation of style. During all this time, therefore, the language contin- 
ued in a changing state. 

4. There are still extant some monuments of the language during the period 
preceding the first Punic war. To these it will be proper briefly to advert. 

The earliest specimen is supposed to be as ancient as the time of Romulus, the Hymn chant- 
ed by the Fratres Arvales. It is given by Dunlop, with an Ei.glish version, as follows : 
Enos Lases juvate Ye Lares, aid us ! Mars thou God of Might ! 

Neve luerve Marmar sinis incurrer in From Murrain shield the flocks, the flowers front 

pleoris. blight. 

Satur fufere Mars : limen sali staberber : For thee, O Mars ! a feast shall be prepared ; 
Semones alternei advocapit cunctos, Salt, and a wether from the herd : 
Enos Marmor juvate; Invite, by turn, each Demigod of Spring; 

Triumpe, Triumpe. Great Mars, assist us ! Triumph! Triumph sing ! 

The hymn is explained somewhat differently by different interpreters. — See Dunlop, Hist.. 
Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 41. — Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 41. — Bmhr, as above cited, p. 62— 
Eustace, Class. Tour in Italy, vol. in. p. 416. — Comp. Hermann, Elem. Doct. Metric, lib. in. c. 
ix. 6, where he gives an interpretation in the later Latin.— Edinb. Rev. No. 80. p. 395. 

The next specimens belong to the time of Numa, and consist in the remains of the Carmen 
Saliare, and of the Laws of Numa. Of the former, which was the hymn sung by the Salic 
priests appointed under Numa to guard the Sacred Shields, there remain only a few words, 
cited by Varro (De Ling. Lat. lib. vi. 1, 3.) Of the latter, some fragments are preserved by 
Festus. The following is an example ; Sei cuips hemonem loebesom dolo sciens mortei duitpari- 
ceidad estod sei im imprudens se dolo malod oceisitpro capited oceisei et nateis eiius endo condoned, 
arietem subicitod: which is interpreted, in the later language, as follows ; Si quis hominem libe- 
rum dolo sciens morti dederit, parricida esto : Si eum imprudens, sine dolo malo, occiderit, pro capite 
occisi et Jiatis ejus in concionem arietem subjicito. — Festus has preserved also a law ascribed to Ser- 
vius Tullius, fifth King of Rome. 

After the fragments of the Regal Laws, we have no monument of the language until we 
come to the Laws of the Twelve Tables, B. C. 450. It may be doubted whether the genuine 
original reading has been preserved invariably in the fragments which are now extant. — For 
specimens, see Schcell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. i. p. 45. — Cf. P. II. § 561. 

Additional monuments of the language in the period now spoken of are the Duillian, Scip- 
ian, and Eugubian Inscriptions, which will be mentioned on a subsequent page. ( Cf. § 133.) 

5. It may be worthy of observation that, in the time of Cicero, there seem 
to have been marked differences in the Roman language according as it was 
spoken in the city, or in the country, or in the conquered provinces ; the lan- 
guage of the city being designated as the sermo urbanus ; that of the country, 
the sermo rusticanus ; and that of the provinces, the sermo peregrinus. — Cic, 
De Orat. iii. 10.— 14. 



ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 69 



II. — Of the Roman Alphabet, Method of Writing, and Boohs. 

§ 115. Ancient Grammarians do not altogether agree concerning 
the nature and number of the original Latin or Roman letters. Ma- 
rius Victorinus mentions the following; A, B, C, D, E, I, K, L, M, 
JN", O, P, Q,, R, S, T ; 16 in number. Of these, Q, is not found in 
the Greek alphabet, but corresponds to the Greek y.Lnrra (§ 46) ; C 
was sometimes equivalent to it. V, used both as a consonant and as 
a vowel, was subsequently added ; originally I or O was used instead 
of V as a vowel; and instead of B as a consonant the iEolic Digamma 
r was employed. It was in this way, that F obtained its place as a 
letter. H, G, X, Y, Z, were also added at a later period. 

Comp. Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. i. 36. PUn. N. H. vn. 56,57.— Tac. Ann. xi. 14. — On the sub- 
ject of the Roman alphabet, see also Port Royal Latin Grammar, bk. ix. — On its origin, Lanzi> 
Saggio di Ling. Etrusc. — Bahr, p. 12. as cited $ 109. 2. and references given by him. He con- 
siders the Roman alphabet as derived from the Greek. 

§ 116. The ancient orthography differed from that of later times, 
from the fact that the pronunciation was much changed. To see 
this clearly, it will only be necessary to compare with the modern 
orthography, the original of a passage in a decree of the senate re- 
specting the Bacchanales (§ 133), which is one of the most ancient 
monuments of Roman writing, about B. C'186. The passage in the 
original form is as follows : neve, posthac. inter, sed. coniovrase. 

NEVE. COMVOVISE; NEVE. CONSPONDISE. NEVE. CONPROMESISE. VELET. 
NEVE. QVISQVAM. FIDEM. INTER. SED. DEDISE. VELET. SACRA. IN. 
OQVOLTOD. NE. QVISQVAM. FECISE. VELET. NEVE. IN. POPLICOD. NEVE. 
IN. PREIVATOD. NEVE. EXTRAD. VRBEM. SACRA. QVISQVAM. FECISE. 

velet. In the later orthography, as follows : Neve posthac inter se 
conjurasse, neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, neve compromisisse vel- 
let, neve quisquam fidem inter se dedisse vellet, sacra in occulto ne 
quisquam fecisse vellet, neve in publico, neve in privato, neve extra 
urbem sacra quisquam fecisse vellet. 

Respecting this decree, seeLivy, xxxix. 18. — Sc/iffZZ,Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 52. Cf. § 133. 3. 
— On the various changes in orthography, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Litt. l. p. 48. — Port Royal 
Lat. Gram. bk. ix. — Funccius De Pueritia. Ling. Lat. c. 5. and De Adolescentia Ling. Lat. c. 7. 
— Terrason, Hist, de la Jurisprudence Rom. pt. l. 

§ 1 17. Not only in ancient times, but even in the later and most 
flourishing period of their literature, the Romans wrote only in cap- 
ital letters. The small Roman letters did not come into general use 
until the beginning of the middle ages. If small letters (literce mi- 
nutes) were employed earlier, it was only a smaller size of the capi-. 
tals. 

1. A late writer in the publication of the London Antiquarian Society has 
made an attempt, which some consider as successful, to show that minuscule 
xcriting (i. e. writing in the small letters) was practiced by the ancients ; al- 
though this is contrary to the opinion hitherto universally received. 

See W. Y. Ottlei/s account of the Ms, of Cicero's Aratus, as mentioned below § 143. — Cf. C. 
Wordsworth, Specimens and Fac-similes of ancient writing found on the walls and streets of 
Pompeii. Lond. 1838. 8. 

2u. When the writers wished to take down a spoken discourse, or to note 
something in the margin, they formed abbreviations (nuta) by using the initial 
letters, or some of the principal letters, of the words, or by using particular 
signs for the syllables of most frequent occurrence, or arbitrary characters 
standing for whole words. The most remarkable of these signs or characters 



70 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

are the notcB Tironiance., the invention of which is ascribed to Annseus Seneca,, 
and to Cicero's freedman Tiro ; from the latter of whom they derived their 
name. Gruter and Carpentier have collected and attempted to explain these 
characters ; it has been done more completely by Kopp in treating of the 
Tachygraphy of the ancients. Some have imagined, that our small numerical 
figures derived their origin from these characters instead of being, as is com- 
monly believed, an invention of the Arabians ; but there is no ground for the 
supposition. 

3. There are manuscripts in existence of great antiquity, written in short hand. Some of 
these are in Greek. According to Kopp, the Greek notes or abbreviated signs are more easy 
and simple than the Tironian, and in appearance more similar to modern short hand. 

See Carpentier, Alphabetum Tironianum. Par. 1747. fol. — U. F. Kopp, Tachygraphia Veterum 
exposita et illustrata. Manheim, 1817. 2 vols. 4.— Or titer, as cited § 130.— The Roman notes are 
also exhibited in Grater's Seneca, cited P. II. § 469. 4.— Cf. Class.' Journal, vol. xxxix. p. 182. 

§ 1 18. The books of the Romans, both the more ancient and those 
of later times, resembled in form and material, the books of the 
Greeks. (See § 56, 57.) The rolls among the Romans were call- 
ed volamina ; the leaves composing them, paginal (from the word 
pangere, to put together) ; the sticks upon which they were rolled, 
cylindri, also bacilli, surculi; the knobs or ornaments at the ends of 
the sticks, umbilici or comua ; and the edges of the rolls, frontes. 
In writing the first draft of any thing, whether in accounts or letters, 
the Romans commonly made use of tablets covered with wax (tabulcB 
cerates, cerce). They also had books, made and folded in the same 
manner as ours, of square leaves of vellum or papyrus, which they 
called codices. Their instruments for writing were the style (stylus, 
graphium), and the reed (calamus, arundo). They used ink of sev- 
eral dyes or colors. And copyists introduced the same ornaments 
in writing manuscripts as among the Greeks. Comp. §§ 55, 58. 

1. The paper used by the Romans was formed from the Egyptian papyrus,. 
a species of rush, which was procured on the banks of the Nile. The term 
hibius (ftiSXoc) was also applied to the same plant. Hence we have our words 
■paper and Bible. The papyrus was used for purposes of writing at a very 
early period (cf. §107. 5). Manufactories of the paper existed at Memphis, it 
is stated, more than 600 years before Christ. At the time of the conquest of 
Egypt by the Romans, it was made chiefly at Alexandria. 

Pliny gives a description of the manner of making the paper. One layer of the fibrous mem- 
branes (philyrm) was placed crosswise upon another layer ; they were then moistened with the 
water of the Nile, pressed, and dried in the sun. Bruce affirms that the water of the Nile is 
not glutinous, and that the strips of papyrus adhere together solely by the saccharine matter con- 
tained in the plant, and that the water must have been used only to dissolve and diffuse this 
matter equally. After being dried, it was pounded with a mallet and polished with a tooth, 
shell, or other smooth substance. It was then cut into sheets or leaves (plagulm, schedec), which 
were of various qualities and kinds. A number of sheets were joined together to form a roll or 
volume ; the number was never greater than twenty ; the term scapus was employed to desig- 
nate collectively any number thus joined. The sheets were glued together for a volume or 
manuscript by slaves, termed glutlnutores . (i. q. Ubrorum compactor es, ftip?.i07i)jyui). — The 
papyrus manuscripts lately found in Egypt (cf. §107. 4, 5.) appear to have been prepared in the 
manner here described. 

See Pliny, Nat. Hist. xin. 11,12.— Montfaucon, sur la plante appelle Papyrus, &c. in the Mem, 
de VAcad. des Inscrip. vi. p. 592. — Caylus, also, in the same Mem. Sec. xxvi. 267. — Schwartz, as 
below cited.—./. Bruce, Travels in Egypt, Abyssinia, &c. Edin. 1790. 5 vols. 4. vol. v. p. 1. 
with a plate showing the papyrus in full growth. See our Plate I a. fig. c. 

2. The ink commonly used was black. But a vermilion termed minium wa.9 
employed in marking titles and heads ; a purple (coccus, purpura) was used for 
the same purpose : and also a red called rubrica, whence originated the modern 
word rubric. The basis of the common ink (atramentum) was, according to 
Pliny, the black taken from burnt ivory, and soot from furnaces and baths. 

" The black liquor of the cuttle fish (sepia) is also said to have been used as ink, principally 
on the authority of a metaphorical expression of the poet Persius (Sat. iii. 14.). But of what- 
ever ingredients it was made, it is certain, from chemical analysis, from the solidity and black- 
ness in the most ancient manuscripts, and from an inkstand found at Herculaneum, in which 
the ink appears like a thick oil, that the ink was much more opaque as well as encaustic than 
that used at present." 



METHOD OF WRITING. BOOKS. 



71 



On the whole subject of ancient books, and the materials and instruments of writing among 
the ancients, see Ch. O. Schwartz, Be Ornamentis librorum et varia rei literariae veterum supel- 
lectile dissertationes. Lips. 1753. 4. — See also Taylor, as cited § 58, and references given § 53. 

3. It seems proper here briefly to notice and explain some other Latin terms 
and phrases used in reference to the subject now under notice. 



Adversaria, note-books, memorandums ; re- 
ferre in adversaria, to take a memorandum. 

Autograpkus, autograph, a manuscript writ- 
ten by the author's own hand ; i. q. idiographus. 

Bibliotheca, a library, see $128. 

Bibliopola, a bookseller. 

Capsa, a place for keeping books, paper, or 
instruments for writing, an eseritoir, a case ; 
i. q. scrivium, arcula, lo cuius* The capsa is 
represented as a cylindrical box, in which tiie 
manuscripts or rolls were placed vertically, the 
titles being at the top. Thus many volumes 
could be comprised within a small space. See 
our Plate L fig. 6. 

Capsarius, the slave carrying the capsa, for 
boys of rank, to school. 

Chana, paper ; this word received various 
epithets, modifying its signification; as Ch.dcn- 
tata, polished paper, smoothed by the tooth of a 
boar or some animal ; Ch. Augusta regia, Ch. 
Claudiana, very superior or fine paper : Ch. em- 
poretica, wrapping paper for merchants ; Ch. 
macrocolla, very large paper; Charta Pergamena, 
i.q. membrana, parchment made of sheep-skins. 

Chartaria fofficinaj, shop or place where pa- 
per was made. 

Chirographics, written with one's own hand. 

Chirographum, one's own signature or name 
written" by himself. A document with the 
names of two contracting parties thus written, 
is called syngrapJm. 

Codicillus, a little book ; see libelli. 

Commcntarii, accounts written about one's 
self ; also journals or registers, i. q. Diaria, 
ephcmerides. 

Diphthera (Si(p&tQa), sometimes used for 
parchment ; Diphthera Jovis, register-book of 
Jupiter. 

Diploma (i. q. libellus diiplicatus, consisting of 
two leaves, written on one side), a writing con- 
ferring some peculiar right or privilege, granted 
by a magistrate or emperor. 

Epistola, a letter to one absent. The Romans 
divided their letters if long into pages, folded 
them in the form of a little book, tied them 
round with a thread (lino obligare), covered the 
knot with wax or a kind of chalk (creta), and 
sealed it (obsignare) ; hence epistolas resignare, 
solvere, to open a letter. The name of the writer 
was always put first, then that of the person 
addressed : the word salutcm or letter S was 



annexed. The letter always closed with some 
form of a good wish or prayer, called subscriptio. 
The date was usually added, sometimes the 
hour of the day. Letters were usually sent by 
a slave, called tabellarius, there being no estab- 
lished post until the time of the emperors; when 
its use was chiefly confined to the imperial ser- 
vice. {Gibbon, Rom. Enip. ch. ii.) The slave 
or freedman employed to write letters was 
termed amanuensis (a manu). 

Folium, a leaf of a book ; leaves of trees or 
plants having been employed originally to write 
upon ; hence our word/o//o. 

Liber, inner bark used in early times as a 
material for writing; hence put for book. 

Libelli, generally signifying imperial messa- 
ges, public orders, memorials, petitions, or the 
like, as these were divided into pages and 
folded in a small book, somewhat in our form; 
the term Codici'.li was used in the same sense, 
but generally applied to a person's last will. 

Libellus viemorialis, a pocket book. 

Libellus rationalis, an account book. 

Librarii, transcribers. 

Libraria (taberna understood), book-shop. 

Librarium, a chest for holding books. 

Litcrm, usually epistles, but often any kind 
of writing ; hence put for learning. 

Opisthographus, written on both sides. 

Pagina, a page ; primarily, a sheet of the 
papyrus ; i. q. plagula described above (1) ; 
ramentum, cutis, corium, tania, are applied by 
Pliny to the same. 

Palimpsestus (codex), a manuscript on which 
the first writing was obliterated in order that it 
might be used again. This was effected by re- 
moving the surface of the parchment, or by 
some chemical process. Cf. $ 84. 

Pergamena, see Charta. 

Pugillares, small writing tables, of oblong 
form, made of citron, boxwood, or ivory, and 
covered with wax. The Romans usually car- 
ried such tables with them ; a slave (notari.us) 
was often employed to note down what they 
wished. 

Theca calamaria, the case for the calanms or 
stylus. The style was sometimes, under provo- 
cation , used as a weapon ; hence, as has been 
supposed, the stiletto of the modern Italians. 

Vellum (Vitulinum), the skins of calves pre- 
pared as material for manuscripts. 



III. — Of the most flourishing period of Roman Literature. 



§ 119. The conquest of Magna Grascia, as has been mentioned, 
made the Romans more acquainted with the letters and arts of the 
Greek colonies in the south of Italy. After the first Punic war, and 
especially after the subjection of Sicily, B. C. 212, where also, par- 
ticularly at Syracuse, Greek letters flourished, the influence of these 
Bubject states upon their mistress was great in respect to intellectual 
culture. Poets, orators, and grammarians from the conquered coun- 
tries, removed to Rome and inspired many of her citizens with a 
love of literature. 

§120 u. From this period, Roman literature made rapid and remarkable 



72 ARCHEOLOGY OF KOMAN LITERATURE . 

progress. They began more to admire poetry, especially dramatic, and to 
study with more care the principles of their language. They also became* 
acquainted with the Grecian philosophy. What contributed very much to 
this last, was the visit of three Greek philosophers, Carneades, Diogenes and 
Critolaus, who Came to Rome on an embassy, B. C. 155. These men, (cf. P, 
II. § 408.) notwithstanding the efforts made by Cato to shorten their stay and 
to prevent their teaching their doctrines, excited great interest in the Greek 
philovsophy. The Romans now also began to set more value upon the art of 
oratory ; to apply themselves to historical researches, and to look upon the 
study of jurisprudence as afavorable means for improving their welfare. After 
the taking of Carthage, and especially after the subjection of Greece, Rome 
enjoyed more of peace, together with the numerous advantages she had gain- 
ed by her conquests ; then followed the reign of the sciences and fine arts y 
and that brilliant period, which is called the golden age of her literature. 
See Abbe le Moine, and J. II. Eberhardt, as cited P. II. § 294. 

§ 121. The most brilliant age of Roman literature commenced 
with the capture of Corinth and Carthage, B. C. 146, and continued 
to the death of Augustus, the first emperor, A. D. 14, comprising a. 
. period of 159 years. The progress of the Romans in the sciences 
and arts was now so great, that it has excited the admiration of pos- 
terity, and secured them a rank among the distinguished nations of 
antiquity, second only to the Greeks. Among the causes of this re- 
markable advancement, must be mentioned the comparative tranquil- 
lity of the period, the greatness of the empire, the custom of imita- 
ting the best Grecian models, and those changes in the Roman con- 
stitution and policy with regard to the arts and sciences, by which 
they not only obtained tolerance, but enjoyed protection, respect and 
the most flattering encouragement. 

§ 122. It was thus, that the productions of genius came to the 
greatest perfection, that the language was enriched and poetry took a 
novel and more brilliant form, particularly in the reign of Augustus. 
The art of oratory presented a vast field for the intellect, and held a 
superior rank. History acquired more of dignity and interest. Phi- 
losophy in all its sects adopted the Grecian method of instruction, 
and received the most encouraging attention. The Mathematics, 
which hitherto had been limited to arithmetic and the elements of 
geometry, obtained far greater extent and perfection. To medicine 
and jurisprudence were imparted more solidity and exactness in their 
application. This progress became still more rapid and universal, as 
these acquirements extended through different classes of citizens,, 
and Romans of the highest rank, and even the rulers themselves,, 
engaged in literary pursuits, or at least considered it their glory to 
favor and encourage them. 

§ 123. The progress of improvement was specially manifest in 
the system of education. It was no longer limited to the bodily 
powers and the art of war. Every faculty of the mind was de- 
veloped, as among the Greeks, who were in this as in other things 
the masters and models of the Romans. The first instruction of 
the Romans was received from Greeks, and Grecian letters and arts 
constituted the principal study. Hence their evident imitation of 
the Greeks, whom however they did not servilely copy, but infused 
into their imitations their own spirit and genius. In the same man- 
ner as the Greeks, the Romans also had their contests or trials of 



EDUCATION. SCHOOLS. 73 

skill in oratory, poetry and music, their public recitals, their pro- 
fessed readers, and their literary feasts ; and the sciences were not 
limited to particular classes or professions, any more than among the 
Greeks. The knowledge which they considered suitable to every 
condition, and worthy of a man of noble birth, and of good capaci- 
ty, education and manners, they called by way of eminence, artes 
liberates, studia humanitatis. 

See Cellarii Diss, de studiis Romano-rum literariis, Hal. 1698.4. — Also con- 
tained in Cellarii Antiq. Rom. edited by Walch, Hal. 1774. 8. 

§ 124. In these studies we must include the instruction given by 
the Grammarians and Rhetoricians, who were also styled professores, 
literati, and literatores. These latter instructed not only in the ele- 
ments of the Latin and Greek language, but also in the principles of 
poetry and oratory, the principal works of which they analyzed and 
explained. Of declamation, or public oratorical rehearsals, there 
was a frequent practice. Not only children and youth, but men of 
parts and education, assisted in these exercises. Besides this en- 
couragement the instructors received recompenses and favors, and 
sometimes even shared in the highest dignities of state. The first 
Grammarian, who taught in Rome with success, was the Grecian 
Crates from Mallos (cf. P. II. § 418). After him L. Plotius be- 
came one of the most celebrated in that profession ; and he was the 
first who taught the art of oratory in the Latin language. 

§ 125. Many public schools (scholar, ludi, pergulm magistrates) 
were established, in consequence of the great number of these gram- 
marians, which at length increased, so that many were obliged to 
leave Rome, and spread themselves in upper Italy. One of the 
most celebrated of the schools was that instituted at a later period 
by the emperor Adrian. It was held in a large edifice, called the 
Atheneum, partly devoted also to public recitals and declamations, 
and was continued under the name of Schola Romana, until the time 
of the first Christian emperors. There was also an establishment of 
the kind in the Capitolium. In addition to these, some temples, as 
that of Apollo, for example, formed halls of assembly, for the pur- 
poses of rehearsal. And in the Gymnasia, there were various intel- 
lectual as well as bodily exercises. The methods of instruction, 
particularly in the study of philosophy, were similar to those of the 
Greeks. (Cf. §§ 71—73.) 

1. In the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine bill, authors, 
particularly poets, used to recite their compositions before select judges. 
They were there said to be matched or contrasted, committi, or to contrast 
their works, opera committer e. Hence commissiones was used to signify 
showy declamations. 

Cf. Juv. vi. 435. — Suet. Aug. 45. 89. Claud. 4. 53. — Naudet, Sur 1'instruction publique chez 
les anciens, particulierement les Romains. Mem. de PInstitut. C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Jlnc. 
vol. ix. p. 388.— L. Rcederer, De Scholast. Romanor. Institutione. Bonn. 1828. 4. 

2. The following extract, from Kennett's Antiquities, will give further par- 
ticulars respecting the education of the Romans. 

"For masters, in the first place, they had the Literatores or r^auiianaral, who taughtthe 
children to read and write ; to these they were committed about the age of six or seven years. 
Being come from under their care, they were sent to the grammar schools, to learn the art of 
speaking well, and the understanding of authors ; or more frequently in the houses of great 
men, some eminent grammarian was entertained for that employment. — It is pleasant to con- 
sider, what prudence was used in these early years to instil into the chidren's minds a love 
and inclination to the Forum, whence they were to expect the greatest share of their honors 

7 



74 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

and preferments. For Cicero tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, that when they 
were boys they used to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by heart, in the same 
manner as they did an excellent poem. And Plutarch relates in his life of the younger Cato, 
that the very children had a play in which they acted pleading of causes before the" judges ; 
accusing one another, and carrying the condemned party to prison. — The masters already 
mentioned, together with the instructors in the several sorts of manly exercises for the im- 
proving of their natural strength and force, do not properly deserve that name, if set in view 
with the rhetoricians and philosophers ; who, after that reason had displayed her faculties, 
and established her command, were employed to cultivate and adorn the advantages of na- 
ture, and to give the last hand towards the forming of a Roman citizen. Few persons made 
any great figure on the scene of action in their own time, or in history afterwards, who, be- 
sides the constant frequenting of public lectures, did not keep with them in the house some 
eminent professor of oratory or wisdom. 

At the age of seventeen years, when the young gentlemen put on the manly gown, they were 
brought in a solemn manner to the forum, and entered in the study of pleading ; not only if 
they designed to make this their chief profession, but although their inclinations lay rather to 
the camp. For we scarce meet with a good captain who was not a good speaker, or any em- 
inent orator, who had not served some time in the army. Thus it was requisite for all persons 
who had any thoughts of rising in the world, to make a good appearance, both at the bar, and 
in the field ; because if the success of their valor and conduct should advance them to any 
considerable post, it would have proved almost impossible, without the advantage of elo- 
quence, to maintain their authority with the senate and people ; or if the force of their oratory 
should in time procure them the honorable office of praetor or consul, they would not have 
been in a capacity to undertake the government of the provinces (which fell to their share at 
the expiration of those employments) without some experience in military command. 

In the dialogue de Oratonbas, we have a very good account of this admission of young gen- 
tlemen into the forum, and of the necessity of such a course in the commonwealth. — " Among 
our ancestors," says the author, " the youth who was designed for the forum, and the practice 
of eloquence, being now furnished with the liberal arts, and the advantage of a domestic insti- 
tution, was brought by his father or near relations, to the most celebrated orator in the city. 
Him he used constantly to attend, and to be always present at his performance of any kind, 
either in judicial matters, or in the ordinary assemblies of the people, so that by this means 
he learned to engage in the laurels and contentions of the bar, and to approve himself a man 
at arms in the wars of the pleaders." 

To confirm the opinion of their extreme industry and perpetual study and labor, it may not 
seem impertinent to instance in the three common exercises of translating, declaiming, and re- 
citing. — Translation, the ancient orators of Rome looked on as a most useful, though a most 
laborious employment. All persons that applied themselves to the bar, proposed commonly 
some one orator of Greece for their constant pattern j either Lysias, Hyperides, Demosthenes, 
or iEschines, as their genius was inclined. Him they continually studied, and, to render them- 
selves absolute masters of his excellencies, were always making him speak their own tongue. 
This Cicero, Gluintilian, and Pliny Junior, enjoin as an indispensable duty, in order to the ac- 
quiring any talent in eloquence. And the first of these great men, besides his many versions 
of the orators for his private use, obliged the public with the translation of several parts of Plato 
and Xenophon in prose, and of Homer and Aratus in verse. 

As to declaiming, this was not only the main thing, at which they labored under the masters 
of rhetoric, but what they practiced long after they undertook real causes, and had gained a 
considerable name in the forum. Suetonius, in his book of famous rhetoricians, tells us that 
Cicero declaimed in Greek till he was elected Praetor, and in Latin till near his death ; that 
Pompey the Great, just at the breaking out of the civil war, resumed his old exercise of de- 
claiming, that he might the more easily be able to deal with Curio, who undertook the defence 
of Caesar's cause, in his public harangues ; that Mark Antony and Augustus did not lay aside 
this custom, even when they were engaged in the siege of Mutina ; and that Nero was not only 
constant at his declamations, while in a private station, but for the first year after his advance- 
ment to the empire. — It is worth remarking, that the subject of these old declamations was not 
a mere fanciful thesis, but a case which might be brought into the courts of judicature. 

When I speak of recitation, I intend not to insist on the public performances of the poets in 
that kind, for which purpose they commonly borrowed the house of some of their noblest pa- 
trons, and carried on the whole matter before a vast concourse of people, and with abundance 
of ceremonv. For, considering the ordinary circumstances of men of that profession, this may 
be thought not so much the effect of an industrious temper, as the necessary way of raising a 
name among the wits, and getting a tolerable livelihood. I would mean, therefore, the re- 
hearsal of all manner of compositions in prose or verse, performed by men of some rank and 
quality, before they obliged the world with their publication. This was ordinarily done in the 
meeting of friends and acquaintances, and now and then with the admission of a more numer- 
ous audience. The design they chiefly aimed at was the correction and improvement of the 
piece ; for the author, having a greater awe and concern upon him on these occasions than at 
other times, must needs take more notice of every word and sentence, while he spoke them 
before the company, than he did in the composure, or in the common supervisal. Besides, he 
had the advantage of all his friends' judgments, whether intimated to him afterwards in pri- 
vate conference, or tacitly declared at the recital by their looks and nods, with many other to- 
kens of dislike and approbation. (Cf. $ 67.) 

The example of the vounger Plinv, in this practice, is very observable, and the account 
which we have of it is given us by himself. " I omit (says he, Ep. vn. 17,) no way or method 
that may seem proper for correction. And first I take a strict view of what I have written, 
and consider thoroughly of the whole piece ; in the next place, I read it over to two or three 
friends, and soon after send it to others for the benefit of their observations. If I am in any 
doubt concerning their criticisms, I take in the assistance of one or two besides myself, to 
judge and debate the matter. Last of all, I recite before a great number ; and this is the time 
thatl furnish mvself with the severest emendations." 

On the rehearsals of the Romans, see Gierig, as cited below, § 128. 3.— For some remarks on 
Roman education, see Good's Book of Nature. Lect. xi.— On Rom. education in time of Quin- 
tilian, Rollin, on the Latin Rhetoricians, in his jinc. Hist. ed. N. York 1835, n. p. 552. 



LIBRARIES. 75 

§ 126. Collections of books were considerably numerous at Rome. 
The first private library is said to have been that which P. Emilius 
founded B. C. 167, immediately after the Macedonian war ; which, 
however, could not have been very large. More extensive was the 
library which Sylla brought with him from the capture of Athens, 
which included the rich collection of Apellicon. But this did not 
equal the magnificence of the famous library of Lucullus, obtained 
in the Mithridatic war. Besides these there were several other dis- 
tinguished private libraries, many citizens having them at their coun- 
try villas. The first public library was founded by Asinius Pollio, 
in the hall of the temple of Liberty, on Mount Aventine. One of 
the most celebrated was that founded by Augustus in the temple of 
Apollo on Mount Palatine. Another particularly celebrated was the 
Ulpine library founded by Trajan, and afterwards located in the Baths 
of Diocletian. There were also other public libraries, as for exam- 
ple, in the Capitol, in the temple of Peace, and in a building adjourn- 
ing the theatre of Marcellus. 

1. Varro is said to have collected a very valuable library, which was open 
to the use of literary men. Cicero and Atticus also possessed considerable li- 
braries. Tyrannio, a native of Pontus, who was taken prisoner by Lucullus 
and brought to Rome as a slave, and who, having received his freedom, en- 
gaged in teaching rhetoric and grammar, is said to have acquired by his earn- 
ings a library of 30.000 volumes. 

2u. Generally libraries (bibliothecce) occupied one of the principal apart- 
ments in the edifices and palaces of the Romans, usually in the eastern side 
of the building. They were ornamented with paintings and with statues and 
busts of distinguished writers. The books were ranged along the walls in 
cases (armaria, capsa), which were numbered and had subdivisions (foruli, 
loadamenta, nidi). Grammarians, and Greek slaves or freedmen, were ap- 
pointed for the librarians (hibliothccarii) . 

We cannot infer with certainty the number either of different authors, or of different works, 
contained in a library, from the number of volumes mentioned ; as often only one author, or 
one work even, was comprised in many volumes. The same work was no doubt found in va- 
rious libraries, and duplicates might exist in the same library. How many of the volumes enu- 
merated in the different libraries of Rome, were rilled, for example, with the poems of Virgil ? 
— A recent writer has estimated that, at the end of the second century, when there were pro- 
bably about three millions of Christians in the Roman empire, there were about 60,000 copies 
of the Gospels in use among them. Allowing that each gospel constituted but a single volume, 
this would make 240,000 volumes, in existence, for only four different authors. Cf. JL. Norton, 
Evidences of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Bost. 1837. 8. p. 45. ss. 

See Heeren's Gesch. Kiass. Litt. bk. i. ^§ 8-15. cited $ 53. — Sllv. Luersen, Be templo et biblio- 
theca Apollinis Palatini. Franequ. 1719. 8." — Schcell, Hist. Litt. Grecque. lib. v. ch. 50. — Dunlop, 
Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 50. — J. H. Fels, De As. Pollionis bibliotheca &x. Jen. 1713. 4.— Plutarch, 
in Lucullus. — Poppc, Be Romanor. Bibliothecis. Eerl. 1828. 4. 

§ 127. To these various means of improvement we must add trav- 
els, by which not only professed men of letters, but also persons of 
distinguished rank, extended their information and perfected their 
taste. At this time, education and knowledge were no longer re- 
stricted so much as formerly by national prejudice. The Romans 
began more and more to appreciate the merits of foreigners, and to 
reap advantages from their intercourse with them. For this reason 
they resorted to Athens, the seat of Grecian refinement. They went 
also to Lacedemon, Rhodes, Eleusis, Alexandria, Mytilene, and other 
places. Cicero, Sallust, Vitruvius, Virgil, Propertius, and others 
thus went abroad for improvement. 

See O. N. Kriegk, Diatribe de Veterum Ronaanorum peregrinationibus academicis. Jen. 
17J4. 4. 



76 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



IV. — Of the Decline of Roman Literature. 

§ 128 t. Roman literature, from the latter part of the first century 
after Christ, began to decline very sensibly from its height of glory 
and perfection. Its decline became, from the concurrence of many 
causes, more rapid than had been its former progress and improve- 
ment. We must place among these causes the loss of liberty and 
the triumph of despotism ; the little encouragement given to litera- 
ture by most of the emperors succeeding Augustus ; the great in- 
crease of luxury and the consequent universal degeneracy of man- 
ners. The changes in the moral and political condition of Rome 
paralyzed the nobler motives, which had stimulated the citizens. 
Pure taste and delicate sensibility were gradually lost. Gaudy orna- 
ment was admired rather than real beauty. Affectation was substi- 
tuted for nature, and the subtleties of sophistry for true philosophy. 
Finally the invasions of the barbarians, the frequent internal commo- 
tions, the conflict of Christianity with pagan superstition (§ 83), the 
transfer of the imperial throne to Constantinople, and the division of 
the empire, consummated that fall of Roman literature, for which so 
many united causes had prepared the way. 

See Meiners, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der Rcemer. Lpz. 
1782. 8. 

1. The decline of Roman literature may be dated from the end of the reign 
of Augustus, A. D. 14 ; and its history is considered as terminated with the 
overthrow of the western empire, A. D. 476. The whole time intervening is 
commonly divided into two periods, the beginning of the reign of the Anto- 
nines, A. D. 138, being the epoch of separation. It is by some divided into 
three, the first from Augustus to Antoninus, A. D. 14 — 138, the second from 
Antoninus to Constantine, A. D. 138 — 313, the third from Constantine to the 
fall of the empire, A. D. 313—476. 

On the periods in the history of Roman literature, see P. II. § 296, 301. 

2. Some of the emperors after Augustus patronized letters; and during a 
portion of the time the declension of literature was not owing to the want of 
imperial encouragement. Under Hadrian the empire nourished in peace and 
prosperity, and men of letters were honored. The reign of the Antonines was 
also favorable to literature and the arts. After the death of Marcus Aurelius 
Antoninus, A. D. 180, the imperial influence was much less propitious to 
learning. From this event to the reign of Constantine, conspiracies and se- 
ditions, bloodshed and devastation, mark the history. Constantine is said by 
his biographer Eusebius to have been a warm patron of letters, but his reign 
perhaps accelerated rather than retarded the declension of Roman literature. 
The establishment of Christianity by him necessarily tended to encourage a 
new system of education, and a new form and spirit of literature. Julian 
the apostate, who received the imperial throne A. D. 361, less than 30 years 
after the death of Constantine, made violent but ineffectual efforts to restore 
the intellectual influence wholly to the pagans, absolutely prohibiting Chris- 
tians to teach in the public schools of grammar and rhetoric ; vainly hoping in 
this way to hinder the propagation of the Christian religion. 

See Berington, Lit. History of the Middle ages. bk. i.— Gibbon, Hist. Rom. Emp. ch. iii. xiii. 
xxiii. — Hallam>s Middle Ages. bk. iv. pt. i.— Comp. $ 81.— On Hadrian's regard to literature 
&c. See Sainte Croix, in the Mem. Acad. Jnscr. vol. xnx. p. 405. 

3. Among the circumstances contributing to the decline of letters, espe- 
cially to the depravation of taste, among the Romans, some have mentioned 
the custom of authors in publicly rehearsing or reciting their own produc- 
tions. The desire of success naturally led the writer to sacrifice too much to 
the judgments or caprice of the auditors in order to secure their plaudits of 
approbation. 



CORRUPTION OF TASTE. 77 

See Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. it. p. 251. — Gierig, Excursus de recitationibus Romanorum, 
in his edition of Pliny's Letters. Lpz. 1802. 2 vols. 8. Contained also in Lcmaire's Pliny, 
vol. ii. p. 219. 

4. The Roman language suffered from the vitiating influence of intercourse 
with provincial strangers, who flocked to Rome. Many of these were admit- 
ted to the rights of citizenship and even received into offices of honor. It 
was impossible, that the peculiarities of their respective dialects should not 
modify in some degree the spoken language, and the consequences might ere 
long appear even in the style of writing. The purity of the language was 
much impaired before the time of Constantine. The removal of the govern- 
ment from Rome to Constantinople occasioned still greater changes in it, par- 
ticularly by the introduction of Greek and Oriental words with Latin termi- 
nations. The invasions and conquests of the barbarians completed the depra- 
vation of the Roman tongue and laid the foundation for the new languages 
which took its place. 

See Schccll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 255 ; in. 10.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp. cHt ii. — On the 
transition of the Latin to the modern French, Italian, &c. see Hallam's Middle Ages, ch. ix. 
p. 1. — M. Bonamy, Essay in Mem. de l'Acad. des lnscr. tome xxni. — Funck, De imminente L. 
L. senectute, &c. as cited P. II. $ 299. (g). 

5. There were schools of learning in different parts of the empire during 
the decline of letters. In these professors were supported at public expense, 
and taught the principles of philosophy, rhetoric, and law or right. Such 
schools existed at Byzantium, Alexandria, Berytus, and Milan, and at several 
places in Gaul, where letters were cultivated with much zeal, as at Augusto- 
dunum (Autun), Burdegala (Bourdeaux), and Massilia (Marseilles). These 
schools, however, are said to have contributed to the corruption of taste, as 
the teachers were less solicitous to advance their pupils in real knowledge 
than to acquire glory from pompous display. At Berytus was the most fa- 
mous school for the study of Roman jurisprudence. 

See Schcell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. in. p. 8. — Gibbon's account of the school at Berytus, in Decl. 
and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xvii. — Compare $ 80. 



V. — Of the Remains and Monuments of Roman Literature. 

§ 129. The existing monuments of Roman literature are more 
numerous than those of Grecian, and scarcely inferior in point of 
utility and importance. We shall briefly notice them under the three 
classes of Inscriptions, Coins, and Manuscripts. Great advantage 
may be derived from Roman inscriptions and coins, in the illustra- 
tion of history, antiquities, geography, and chronology, and the man- 
uscripts present much that is subservient to philology and criticism, 
and taste. The same general remarks, which were made upon the 
written monuments of the Greeks, may be applied to those of the 
Romans. (Cf. § 86. ss.) 

(a) Inscriptions. 

§ 130. The Grecian custom of commemorating remarkable events, 
by short inscriptions upon marble or brass, and of ornamenting their 
temples, tombs, statues, and altars with them, also existed among the 
Romans. There now remains a large number of these ancient in- 
scriptions, which have been collected and explained by several learn- 
ed men. 

We here mention some of the collections. — Among the earliest ; J. Reinesius, Syntagma 
Inscript. Antiquarum. 1688. 2 vols. fol. — R. Fabretti, Inscriptionum Antiquarum, &c. Expli- 
cate. Rom. 1699. fol. — One of the most complete works on the subject ; Jani Gruteri, In- 
scriptions antique totius orbis Romani, notis Marqu. Gudii emendatae. Cura J. G. Graevii. 
7* 



78 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



Amst. 1707. 2 torn. fol. — Next to this, the following are among the most valuable ; I. B. Donii, 
Inscriptiones Antiques, nunc primum editse, notisque illustrate, etc. ab A. F. Gorio. Flor. 
1731. fol. — Inscriptiones Antiquse, in urbibus Hetrurice, c. obs. Salvinii et Gorii. Flor. 1743. 
3 vols. fol. — L. A. Muratorii Novus Thesaurus veterum inscriptionum, in prascipuis earundem 
collectionibus hactenus prastermissarum. Mediol. 1739. 4 vols. fol. — Seb. Donati, Ad Novum 
Thesaurum Vet. Inscrip. cl. viri L. A. Muratorii Supplementa. Lucse, 1764. 1775. fol.— Rich. 
Pococke, Inscr. Antiq. Greec. et Latin. Liber. Lond. 1752. fol.— B. Passionei, Inscr. Antiche. 
Luce. 1763. fol. — /. C. Hagenbuchii Epistolas Epigraphies, in quibus plurima antique inscrip- 
tiones, imprimis thesauri Muratoriani emendantur et explicantur. Tiguri, 1747. 4. — There 
are smaller collections of the more important inscriptions ; Gul. Fleetwood, Inscriptionum an- 
tiquarum sylloge. Lond. 1691. 8. — Romanarum Inscr. Fasciculus, cum explicatione notarum, 
in usum juventutis (auct. Comite Polcastro). Patav. 1774. 8. — Among the most valuable 
modern works ; F. Osann, Sylloge Inscript. Antiq., begun as cited $ 87 ; continued and fin- 
ished, Darmst. 1822-29, in 8 Parts ; including Latin and Greek inscriptions. — J. C. Orelli, Inscr. 
Lat. select. Collectio. Zur. 1828. 2 vols. 8. On the distinction between epigrams and in- 
scriptions, cf. P. II. § 342. 

§ 131. Some of the Roman inscriptions are among the most an- 
cient monuments of the Roman language and manner of writing. 
In order fio decide upon their genuine character and estimate aright 
their contents, much previous knowledge is requisite. It is especial- 
ly necessary to understand the abbreviations which are frequently 
used. These consisted sometimes of detached letters, which ex- 
pressed a prgenomen, or some known formula ; sometimes of the 
principal letters of a word, the others being omitted; sometimes of 
monograms, by the contraction of different letters into one charac- 
ter ; sometimes by putting a single vowel enlarged for two similar 
ones ; and sometimes by the omission of some letters in the middle 
of a word. 

1 u. It may be proper to introduce and explain some of the more common 
abbreviations that occur in Roman inscriptions. 

(A) A. aedilis, annus, Aulus. — A. L. F. ani- 
mo lubens fecit.— A. P. eedilitia potestate.— A. 
S. S. a sacris scriniis.— AN. V. P. M. annos 
vixit plus minus — AVSP. S. auspicante sa- 
crum. 

(B) B. DD. bonis deabus. — B. B. bene bene, 
i. e.optirne. — B. D. S. M. bene de se merenti. — 
B. G. POS. biga gratis posita. 

( C) C. Caius, civis, cohors, conjux. — C. C. 
S. curaverunt communi sumtu. — C. F. Caii fi- 
lms, carissima femina. — C. R. curavit refici, 
civis Romanus — C. V. P. V. D. D. communi 
voluntate publice votum dederunt. — CVNC. 
conjux. 

(D) D. decuria, domo. — D. D. dono dedit, 
dedicavit. — D. L. dedit libens.— D. M. V. diis 
manibus votum.— D. S. P. F. C. de sua pecu- 
nia faciendum curavit. — DP. depositus. 

(E) E. erexit, ergo, expressum. — E. C. eri- 
gendum curavit. — E. F. egregia femina. — E. 
M. V. egregias memorae vir. — E. S. e suo. — 
EX. PR. ex praecepto.— EX. TT. SS. HH. ex 
testamentis supra-scriptorum heredum. 

(F) F. fecit, filia, filius, flamen.— F. C. fa- 
ciendum curavit. — F. F. fieri fecit, filius fami- 
lias. — F. F. fecerunt, filii, fratres. — F. H. F. 
fieri heredes fecerunt. — F. I. fieri jussit. — FR. 

D. frumenti dandi.— F. V. S. fecit voto sus- 
cepto. 

(H) H. habet, heres, honorem. — H. A. F. C. 
hanc aram faciendam curavit. — H. Q,. hie qui- 
escit. — H. I. I. heredes jussu illorum. — H. S. 

E. hie situs est. 
(I) I. Imperator. — I. L. F. illius liberta fecit. 

— I. L. H. jus liberorum habens. — I. O. M. D. 
Jovi optimo maximo dedicatum. 

(K) K. Caius, calendas, candidatus, casa. 

(L) L. legio, lustrum.— L. A. lex alia, li- 
bens animo.— L. C. locus concessus.— L. H. 
L. D. locus hie liber datus.— L. P. locus publi- 



cus.— L. S. M. C. locum sibi monumento ce- 
pit.— LEG. legatus. 

(M) M. magister, mater, monumentum. — 
M. A. G. S. memor animo grato solvit. — MM. 
memories.— MIL. IN. COH. militavit in co- 
horte. 

(N) N. natione, natus, nepos, numerus. — 
N. P. C. nomine proprio curavit. 

(0) O. D. S. M. optime de se merito.— O. 
H. S. S. ossa hie sita sunt. — OB. AN. obit 
anno. 

(P) P. pater, patria, pontifex, posuit, puer. 
— P. C. patres conscripti, patronus coloniae s. 
corporis, ponendum curavit.— P. E. publice er- 
exerunt. — P. I. S. publica impensa sepultus. — 
P.P. publice posuit, pater patriae, praefectus 
praetorio. — P. S. P. Q,. P. pro se proque patria. 
— PR. SEN. pro sententia. — P. V. prasfectus 
urbi. 

(Q) CL. quaestor, qui, Quintus. — Q,. A. 
quaestor aedilis. — Q,. D. S. S. qui dederunt 
supra scripta. — Q.. F. quod factum. 

(R) R. recte, retro. — R. G. C. rei gerundae 
caussa. 

(S) S. sepulcrum, solvit, stipendium.— S. C. 
Senatus Consultum.— S. C. D. S. sibi curavit 
de suo.— S. E. T. L. sit ei terra levis. — S. L. 
M. solvit libens merito. — S. P. Q,. S. sibi poste- 
risque suis. — SVB. A. D. sub ascia dedicavit. 

(T) T. Titus, tribunus, tunc— T. C. testa- 
menti causa. — T. F. testamento fecit, Titi fi- 
lius, titulum fecit.— T. P. titulum posuit. — TR. 
PI. DESS. tribuni plebis designati. 

(V) V. Veteranus, vixit. — V. A. F. vivus 
aram fecit. — V. C. vir consularis, vivus cura- 
vit. — V. D. D. votum dedicatum.— V. F. F. 
vivus fieri fecit. — V. M. S. voto merito sus- 
cepto. — V. E. vir egregius. 

(X) X. ER. decimae erogator.— XV. VIR. 
SAC. FAC. quindecimvir sacris faciundis. 

2. The following works treat upon this subject. — Sertorii Ursati de notis Bomanorum Com- 
mentarius. Patav. 1672. fol.— J. D. Coleti Notae et Siglae Rom. Venet. 1785. A.— J. Gerrard, 



INSCRIPTIONS. /» 

Siglarium Romanum. Lond. 1792. 4.— Explicatio lit. et not. in antiq. Rom. moniraentis occur- 
rentium. Flor. 1822. 8. — See Notes Compendiarice, in MnswortWs Latin Diet, by Morrell 
Lond. 1816. 4.— Cf. Port Royal Lat. Grammar, bk. ix.— Also § 136. 1. 

§ 132. Besides the numerous advantages already mentioned, as 
derived from Roman inscriptions, this study is of service in devising 
and preparing inscriptions designed to be placed upon modern mon- 
uments. It renders one acquainted with what is called the lapidary 
style, distinguished by its brevity and simplicity. For compositions 
of this sort the Latin is usually preferred to any modern language, 
on account both of its comprehensive brevity and also of its suita- 
bleness to the form and character of the monuments, which are gen- 
erally constructed after ancient models. It is scarcely necessary to 
observe, that in such cases the capital letters are used. 

The following is mentioned as a treatise very useful in this study. F. A. Zaccaria, Istituzi- 
one Antiquario-lapidaria, o sia Introduzione alio studio delle antiche latine Iscrizioni. Rom. 
1770. 4. Ver. 1793. 8.— Cf. J. O. Heineccius, Fundamentastili cultioris. Lpz. 1761. 8. Pt. n. 
c. v. 

§ 133. A vast number of Roman inscriptions have been gathered 
from the mass of ancient ruins. They differ very much from each 
other in point of utility and importance. Those of a public charac- 
ter are obviously far more valuable than such as are mere private 
records and epitaphs. With regard to their philological worth we 
should particularly consider their antiquity. The following are 
among the most important. 

lu. The inscription upon the pedestal of the Columna rostrata, a column so 
called because ornamented with beaks of ships. It was erected in honor of 
the Consul Duillius (a) after the naval victory which he obtained over the 
Carthaginians, B. C. 261. During the time of the second Punic war this col- 
umn was struck down by lightning (b), and its ruins remained for a long time 
concealed, until in 1560 they were discovered, together with the pedestal, upon 
which is found the inscription. This inscription has been published and ex- 
plained by several learned men. It is much mutilated; Lipsius has attempt- 
ed in part to fill up the blank places ; and Ciacconi entirely. It has been con- 
sidered as the most ancient monument of the Latin or Roman characters hith- 
erto discovered; yet it may not be the original inscription, but one placed 
upon the monument on its being restored at some subsequent time. A new 
column is supposed to have been erected by the emperor Claudius. 

(a) Cf. Flor. Hist. Rom. 112.— Tac. Ann. ii. 49.— Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 5.—(b) Liv. xlii. 
20. See Ciacconi, in Columnae Rostratae inscriptionem a se conjectura suppletam Explica- 
tio. Rom. 1608. Q.— Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. tome iv. cited P. IV. § 197.— Gruteri Corp. In- 
script. ccccit. 1. It may be found in the editions of Florus, by Graevius and Ducker. See 
also Anthonys Lempr. under C. Dmllius.-Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Lit. — Schcdl, Hist. Lit. Rom. vol. 
i. p. 47.— Edinb. Rev. No. lxxx. p. 400. 

2u. The inscriptions on the tombstones of Jie Scipios. The epitaph of the 
Father, C. L. Scipio JBarbatus, Consul B. C. 298, is probably nearly as old as 
the column of Duillius. It was discovered in 1780 in the vault of the Scipian 
family, between the Via Appia and Via Latina. It is on a handsome Sarcopha- 
gus. — The epitaph of the son, Lucius Scipio, was discovered much earlier, on 
a slab which was found lying near the Porta Capena, having been detached 
from the family vault. Though later as to the date of its composition, the 
epitaph on the son bear marks of higher antiquity than that on the father. 

The inscription in honor of the son is given by Sclia.ll, as follows; honcoino. ploirume. 

COSENTIONT. R . . . . DUONORO. OPTUMO. FUISSE. VIRO. LUCIOM. SCIPIONE. FILIOS. BARBATI. CON- 
SOL. CENSOR. AlDILIS. HEC FUET. A . . . . HEC CEPIT. CORSICA. ALERIAQJBE. URBE. DEDET. TEM- 

pestatebus. aide, mereto. This, being changed into the Latin of later times, may be read as 
follows ; Hunr. unum plurimi consentiinit Roma bonorum optimum, fuissc virum, Lucium Scipionem. 
Filius Barbati, consul, censor, csdilis hie fait apud vos. Hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem ; 
dedi.t Tempestatibus cedent mcrito. 

See Danlop , s Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 46. — Grmvii Thesau. Ant. Rom. tome iv. — Monument]" 
degli Scipioni publicati dal Cav. F. Piranesu Rom. 1785. fol. — Hobhousc's Illustrations of Childe 
Harold. — Schccll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 46. — Wagner, De Sepulchro Scipionum. Marb. 1828. 
4.— For a view of the Sarcophagus, see Winckelmann, Hist, de l'Art, as cited $32. 4.vol. n. pi. 
xxvi. Cf. ib. p. 314. 



80 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

3. The Eugubian Tables (Tabula Eugubina). These are seven tablets of 
brass, dug up in 1444, at Eugubium (Gubbio) a city in ancient Umbria near the 
foot of the Apennines. The inscriptions on five of the tablets are said to be 
in the Etruscan character and language. The other two are in Roman letters, 
but in a rustic jargon, between Latin and Etruscan. They were at first sup- 
posed to be of very high antiquity ; but " it is now agreed that they do not 
reach further back than the fourth century before the Christian era ;" andDun- 
lop states that '• the two tables in the Latin character were " written towards 
the close of the sixth century of Rome." 

See Ditnlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. l. p. 47.-Edi.7ib. Rev. No. 80. p. 383.— Bcekr, Gesch. Lit. Roam. 
(cited § 114. 3.) p. 64. — The inscriptions are given in Gruter, as above cited. — also in Lanzi, 
Saggio di Ling. Etrusc. — and Orelli, as cited § 130. 

4 m. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatus 
cunsulium cle Bacckanalibus. This decree was enacted B. C. 186. Livy 
(xxxiv. 8. — 18). gives us the occasion and contents of it. By certain passages 
in that author concerning this edict, the authenticity of this monument is con- 
firmed. It is engraved upon a table of bronze, which was discovered in 1640, 
in the province of Abruzzo, in digging the foundations of a manor house. It 
contains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the Bacchanalian rites, 
throughout the Roman dominion. The tablet, upon which are some fractures 
and gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at 
Vienna. 

See Senatus consulti de Bacckanalibus explicatio, auctore Maltkco JEgyptio (Egizio). Neap. 
1729. Fol. This dissertation is reprinted in the 7th vol. of DrackenborchPs edition of Livy. 
The edict itself is found in Gessner's and Ernesti's edition of Livy.— See also Schoell, Hist. 
Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 52. 

5 m. The Monumentum Ancyranum. This consists of several inscriptions on 
marble, upon the propylseum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern An- 
gora) in Galatia. They record the achievements of that Emperor. The mon- 
ument was discovered by Busbequius in 15.53. It has been much disfigured 
by time, or barbarian violence. 

See Gruteri Thes. Inscr. cexxx. — Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. — /. G. Baieri Marmoris Ancyrani 
historia. Jen. 1703. 4. — Remarques sur le monument d'Ancyre, Bibliotk. Ckoisie. tome viii. — 
Jac. Gronovii Memoria Cossoniana, cui annexa est novaeditio Monumenti Ancyrani. Lugd. Bat. 
1695. 4. — Observ. scr le Mon. d'Ancyre, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 47. p. 85. 

6 u. The Fasti Capitolini. These are portions of the tablets anciently 
placed in the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the 
consuls and other magistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is 
much elucidated. They are tablets of marble discovered in the Forum, at 
Rome, 1547, and contain a list of the Consuls from the year 270 to the year 
765 after the building of Rome. They were in a broken state. The frag- 
ments were united by the care of Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and placed in 
the palace of the Capitol, where they still remain. — Some additional portions 
were discovered at Rome in 1816. 

See Grcevii Thes. Ant. Rom. tome xi. — J. B. Pi?-anesi, Lapides Capitolini. Rom. 1762. Fol 

Nuovi framenti dei Fasti cons. Capitol, illustrati da Bartol. Borgkesi. Milan, 1818 — 1820. 4. — Also 
C. Fea, Frammenti di Fasti consolari &c. Rom. 1820. Fol. — Verrius Flaccus has been supposed 
to be the author of the Fasti Capitolini, and they were published by Onufrius Panvinius, 1553, 
under the name of that grammarian. This mistake was occasioned by a passage in Suetonius, 
in which he mentions that Flaccus attached to a structure erected at Preneste twelve tablets 
of marble containing a Roman Calendar, Fasti kalendares. Four of these latter tables, or 
rather fragments of them, were discovered in 1770, and form what is called the Calendarium 
Prcenestinum. They contain the months of January, March, April, and December, and cast 
much light on the Fasti of Ovid. They were published by P. F. Foggini, Fastorum anni Ro- 
mani reliquiae &c. Rom. 1779. Fol. The work contains a collection of the existing fragments 
of Roman Calendars. — Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 60. 65. — Bcckr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 413. 

(b) Coins and Medals. 

§ 134. Without entering into any minute history of Roman coin- 
age, we only remark that the first coins at Rome were probably struck 
under the reign of Servius Tullius, that the more ancient coins were 
for the most part of brass, and that silver coin was not introduced 
until B. C. 263, and gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins 
used as the current money, there were also a great many medals and 



COINS AND MEDALS. 81 

historical pieces or medallions (missilia, numismata maximi moduli), 
distinguished from the others by the absence of the letters S. C. which 
are commonly found upon the Roman coin, especially the brazen. 
On the gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and 
seem not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the strik- 
ing of the coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal 
arches and the like, which are represented on the reverses. 

1. The remarks offered under a previous section (§ 93), respecting the util- 
ity and entertainment connected with the study of coins, are applicable here. 
The Roman coins particularly are interesting on account of the striking per- 
sonifications and symbols found on their reverses. Many descriptions and al- 
lusions in the classical poets are beautifully illustrated from the figures and 
devices on the Roman coins. 

On the connection between poetry and medals, see Addison's Dialogues upon the usefulness 
of ancient Medals especially in relation to the Latin and Greek Poets ; in his Works, vol. hi. p. 
273. of ed. N. York, 1837. 3 vols. 8.— See also Spence, as cited § 151. 

2. On the Roman money coined in the time of the republic, very commonly was seen an im- 
age of victory, in a triumphal car, driving sometimes two horses, and sometimes four. Hence 
the pieces were called bigati or quadrati. The coins were also indented round the edges like a 
saw, and therefore termed serrati. Tacitus speaks of the money thus marked as the ancient 
and well known coin. It would seem that the later coin was adulterated. — Cf. Tac. De Mor. 
Germ. 5.— Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxm. 3. 

3 u. The pieces, which have been termed nummi. contorniati, may be included perhaps among 
the medallions. They are distinguished by a rim which is wrought with much art. They 
may have been prize medals of illustrious athletag, or may perhaps have been used as a sort of 
tickets for admission to public shows. 

4. Medals seem to have been sometimes employed in ancient times, as in modern, for pur- 
poses of satire upon private individuals and upon rulers. The medals called Spintrian were 
probably of the satirical class, and are supposed by some to have been designed to ridicule the 
debaucheries of Tiberius in the island of Caprea. — Oourdin on Satyric Medals, Archceologia 
(as cited $ 243. 3), vol. vs.. p. 61. 

§ 135. There are two principal divisions of the Roman coins ; the 
Consular, struck in the time of the republic, called also coins of the 
Roman families ; and the Imperial, the series of which extends from 
Julius Cassar to Heraclius. Of the Consular coins, the most rare are 
the golden ; of the Imperial, the most rare are the brazen coins of 
Otho. 

1. u The Consular coins include the following. 1. Brass coins. — These con- 
sist chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting im- 
agery. In all these, the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, 
with very few exceptions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a shell, two heads 
of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverse. 2. Silver. — Of this the 
denarius was the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, 
denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, 
or a chariot of victory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their 
appearance ; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious 
persons deceased are met with. 3. Gold. — Most of these are of great value. 
The number of these exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin ; 
but two or three gold semisses of families likewise occur." 

The first head of a living person that was struck on Roman coins is said to have been that of 
Caesar the Dictator. But the features of deceased consuls had previously been struck both on 
the silver and on the gold coins. 

" The Imperial coins include 1. Brass. — This is of three sizes ; large, middle, 
and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It is 
the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value. 
— The middle brass is next in value to the former ; and in it are many rare and 
curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of 
the island. — The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They 
are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. 
2. Silver. — This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any ; especially 
as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it ; the latter being had in plenty 
when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass 
is scarce. 3. Gold. — The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great 



82 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

beauty and perfection ; but on account of their great price are beyond the pur- 
chase of private persons. 4. The colonial coins. — They occur only in brass. 
On many of the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal 
arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those repre- 
sentations are by no means common ; the colonial coins till the time of Tra- 
jan bearing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelo- 
dunum is the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins. 5. The 
minimi. — This includes the smallest coins of all denominations, most of which 
do not exceed the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all. 
The reason of the scarcity of the small coins is probably their diminutive size ; 
by reason of which they are mostly lost." 

2. A great number of coins have been found, at different times, during the excavations at 
Pompeii. In one of the streets a skeleton was found, supposed to have been a priest of Isis ; 
" in his hand was a bag of coarse linen, not entirely destroyed, containing three hundred and 
sixty silver coins, forty two of copper, and six of gold ; and near him several figures belonging 
to the worship of Isis ; small silver forks, cups, patera; in gold and silver, a cameo represent- 
ing a satyr striking a tamborine, rings set with stones, and vases of copper and bronze." — 
"In several of the houses, skeletons with rings, bracelets, necklaces and other ornaments, to- 
gether with many coins, were found." — " A pot of gold coins, principally of the reigns of 
Trajan and Antoninus Pius, was found by a peasant, in 1787, at Nellore in Hindostan." 

3. It has been thought that false and base coin was fabricated by illegal coiners. Molds, 
which were employed for casting Roman coins have been found at Lyons in France and Ed- 
ington in England. — J. Poole, on Molds for Roman coins &c. Archaiologia (as cited § 242. 3.) 
vol. xiv. p. 99. 

§ 136. The writing upon the Roman coin is usually the legend, as 
it is called, on the head of the coin or on both sides ; but there is 
sometimes an inscription more at length placed upon the reverse. 
The contents of the legend commonly point out the person whose 
image is impressed upon the principal side and indicate his rank ; 
sometimes also a short notice of his exploits, forming the inscription, 
is upon the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it, 
either in whole words, or by certain letters or figures; and likewise 
the names of the cities where it was struck ; sometimes even that of 
the artist, together with the value, particularly upon the Consular 
coins. 

lu. In order to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary to be ac- 
quainted with the peculiar abbreviations, which are employed. — For a brief introduction to the 
subject, see I. C. Raschc, Lexicon Abruptionum, quae in numismatibus Romanorurn occurrunt. 
Norimb. 1777. 8.— Cf. § 131. 2. 

2u. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient monuments 
of their manner of writing, it is proper here again (cf. § 116), to refer to 
their orthography. It is not from mistake, but from ancient usage, that the 
orthography on the old coins differs from the modern. We find, for example, 
v in place of b in the word danvvivs ; o instead of v in volkanvs, and divos ; 
ee for e in feelix ; n for i in viirtvs ; s and m suppressed at the end of words, 
as in albinv, captv ; xs for x, in maxsvmvs ; f instead of ph, as in trivmfvs. 

§ 137. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard 
to Roman as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine 
from false, which are very numerous and of different kinds. Many 
of those that are offered as ancient, are struck in modern times with 
the ancient costume; others have been stamped in express imitation 
of really ancient coins, among which we may particularly notice 
those called Paduane, so celebrated on account of their good impres- 
sion ; others are cast similar to the old coins, by means of molds, 
and may be distinguished by traces of the casting ; others are formed 
by putting together two ancient coins in order to obtain rare and 
unique pieces, which may be detected by a careful examination of the 
edges ; others are really antique, but falsified by some change in their 
impression, or inscription. 



COINS AND MEDALS. 83 

See G. Beauvois, Maniere de discemer les medailles antiques de celles qui sont contrefaites. 
Par. 1739. 4. Translated into German and enlarged by Lipsius. Dresd. 1791. 4. 

§133. Besides the works already mentioned (§ 99) as illustrating 
the subject of ancient coins, we will cite the following, which relate 
principally to Roman coins. 

Cliai-les Putin, Introduction a l'Histoire par la connoissance des medailles. Par. 1665. 12. — 
Ch. Patln, Histoire des Medailles, ou Introduction a la Connoissance de cette Science. Paris, 
1695. 12. — Fulv. Vrsini Familia? Romans in antiquis numismatibus ab urbe condita ad tempora 
D. Augusti; edit. Carol. Patln. Par. 1663. fol. — J. Foy Vaillant, Nummi antiqui Familiarum 
Romanorum. Amst. 1703. 2 vols. fol. — Ejusd. Numismata Imperator. Romanor. proestantiora &c. 
cura T. F. Baldinl. Rom. 1743. 3 vols. 4. Supplementing op. Joh. Khell. Vindob. 1767. 4. — 
Ejusd. Numismata area Imperatorum Roman, in coloniis, municipiis &c. Par. 1688. 2 vols. fol. 
— By the same, Numismata Imperatorum, a Populis, Romans dictionis, Greece loquentibus, per- 
cussa. Amst. 1700. fol. — By same, Selectiora Numismata in iEre Maximi Moduli illustrata. Paris 

1695. 4. ddolphii Occonis, j\umismata Imperatorum Romanorum prajstantiora. Mediol. 1730. 

fol. — Thesaurus Morellianus s. Familiarum Roman. Numismata Omnia. Comm. illust. Sigeb. 
Havercampus. Amst. 1734. 2 vols. fol. — Ans. Bundurii Numismata Imperatorum Romanor. a 
Trajano Decio ad Palaeologos Augustos. Par. 1718. 2 vols. fol. Supplement, ed. H. Taninius, 
Rom. 1791. fol. — Car. Patinl Imperator. Romanor. Numismata. Argent. 1671. fol. Amst. 1696. 
fol. — Io. lac. Ocsneri Numismata Antiqua Imperatorum Romanorum latina et grffica. Tiguri, 
1748. fol. ; Numismata Antiqua Familiarum Romanarum. Tiguri, 1749. fol. — Win. Coolie, The 

Medallic History of Imperial Rome, &c. Lond. 1781. 2 vols. 4. On medals of a large size, 

see Mongez, Sur des Medallions Romains d' une volume extraordinaire, in the Mem. de PInstitut. 
Classe cPHist. et Lit. Anc. ix. 266. — int. Stelnbuechel, Recueil de medaillons en or du Cabinet Im- 
perial de Vienne. Vien. 1826. 8. On the subject of Roman coins, if. 0. Mueller, Aichaeolo- 

gie &c. (as cited Q 32. 4.) is a " very good authority." 

§139. The most valuable collections of ancient coins are the fol- 
lowing : at Paris, in the Royal library, and the Library of St. Gene- 
vieve ; at Rome, in the Vatican, and the collection once belonging to 
Christina queen of Sweden, now to the duke of Bracciano; in the 
British Museum at London; the Imperial collection at Vienna; the 
Royal collection at Berlin ; the Duke's collection at Gotha ; the Royal 
collection at Stuttgart; and at Copenhagen. There are valuable cata- 
logues of most of these public collections of coins. 

See Kozliler, Anweisung zur Reiseklugheit. Ed. Kinderling. Magdeb.1788. 8. — Eckhel (as cited 
<$ 99.), Proleg. cap. xxiii, — Dictionnaire des Artistes, par Meusel. — Salter, A!lg. Theor. &c. arti- 
cle Antik, V. 

1. Few genuine antiques have ever been brought to this country. Of really 
ancient coins, the Boston Mheneum probably possesses the largest number, 
having about 1400 Greek and Roman ; of which less than 200 are silver, and 
the rest are copper or brazen. (Ms. Lett, of Dr. Bass, Lib. to Bost. Ath. 1836.J 

2. Before leaving this subject, it is proper to remark that some examples of the manner in which 
symbols are employed on coins and medals may be feen by inspection of our Plate III. In fig. 6, 
Britain is represented by a woman reclining against a shield, and holding a spear in one hand, 
with her head resting on the other, as if in a contemplative mood. In fig. 9, the river Tiber is 
symbolized by the image of an old man with a branch of some plant, or perhaps some heads of 
grain, in his left hand,"and his right hand on the prow of a vessel. In fig. 7, a coin of Trajan, 
the Danube is represented in a manner in some degree similar. Tn fig. 8, a coin of Antoninus 
Pius, the symbol of Italia appears, a woman sitting on a globe and holding a sceptre and a horn 
of plenty, indicating her universal dominion and her riches. On many pieces, Rome is exhibited 
as a goddess, the image being a head with a helmet ; as in fig. 1, a coin of the Aurelian family, 
on which the helmet is curiously wrought, so as to present in its form the head, neck, and wings 
of an eagle : in fig. 2, which is the piece of money called triens, the head on the obverse is like- 
wise probably designed to represent the goddess Rome ; as is also perhaps the head covered with 
a lion's skin instead of a helmet, in fig. 3, which is the obverse of a quadrans. The heads of 
deities were frequently placed on Roman coins ; as that of Mercury in fig. 4, the obverse side 
of a sextans ; and that of Janus, in fig. a, the obverse of a duplex denarius. Rome is symbolized 
sometimes by the eagle, as Athens is on Greek coins by the owl ; as in fig. 10, which gives the 
obverse of another sextans ; the reverse of this (not given in the plate) presents a wolf nursing 
Romulus and Remus, but the reverse of these brass pieces more commonly contains merely the 
prow of a ship, as in fig. 2 : the points or dots on these pieces indicate their value ; four, the 
triens ; three, the quadrans ; and two, the sextans. We see the goddess of plenty or abundance 
represented, in fig. 5, a coin of the emperor Decius. The colonial coins of Antioch in Pisidia 
often bear, as in fig. s, the device of a bull vvitJi a hump-back representing mount Taurus. Some 
of Cassarea in Palestine show an eagle holding in his claws a thunderbolt, as in fig. t ; the let- 
ters underneath, in this coin, probably stand for Colonia Augusta Cassarea, or Ca;sariensis ; this 
city became a Roman colony after the conquests of Vespasian. Many of the coins of Vespasian 
bear upon the reverse a very striking symbol ; as in fig. y, with the words judea capta and 
initials of senatus consulto forming the legend, and the fate of conquered Palestine repre- 
sented by a woman sitting solitary and weeping, under a palm-tree, upon a collection of arms, 
shields, helmets, &c. thrown upon the ground. There is here a remarkable coincidence with 
a prophetic declaration of Isaiah, iii. 26 ; and she, desolate, shall sit on the ground. 



84 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

The Plate presents a view of one side of some of the principal silver coins of the Romans. 
In fig. a, we have the obverse of the double denarius, equivalent to the didrachma of the Greeks ; 
on the reverse was a quadriga. In fig. b, is the denarius, having its value of x asses of brass 
stamped upon it. This is the coin designated by the word ■penny as used in reference to Ro- 
man money in the common English version of the New Testament ; it commonly had on it, 
in the period to which the New Testament history relates, the image of the Roman emperor, 
and his superscription, i. e. his name or its initials inscribed on it as in fig. r, a gold coin of Ves- 
pasian. (See Matt. xxn. 20. Mk. xn. 16.) By some it has been supposed that the thirty silver 
pieces (aoyroiu) for which Judas covenanted to betray his master and Lord were so many 
denarii ; while others think that the silver piece here intended was the siclus, oixlog, a Jewish 
coin equivalent to the Attic tetradrachma. (Cf. Matt. xxvi. 15. Acts. xix. 19 — Upharn>s Trans. 

of John's Arch. § 117.) In fig. c, we have the quinarius, or half denarius, with its value of 

v asses stamped on it. The sestertius is given, in fig. d, having on the reverse Castor and Pol- 
lux on horseback ; usually marked by the letters h s on its obverse. In fig. e, is a silver coin 
presenting the eagle as a symbol of Rome, with the name of the city in the exergue. In fig. o, 
we have a very small gold coin, with its value of x x sesterces enstamped, which was some- 
times named scrupulum from its weight. 

(c) Manuscripts . 

§ 140. What has been said (§ 100 — 106) concerning the intrinsic 
value, the antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manu- 
scripts, is in general applicable to the Roman, and we need not here 
repeat it. The works of very many Latin writers, as well of the most 
flourishing period of Roman literature, as of later times, have been 
preserved and handed down to us by means of written copies. These 
manuscripts, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin manu- 
scripts, like most of the Greek, are not of earlier date than the sixth 
century after Christ. We must generally consider those the most 
ancient, whose writing bears most resemblance to the characters 
found upon coins and inscriptions. But this criterion is not a certain 
one, as in after ages the ancient manuscripts were sometimes copied 
with a perfect imitation of their manner of writing. 

See Gatterer on the method of determining the age of Mss. in the Comment. Societ. Omtt. 8th 
Band or vol — Also Schoznemann, Versuch eines vollst. Systems der Diplomatik. — Pfeiffer, cited 
§53. — Taylor's Transmission, &c. cited $ 58. 

§141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman characters, 
punctuation, and the contracted form of the diphthongs & and ce, 
which were originally written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from 
the seventh century, was often marked with a point y ; on the con- 
trary, the i was written without a point until the end of the tenth cen- 
tury ; afterwards it took an accent over it, i ; in the fourteenth cen- 
tury the accent was changed into a point. From the small Roman 
letters arose, by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, 
and those of the Francs and Anglo Saxons ; as these people derived 
the art of writing chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the an- 
cient Latin manuscripts now in existence belongs to this age. During 
the 9th and 10th centuries, more attention was paid to the beauty and 
elegance of the characters. In the 11th century enlarged letters were 
introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of which in 
after times, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appen- 
dages, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read. 

Cf. $ 117. Fac-similes and specimens, to illustrate the different modes of writing found in 
Latin manuscripts, are given in Mabillon de Re Diplomatica. — See also Waltheri Lexicon Diplo- 
maticum cum speciminibus Alphabetorum et Scripturarum. Gcett. 1745. 3 vols. fol. — JVouveau 
Traite de Diplom. torn. u. and m. 

§ 142. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facili- 
tated by the discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they 
have been carefully collected, compared, copied and published. Pe- 



MANUSCRIPTS. 85 

trarch searched more than two hundred libraries, and greatly aided 
an early cultivation of Roman literature, first in Italy, and afterwards 
in other countries. We are under similar obligations to Gasparini, 
Poggius, Beatus Rhenanus, Aloysius Mocoenicus, Grynreus, Sichard, 
and others. Without doubt there still exist some treasures of this 
sort, particularly manuscripts of the middle ages, which, if not valu- 
able on account of their style, may be of much importance to history, 
criticism, and literature generally. The libraries which have been 
mentioned (§108) as the principal depositories of Greek manuscripts, 
contain also a still more considerable collection of Latin manuscripts. 
The printed catalogues of some of them give notices of the manu- 
scripts. 

To the references there (§ 10S) given, we add the following. Wackier, Handbuch der Ges- 
chichte der Literatur, (as cited P. II. § 7. 9.) vol. m. p. 82. ss. ; giving a historical sketch of 
these libraries.— Bernhardt], Encyclopsdie der Philologie. Halle, 1832, — Petit-Radel, Recher- 
ches sur les Bibl. Anciennes et Moderns. Par. 1819. 8. — Eichhorn, Geschichte der Literatur. 
GStt. 1805, ss. 6 vols. 8. j giving (vol. in. p. 431. ss.) " a good account of the German li- 
braries." 

Respecting the labors of Petrarch and others, see Heeren's Einl. zu. Gesch. des Klass. Lit- 
teratur, cited $ 53.— On the zeal for the discovery and study of manuscripts after the revival of 
letters, see Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, and of Leo X. — For an account of the gene- 
ral circumstances pertaining to the formation, loss, and recovery of the " classical Mss. of 
Rome," see Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Literature, Appendix. 

§ 143. The following are among the most ancient manuscripts in 
the Latin language : (a) the Gospel of Mark, in the library of St. 
Mark at Venice, of very ancient date ; (b) the Virgil of Florence, 
or the Codex Medicaus ; (c) the Virgil of the Vatican, which seems 
to belong to the fifth century ; (d) the Terence of the Vatican, writ- 
ten in square letters, and ornamented with a large number of ancient 
masks ; and (e) the Florentine manuscript of the Pandects. 

(a) It has been asserted that the Latin Manuscript of St. Mark was Written by that apostle 
himself. " But this is now proved to be a mere fable ; for the Venetian Ms. formerly made 
part of the Latin manuscript preserved at Friuli, most of which was printed by Blanchini, in 
his Evangelioi-um Quadruple!: The Venice Ms. contained the first forty pages, or five quater- 
nions of St Mark's gospel ; the last two quaternions or twenty pages are preserved at Prague, 
where they were printed by M. Dobrowsky, under the title of Fragmentum Pragense Evan- 
gelii S. Marci vulgo autographi, 1778. 4. — See Home's Introduction, &c. vol. iv. pt. u. ch. ii. 
§ 3. — Gentleman's Magazine, vol. xlvi. — (b) Published by Foggini exactly after the manu- 
script. Rome, 1741. 4. — ( c) Published by Bartoli, 1741. fol. in engraving. For a notice of 
both these Mss. of Virgil, see Schcell, Hist. Lit. Rom. i. 362.— (d) Printed at. Urbino, 1736. fol. 
at Rome, 1767. fol. — " Ce precieux manuscrit a passe de la bibliotheque du Vatican dans celle 
de Paris." (Schazll, Hist. Lit. Rom. vol. i. p. 134.) — (e) Of this Brenckmann has given a de- 
scription in his Historia Pandectarum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1722. 4. It is now in the library of 
the Grand Duke at Florence, and formerly was held in great reverence. Curious and profane 
eyes were prohibited from looking upon it. It was opened only in the presence of a body of 
priests and a deputation of civil magistrates, with prescribed ceremonies and amidst burning 
tapers. Cf. Schall, Lit. Rom. iii. 281. ' 

In regard to manuscripts much information may be found in /. G. Sclielhorv? s Anleitung fur 
Bibliothekare und Archivare. Ulm, 1791. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. § 108.— JF. Roscoe, Account of the 
Manuscript Library at Hoikam in Norfolk ; in the Transact, of the Royal Soc. of Literature, 
vol. ii. Lond. 1834. A considerable collection of Mss. illustrated with miniatures and paint- 
ings, once belonging to Mr. Douce, is now in the Bodleian library at Oxford. For an ac- 
count of the Mss'. in the British Museum, illustrated with miniatures, &c. see G. F. Waagen, 
as cited ^ 190. 4. vol. i. p- 134. — There is among these a curious Ms. of Cicero's translation of 
Aratus (cf. P. II. § 71), adorned with miniatures of the constellations and busts of the planets 
Jupiter, Mars, &c. A writer ( W. Y. Ottley) in the Trans, of the Lond. Antiquarian Soc. would 
refer it to the 2d or 3d century.— See Jlrchceologia (cited § 243. 3), vol. xxvi. p. 48. ss. 



PLATE IV 




ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 



Preliminary Remarks. 

§ 144. By the word art, taken subjectively, is understood a prac- 
tical skill in producing something in agreement with certain purposes 
and rules. Taken objectively, it signifies the abstract union of those 
rules and practical principles, which are essentially useful to guide 
in the production of any designed object or work. When Nature 
■and Art are placed in contradistinction, the former designates the 
original powers in the material and spiritual world and their immedi- 
ate operations, the latter the efficiency of reason by means of choice 
and intention ; nature therefore is understood to operate by necessa- 
ry, art by voluntary or arbitrary laws. A distinction is also made 
between Art and Science, the one being the theory of that of which 
the other is the practice ; science implies the accurate knowledge of 
principles ; art is their successful application. 

§ 145. The arts are generally divided into the mechanical and the 
liberal ox fine. The former have reference chiefly to the bodily, the 
latter to the intellectual powers of man. The mechanical are those 
which are employed in producing and improving whatever is impor- 
tant to the necessities or comforts and conveniences of life. The 
fine arts are such as have chiefly pleasure for their object, although 
utility is connected therewith as a secondary point ; they aim at the 
representation or imitation of moral beauty or excellence, and are 
addressed to the imagination and the feelings. It is on account of 
this representation of beauty and this immediate reference to the 
-emotions of the mind, that they are termed the fine or the beautiful 
arts. They are Poetry, Oratory, Music, Dancing, Drama, Painting, 
Engraving, Lithoglyphy, Sculpture, and Architecture, which last 
may include Gardening, usually treated as a separate art. 

On the connection between Architecture and Gardening, see vol. n. p. 278 of Charactere der 
Vornehmsten Dichter (cited below, P. II. § 47). — Cf. ch. xxiv. of Homers Elem. of Criticism 
(cited § 152. 2). On the gardening of the ancients ; W. Falconer, Thoughts on the style of gar- 
dening among the Ancients ; in Mem. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, 2d vol. Lond. 
1785. 8. — Historical View of the Taste for Gardening, tyc. among the Ancients. Lond. 1785. 8. 

§ 146. These are all addressed to feeling and imagination, but do 
not all exert their influence in the same way and by the same means. 
Such of them as effect their object by means of visible images or re- 
semblances are called often the plastic arts; from this class are ex- 
cluded poetry, oratory, music, and for the most part dancing and 
drama. The modes of forming these images or representations of 
visible objects are various ; the image may be formed entire, or in 
«demi-relief or bas-relief, or in depression, or on a plane surface. The 
art of designing may be considered as a common foundation for the 



88 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

whole class, since they are employed wholly in representing those forms 
or actions of material bodies, which are distinguished for regularity, 
or peculiar fitness, or moral beauty or force, and which are therefore 
worthy of the artist's skill. On this account they are termed by some 
the arts of design. 

§ 147. The forms, which are represented, are not merely such as 
actually exist in nature, but also such as are wholly ideal, or of a 
mixed character, partly imaginary and partly real. Art likewise often 
employs this imitation of material forms to express purely intellec- 
tual and spiritual conceptions. This object is effected in part by ex- 
hibiting emotions of the soul through bodily gestures, attitudes, and 
actions. It is effected also by symbolical or allegorical images and 
combinations, which have in no small degree ennobled the plastic 
arts, and elevated them above their original limits. Perspicuity, ap- 
propriateness, liveliness, judicious discrimination, and accuracy are 
the essential traits in such allegorical pieces. 

For more full remarks respecting allegory in the arts of design, and references to authors, see 
the article Allegorie, in J. G. Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schbnen Kiinste. Lpz. 
1792-4. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 148. A sensibility and taste for art is necessary not only to the 
artist in order to practice successfully, but also to the observer or 
critic in order to judge properly. There must be a capacity or sus- 
ceptibility easily to perceive the beautiful, and to experience peculiar 
pleasure therein. Some elementary and correct natural feeling is 
therefore presupposed ; but by a frequent exercise of this feeling, a 
careful observation of works of art, and the study and application 
of rules, the capacity is easily enlarged and improved. Sensibility 
to the beautiful, delicacy of feeling, and correctness of judgment, 
are the most prominent characteristics of that taste for art, which the 
artist must unite and carefully cultivate in common with his genius 
and skill in execution. 

§ 149. The name of connoisseur belongs only to him, who is qual- 
ified to examine and criticise works of art according to their whole 
actual merits, and to estimate and explain on true principles their 
comparative value. For this a superficial knowledge is not sufficient; 
it requires an intimate acquaintance with the nature and essence of 
the arts, with all their principles, both mechanical and cesthetical, with 
their history, and with their chief productions. Good taste, famili- 
arity with the best performances, and studious reflection, therefore, 
are indispensable to a connoisseur in art. The mere amateur needs 
only an unperverted lively susceptibility to the impression made by 
works of art, and a prevailing attachment for them ; which traits, 
however, if properly cultivated, may form him into a connoisseur. 
Docti ration em artis intelligunt, indocti voluptatem. (Quintilian.) 

§ 150. The history of art is obviously useful to the artist and to 
the critic. By it we learn the first origin of art among the people 
of early antiquity ; its subsequent advancement among the Greeks, 
Etrurians, and Romans ; its decline with the wane of those nations ; 
its complete prostration in the middle ages ; its restoration and in 
some respects far greater advancement in modern times. The very 
perfection of modern art makes the study of the fine arts and their 
history advantageous and even, necessary to every one, who engages 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. b\) 

in literature and the studies required by common utility. Abundant 
occasion will be found by every man, for the application of this 
knowledge, so that he may turn to good account all the instruction 
and pleasure derived by him from it. 

§ 151. The monuments of the plastic arts remaining to us from 
ancient times, are called in general antiques, although by that term, 
especially when the kindred idea of classical excellence is associated 
with it, we understand chiefly the performances of the most flourish- 
ing periods of ancient art. These pieces are admired particularly 
for the beauty of their forms ; for the just and happy representation 
of the human figure, especially the head ; and for the dignity and 
emotion which is thrown into their expression, and is at the same 
time united with a most attractive grace. In general it may be said, 
that the artists of antiquity guided themselves by an ideal based and 
formed upon real nature, rather than by any actual models ever pre- 
sented in life. Hence the careful study of antiques is of great ser- 
vice to the artist and to the general critic and scholar, especially if it 
be connected with suitable attention to language, history, mythology, 
and antiquities in general. 

See J. Spence, Polymetis, or Enquiry concerning the Agreement between the works of the 
Roman Poets and the remains of ancient Artists. Lond. 1755. fol. — Article Antik, in Suiter's 
Allg. Theor. &c, cited above § 147. 

§ 152. Most of the now remaining works of the plastic arts of an- 
tiquity are such as either were actually designed to commemorate 
particular remarkable persons, objects, actions, and occasions, or 
may serve that purpose as to us. Of course to obtain a full under- 
standing of them, to look at these monuments in a right point of 
view, to discover their meaning, and perceive their whole beauty, 
we need the accessary knowledge just mentioned above. 

1 u. In this view, also, an acquaintance with the history of art, in its differ- 
ent periods and changes, and with the modes of conception and execution of 
the old artists, will appear very important. And every thing of this sort will 
be more useful and instructive, if attention be paid at the same time to the 
cesthetic character of the works, that is, to their comparative excellence con- 
sidered as happy imitations, and as operating on the taste and feelings. 

2. The term (Esthetic is not familiar in our language. It is formed from the Greek word 
aia6tjTiy.bg, from which also the corresponding German term, cesthetisch, is derived. The 
latter is defined by Sulzer (Allg. Tbeor. der schonen Kunste), as follows ; " that peculiarity or 
property of a thing by which it is an object of feeling [caa$>;a*c] , and therefore suited to be 
introduced in a work of the fine arts." The German noun asthetik (sesthetics) is defined, in 
the same work, as follows ; " the philosophy of the fine arts, or the science which deduces the 
general theory and the rules of the fine arts from the nature of taste." The words are cer- 
tainly very convenient in English, and have an obvious meaning which is expressed by no 
other terms. 

There are many works on the topics and principles belonging to the science of Aesthetics, 
— Georg. Szerdalialey, iEsthetica, seu doctrina boni gustus, ex Philosophia pulchri deducta in 
scientias et artes amceniores. Bud. 1779. 2 vols. 8. — GL Jagemann, Saggio sul buon gusto nelle 
belle arti, ove si spiegano gl' elementi della Estetica. Fir. 1771. 8. — Abbe Dubos, Reflexions 
critiques sur la Poesie et la Pe'mture. (Cf. §29.4.) — Ch. Batteaux, Les beaux arts reduits k 
une meme principe. Par. 1753. 12. In Germ, with additions by J. Ad. Schlegel. Lpz. 1770 % 
2 vols. 8. — The Polite Arts, or a Dissertation on Poetry, Painting, Music, Architecture, and El- 
oquence. Lond. 1749. 12. — H. Home (Lord. Kam.es), Elements of Criticism. Lond. 1785. 
2 vols. 8 — Alex. Gerard, Essay on Taste. Edinb. 1780. 8.— Archibald Alison, Essays on the 
Nature and Principles of Taste. Edinb. 1811. 8. Boston, 1812.— Joh. Christ. Kmnig, Philoso- 
phic der schonen Kunste. Nurnb. 1784. 8.— Ph. Gang-, ^Esthetic, oder allgemeine Theori,e 
der schonen Kunste und Wissenschaften. Salzb. 1785. 8. — Imm. Kant, Critik der Urtheils- 
kraft. Berl. 1790. 8. 

§ 153. To give something of this knowledge, although only in 
general and elementary principles, is the object of what follows, un- 
der the title of Archaeology of Art. It will be limited to the plastio 

8* 



90 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

arts, and will exclude Engraving and Gardening, as the former wa^ 
unknown to the ancients, and the latter was not ranked by them, 
either in practice or theory, among the fine arts. Sculpture, Lithogly- 
pliy, Painting and Architecture, will be noticed. Their history, 
especially among the Greeks and Romans, will be presented ; the 
most celebrated artists in each period named and characterised; and 
the chief monuments pointed out, with such remarks on their char- 
acter as may aid a right understanding of their worth. The notices 
must necessarily be brief. 



I. — Sculpture. 



§ 154. This term is used in a sense more comprehensive than its 
etymological meaning. We include under it the formation of ima- 
ges of visible objects, not only out of hard substances by means of 
the chisel and graver, but also out of soft substances, and out of 
melted metals. In precise discrimination the first of these arts is 
properly sculpture, ylvyr h sculptura ; the second is more exactly the 
art of molding, n).aony.l h jiglina ; and the third, the art of casting, 
roqsvriy,) h statuaria. The German word BildnerJcunst includes the 
whole, and is used by Luther in translating the Hebrew phrase (in 
Chron. iii. 10), which is rendered in the English version image-work. 

The figures are either formed entire so as to be seen on all sides 
(TzsQiyavfj, insRunde), or only prominent from a plane surface (nqoorv- 
rra, aruys.vcpa). Those of the former kind are termed Statues; the 
others are called in general Bas-reliefs, although they are distinguished 
in minute description, by terms indicating the degree of their promi- 
nence from the plane. Figures formed by depression, or by hollowing 
below the level, were termed by the Greeks diuylvya. 

Respecting the ars toreutice, see Excursus ad Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 34, in Lemairc's edition, 
cited below, P. II. § 470. 4. 

§155. In the introduction to this Archaeology (§ 8 — 11) we spoke in general 
of the origin of the arts. Here it is sufficient to remark, that the arc of forming 
images belongs to the highest antiquity, and probably was the earliest of the 
arts which we call plastic, if we except architecture, which at first was merely 
mechanical. Although the principles of the art of drawing are of the greatest 
service in image-work, and in reality lie at its foundation, yet the art of draw- 
ing was probably of later origin ; for it requires a higher effort of abstraction 
and reflection to give a representation by sketching mere outlines on a fixed 
plane, than by forming an entire image. Accident, and perhaps the caprice of 
nature, which not unfrequently presents the appearance of artificial figures in 
trees, stones, and the like, might lead men to this art. The first attempts, it is 
probable, were to form likenesses of the human body. 

§156. The particular circumstances of the origin of this art are not 
made known to us by any historical account. Neither the inventor, 
the people among whom it arose, nor the first mode of its exercise, 
can with certainty be determined. We may, however, reasonably 
conjecture, from the usual progress of the human mind, and the his- 
tory of other arts, that in this also there was a gradual advancement 
from the more easy and simple performances to the more difficult. 



SCULPTURE. MATERIALS. 91 

\u. Of the early existence of some branches of the art we have evidence in the 
Writings of Moses. See Exod. xxxvi. 36, 38. Deut. xxix. 16, 17. Gen. xxxi. 
19, 30. 

2 u. The first works must have been quite rude, as the artists were deficient 
both in the theory of designing and in mechanical skill, and were also desti- 
tute of the necessary instruments. Accordingly we find that the most ancient 
figures of men and gods were scarcely any thing more than pillars or blocks, 
with the upper extremity formed into a sort of knob, or rounded, to represent 
the head. Such was the very ancient image of the goddess Cybele brought to 
Rome from Pessinus in Phrygia (cf. P. III. § 21). Gradually the other prin- 
cipal parts of the body were more distinctly formed, at first however only indi- 
cated by lines; afterwards made more full and complete, yet not marked by 
significant action and attitude, but stiff, angular, and forced. This improve- 
ment was ascribed among the Greeks to Dsedalus (cf. § 174. 2), who was on 
that account said to have formed living statues, and whose name was applied 
by the early Greeks to distinguished productions of art. 

3. " In the primitive ages, objects rude and unfashioned, as we learn from history, were adored 
as representing the divinities of Greece. Even to the time of Pausanias, stones and trunks of 
trees, rough and unformed by art, were preserved in the temples ; and though replaced by forms 
almost divine, still regarded with peculiar veneration, as the ancient images of the deities. As 
skill improved, these signs began to assume a more determinate similitude ; and from a square 
column, the first stage, by slow gradations something approaching to a resemblance of the hu- 
man figure was fashioned. These efforts at sculpture long continued extremely imperfect. The 
extremities seem not to have been even attempted ; the arms were not separated from the body, 
nor the limbs from each other ; but, like the folds of the drapery, stiffly indicated by deep lines 
drawn on the surface. Such appears to have been the general state of the art immediately prior 
to the period when it can first be traced, as cultivated with some degree of success in any par- 
ticular place. This occurs about twelve centuries before Christ." 

§157. Before noticing further the progress of the art of sculpture, 
it will be useful to mention some things respecting the materials em- 
ployed, and the different methods practiced among the ancients. The 
substances used were evidently very various. The softer materials 
were earths, clays, wax, and the like ; the harder were wood, ivory y 
marble, and bronze. 

§158m. Originally, as has been suggested, soft and pliant substances seem 
to have been chosen, and the images made by molding or embossing. This 
perhaps might originate in the common art of pottery, which itself may have 
been suggested by covering culinary vessels with earth or lime, and observing 
the hardness imparted by the fire. Clay, gypsum, and wax were the principal 
soft materials employed, not only in the earliest, but in the most flourishing 
periods, by the Greeks, Tuscans, and Romans ; and for forming entire statues, 
as well as busts, bas-reliefs, and models. Models thus prepared (jzQOTrl.uouaTa, 
rcQuTVTva) were used by the artists for patterns to guide them in working upon 
harder materials. 

§159w. Of the hard substances, wood was commonly preferred, at first, on 
account of its being easily wrought, especially for the sculpture of large figures, 
utensils, and ornaments of various kinds. In the choice of wood for the pur- 
pose, regard was paid to its solidity, durability, and color. Ebony, cypress, 
and cedar had the preference ; yet citron-wood, acanthus, maple, box, poplar 
and oak, and even more common sorts of wood, were sometimes employed. 
Not unfrequently in the choice of wood there was a reference to the supposed 
character of the divinity to be represented, as was the case also in the use of 
other materials. In the island of Naxus, for example, there was a statue of 
Bacchus formed out of the vine. Pluto was commonly imaged in ebony or 
black marble. (Cf. P. II. § 33. 60.) 

§160 u. The most celebrated ancient sculptors often made use of ivory, on 
account of its whiteness and smooth surface, not merely for small figures, but 
also for large ones, and even for colossal statues, which were sometimes formed 
of ivory and gold united. Of this sort were the two most famous statues of 
antiquity, — the (a) Jupiter Olympus and the (b) Minerva, — which were wrought 
by Phidias. Bas-reliefs and various utensils were also formed of ivory either 
alone, or with other substances connected with it for ornament. The artists 
■appear to have used no instrument for turning, but merely a chisel with a free 



92 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

hand. In the large statues formed of this substance, the inner part consisted 
of dry solid wood, to which the ivory was attached and fastened in regular por- 
tions, and probably after the requisite chiseling had in part been performed. 
Very few monuments of this kind are preserved, because ivory so readily cal- 
cines in the earth and decays. 

(a) Cf. P. III. § 24. — (b) Cf. P. III. $ 43. — See Heyne, on the ivoiy of the ancients, and im- 
ages made of it, in JV. Biblioth. der schbn. Wiss. Bd. xv. ; also in Winckelmann, Histoire &c. as 
eked $ 32. 4. vol. l. p. 575. — Hirt, in Battiger's Amalthea, Bd. i. — Quatremere de Quincy, Le 
Jupiter Olympien. Par. 1815. fol. — Cf. §179. 

§161w. Marble was the noblest and most valued material for sculpture. 
There were several species, differing in color, solidity, and lustre. Among the 
most celebrated kinds were the Pentelican,the Parian, the Lydian, the Alaban- 
dian. Porphyry, basalt, and granite, were also often used in works of art, 
especially among the Egyptians. The marble was not always polished. The 
larger statues were often composed of several pieces, sometimes of different 
marble. There were works, too, of which only certain parts were marble, as 
for example the celebrated Minerva of Phidias, of which, particularly, the pu- 
pils of the eyes were marble (?.i6iva), according to a passage in Plato. The 
cement, by which the different pieces of marble were united, the Greeks called 
J.i&oxoH.a. Sometimes the marble statues, after completion, were washed over 
with a thin transparent varnish, partly in order to give them a softer appear- 
ance and a milder lustre. 

For the passage in Plato above referred to, see his r Inniaq /usittor, in the edit, of Bekker, 
(cited P. II. $189. 4.) Partis Sec. Vol. Tertium, p. 429. It is not improbable that the term 
XtQiva here designates precious stones or gems. — Cf. De Caylus, on colored statues &c. Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. xxix. 166. cf. xxxiv. 39. 

Respecting the modern names of ancient varieties of marble, and other circumstances per- 
taining to them, see Ferber's Briefe aus Walschland (Letters from Italy). Prag. 1773. 8. — Louis 
de Launay, Mineralogie des Anciennes. Bruxell. 1803. 2 vols. 12. — Blasii Caryophili (Biagio Oa- 
rofalo), Opusculum de antiquis marmoribus. Traj. ad Rh. 1743. 4. — An interesting account of 
the quarries of the Parian marble is given by E. D. Clarke, Travels &c. vol. vi. p. 133. Lond. ed. 
vol. in. p. 280. N. Yk. ed. 1815. — For notices of the quarries of Pentelican marble, see Hob- 
Aowse's Albania, and DodwelVs Tour cited P. II. § 7. 7. (b). 

§ 162 m. The bronze employed in the statues of the ancients consisted of a 
mixture of several metals, in definite proportions, although not always the 
same. The principal ingredient was copper, of which usually, for statuary, 
one hundred pounds were united with an eighth part of lead or tin. In 
forming the mixture there was very often a regard to the color arising from it, 
and to its suitableness for the image to be made. The best kinds of brass or 
bronze were that of Delos and that of iEgina. The most valued was the ori- 
chalchum (oQsi/aZxog), not the modern brass, but a natural product of that 
name, unknown to us. — The precise manner in which the metals were wrought 
Into images is not well understood ; works of this kind were formed not only 
by casting, in which case the chisel was afterwards applied to give perfection, 
but likewise by driving or pressing under the hammer. Many brazen statues, 
although the accounts are often exaggerated, were of extraordinary size and 
truly colossal ; as for example, the celebrated statue of the god of the sun,, 
placed at the entrance of the harbor of Rhodes, 105 feet in height. Sometimes 
statues of brass were gilded in whole or in part, and usually they were var- 
nished to protect them from the atmosphere and moisture. Even of the prec- 
ious metals, silver and gold, the ancients sometimes formed entire statues \ 
they were however hollow, like those in brass. 

See Hirt, in Bmttiger's Amalthea (Musee de l'antiquite figuree), Dresd. 1824.— Launay, cited 
$161 — Also, on the composition of bronze, Hawkins, as cited $ 27. — Some consider the orichal- 
cum, or mountain-brass, to have been an artificial product. Cf. Anthonys Horace ; note on Ep. to 
Pisos. v. 202. — Comte de Caylus, on the works in bronze mentioned by Pliny, Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
xxv. 335. Cf. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 4, 5, 18. — Mongez, sur le bronz des anciens, Mem. de PInst* 
C 1 a s s e d J Hist, et Lit. Anc. vm. p. 363. — also cf. CI a s s e de Literat. et Beaux Arts, vol. 5th. 
p. 187. 496. 

§ 163. Statues were classified and named variously, according to 
size, costume, and attitude. The largest were termed colossal (y.oi.ooooi), 
surpassing always the human dimensions ; next to these were the 
statues of gods and heroes, of a size between six and eight feet ; then, 
those corresponding to actual life {ayuz-uara sixovixu, laouiTQ^Ta, statues, 



SCULPTURE. BUSTS. 



93 



iconiccB) ; and finally those smaller than life, of which such as were 
very small went by the name of sigilla. — In reference to costume, 
the Romans called such as had a Grecian dress, palliates ; those in 
the Roman, togatce. ; those with the military gwcb,paludat(B, chlamy- 
datcs, loricata ; and such as were veiled, velata. — In attitude there 
was still greater variety, as the figures might be either standing, sit- 
ting, reclining, or lying at rest, or in action, &c. There was also a 
distinction between simple statues, and composites or groups, consist- 
ing of several figures. Groups, where the parts were entwined or in- 
terwoven with each other, were called symplegmata {avp.ntiYp.aera). 

See Compte Guasco, Essai historique de l'usasre de statues chez anciens. Bruxelles 1768. 4. — 
Cf. Le Compte Caijlus, L'habillement des divinftes. Mem. Acad. Insc. vol. xxxiv. p. 35. 

§ 164. Busts, likewise, almost as frequently as entire figures, were 
formed by the ancient artists. They were called by the Greeks 
Tvqorouai ; by the Romans, imagines, -sometimes thoraces. They were 
located, in honor of gods, heroes, philosophers, and other distinguished 
men, in public places, such as theatres, prytanea, gymnasia, galleries, 
libraries, and the like. 

1«. The bust was chiefly used to represent deceased persons. At Rome the 
Patricians used to place in their halls (a) the busts of their ancestors. Like stat- 
ues, busts were of various sizes. They differed also in respect to the portion 
of the frame included, taking in sometimes the whole breast, sometimes just 
the shoulders, and sometimes merely the head. On their supports or pedestals 
the character or exploits of the person represented were often inscribed. When 
busts were formed in relief on shields, they were termed imagines clypeatce. 

(a) Cf. Polyb. vi. 51. Plin. xxxv. 2. — See Gurlitt's Versuch Uber die Biistenkunde. Magdeb. 
1800. 4. 

2u. There was a peculiar kind of statue or bust, to which was given the 
the name of Hermes ( c Eouijg ) . It consisted of a mere head, or head and 
breast, or at most head and chest, and a quadrangular pillar, or one terminating 
in a point, which served as a support. It derived its name either from the god 
Hermes, Mercury, whose image generally appeared on this kind of erection, 
yet not always ; or perhaps, as probably, from the word c Eqpa designating 
the quadrangular pillar sustaining the image ; Suidas explains the phrase 
squGLog z.idog by the word nrquywvog. These representations were placed by 
the highways and streets, in gardens, and among the Greeks in front of tem- 
ples and dwelling-houses. Human likenesses were formed sometimes in this 
manner ; generally, however, the images represented some deity presiding over 
gardens and fields. The Romans employed them to point out the boundaries 
of lands, and on that account called them termini. Sometimes the attributes of 
the god were indicated on the work ; sometimes there were inscriptions, of 
which, however, such as may have been preserved are not all genuine. 
They very seldom had any representation of costume. The head and pedes- 
tal were not always of the same material. Two heads were occasionally united 
on one pillar; as for instance, in the r Eqpa6tjvy], Mercury and Minerva united ; 
the *EQur t QayJ.rjg, Mercury and Hercules ; and f Eqponav, Mercury and Pan. 

3. The compound name is also applied where the pedestal commonly bear- 
ing the head of Hermes has merely the head of some other personage, as in 
the figure of ' Eout^uyJ.^g, given in Plate V. fig. 8. In fig. 7, of the same Plate, 
is a Hermes. 

§ 165. The ancient artists made a vast number of bas-reliefs 
{exrv7ta, nqooTina, uvay/.vcpa). These works may be said to hold an 
intermediate place between sculpture and painting, in as much as 
they present a plane for their ground, and have their figures formed, 
more or less prominent, by the chisel or by embossing. The most 
common material was marble or brass. The Etrurians made use 
also of clay hardened by fire. \ 



94 archjEolgy op art. 

§ 166 m. The subjects represented by such pieces were drawn from mythol- 
ogy, history, allegory, and other sources, according to the imagination of the 
artist. The purposes for which they were devised were exceedingly numer- 
ous; they often were separate tablets, constituting independent works; and 
very often they were formed upon shields, helmets, tripods, altars, drinking 
cups, and other vessels and utensils, tombs, urns, and funeral lamps, arches, 
and generally upon large structures, particularly the front of buildings. In 
explaining the meaning of these devices there is need of much caution and 
much knowledge of literature and art ; it is the more difficult, because in 
many instances the works are in a mutilated or altered state. 

§ 167. Among the varieties of image-work practiced by the an- 
cients must be mentioned that which is called Mosaic (uovoeiov, opus 
musivum, tesselatum, vermiculatum), which was very common, and 
carried to great perfection. It has its name from its elegance and 
grace (uovoa). It consists of figures curiously formed by pieces, in 
different colors, of clay, glass, marble, or precious stones and pearls, 
with which they used to ornament their floors and walls. Separate 
tablets or ornamental pieces were also formed in the same way. 

1 u. The pieces of which this kind of work is composed are so small, that 
sometimes one hundred and fifty are found in the space of a square inch. 
The art was most in vogue in the time of the emperor Claudius, and one of 
the most distinguished artists (a) in it was Sosus. 

2. One of the earliest notices of this art among the Greeks is in the ac- 
count of the magnificent ship constructed under the direction of Archimedes 
for king Hiero. The whole fable of the Iliad (h) was represented by mosaics 
('sv a^uxiaxoig) inlaid in the apartments of the vessel. 

(a) Cf. Plin. "Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 25.— (b) Cf. ScJmll, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. vu. p. 447. 

On mosaics, see references given below, § 189. 

§ 168. Some of the works of the ancient sculptors have inscrip- 
tions upon them, presenting the name of the artist, or explaining the 
work itself. Such inscriptions are placed sometimes on the pedestal, 
and sometimes on the drapery or other parts of the statue. 

1 u. On the statue of Hercules Farnese, for instance, are the words, rAY- 
KuN AQHNAIOC EII01E1; on the Gladiator Borghese, ArAC 1AC 
JO Cl&EOY E<i>E CIOC EII01E1; on a Roman statue of the goddess Hope, 

Q. AQVILIVS DIONYSIVS ET NONIA FAVSTINA. SPEM RESTITVERVNT. 

2u. But these inscriptions are not always genuine, being frequently of re- 
cent origin, as is thought to be the case with the first of the above mentioned. 
In judging of them there is need therefore of much antiquarian skill and re- 
search, and a careful application of historical and mythological learning. A 
fine specimen of this critical scrutiny is found in Lessing's Laocoon, a work 
of great value to those who study the arts. 

O. E. Lessing, Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der Mahlerei und Poesie, in his Scemmtliche 
.Schriften. Berl. 1796. ss. 30 vols. 12. Vol. 9th.— There is a French translation of it by Fan- 
derbourg. 

§ 169. Although we have no historical account of the origin of 
the art of sculpture, as has been suggested (§ 156), yet it is certain 
that the Egyptians were in possession of it at a very early period. 
On this account its invention is ascribed to them by some ancient 
writers. The Egyptians were not deficient in the mechanical part 
of sculpture. Yet their general mode of thinking, their prevalent 
taste, the peculiar character of their civilization, and especially the 
nature of their religion, were unfavorable to the advancement of this 
-art, and hindered its attaining among them any true and beautiful 
perfection. We find in their design, as well as in their whole exe- 
cution, a barrenness and uniformity that appears very unnatural. 



EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 95 

Owing to the prevalence of animal worship in Egypt, figures of ani- 
mals were the most frequent and most successful performances of 
their artists, among whom Memnon is perhaps most celebrated. 

J. S. Memes (LL. D.), History of Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture. Boston, 1834. 12. 
— Giamb. Brocchi, Ricerche sopria la scultura presso gli Egiziani. Venez. 1792. 8. — Bcsttiger's 
Andeutungen, &c. iiber Archceologie. Dresden, 1806. 8.— 'F. Denon, Voyage dans la basse 
et la haute Egypte. Par. 1802. 2. vols* fol., with plates.— Description de l'Egypte. Par. 1809 
-1818. 9 vols, fol., with plates ; of this work there is also a more recent edition. (Cf. P. V. 
<5 177.)— In Beck's Grundriss der Arch'aologie, (Lpz. 1816,) is an account of the artists among 
ancient nations, and of the remaining monuments, and mention of the works pertaining to 
the subject. — Respecting Memnon, consult Anthonys Lempriere. 

1 u. In the history of Egyptian art, a distinction must be made between the 
old and the later style. The former appears in the earliest monuments down, 
to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 525, The latter belongs to a 
subsequent period, in which the Persians and Greeks held supremacy in the 
land. There is a difference between the works of art in Egypt, according to 
which they may be designated respectively as the Old Egyptian, the Persian- 
Egyptian, the Grecian-Egyptian, and the Roman-Egyptian, or Roman imita- 
tions of the Egyptian manner. The uniformity and stiffness are much great- 
er in the old style ; yet the later performances are deficient in beauty of de- 
sign and execution, in cases where there is no drapery, as well as in others. 
There are also works, discovered in Italy, in Egyptian taste and manner, 
which are not really of Egyptian origin, but were made by later Greeks, in 
Rome, especially under the reign of Hadrian. 

2. The period preceding the time of Cambyses is considered by Memes as 
the only period of real Egyptian sculpture. Of its character there are left 
two sources of judging, viz. vestiges of ancient grandeur yet existing on their 
native site, and numerous specimens in European cabinets. These remains 
may be classed under three divisions. 1. Colossal figures. 2. Figures about 
the natural size, single or in groups. 3. Hieroglyphical and Historical re- 
lievos. The colossal remains are very numerous. Some are figures of men; 
others of animals, chiefly the sphinx. The dimensions extend from twelve 
to seventy cubits in height. The largest now known are the two in the vi- 
cinity of Thebes, which are " vulgarly called Shamy and Damy " ; one of 
which, from inscriptions still legible, would appear to be the famous sound- 
ing statue (a) of Memnon. In the ruins of the Memnonium there remains a 
prostrate and broken colossus of vast size, with hieroglyphic inscriptions, from 
which it has been supposed to be the statue of Osymandyas (b) or Sesostris. 
Of figures about the natural size there are also many remains. Many are 
found in the excavations of Philoe, Elephantis, Silsilis, and at El Malook iii 
the tombs of the Theban Kings. These excavations are often suites of mag- 
nificent chambers hewn from the hard and white calcareous rock. A singu- 
lar peculiarity marks these statues ; a pilaster runs up behind each the whole 
height, not only when the statue is connected with the surface of a wall, but 
also when it is wholly detached. Relievos are found in great abundance, oc- 
cupying often the entire walls of the temples. In these there is much skill 
in the mechanical workmanship, but they are very deficient in merit as per- 
formances of art; proportion and perspective seem to have been utterly un- 
known. 

(a) Cf. P. III. § 7i.—Letronne, La statue de Memnon, dans ses Rapports avec 1'Egypt et la 
Grece ; in the Mem. de LHnstitut, Classe cf Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. x. p. 249. — (b) Lctronne, Sur le 
monument d' Osymandyas, &c. in the Mem. de Vlnst. as just cited, vol. ix. p. 317. 

§ 170. In the formation of these works, four kinds of materials are em- 
ployed ; one soft, a species of sandstone ; and three very hard, viz. a calcare- 
ous rock, out of which the tombs, with their sculptures, are hewn ; basalt or 
trap, of various shades from black to dark gray, the constituent generally of 
the smaller statues ; and granite, more commonly of the species named ru- 
bescens. Colossal figures are uniformly of granite, in which also is a large 
portion of the relievos. Statues of wood have been discovered by modern 
travelers. Metal appears to have been sparingly used ; at least only very 
small figures have been found, of a composition similar to the bronze of mod- 
err, times. In the tombs small images of porcelain and terra cotta are fre^ 
<juent. 



96 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

§ 171. Among the other ancient nations of southern and eastern 
countries, sculpture did not receive so much attention, and our 
knowledge of their use of the art is derived from historical testimo- 
ny rather than from any existing monuments. The art was evident- 
ly esteemed by the Hebrews, but chiefly as an auxiliary and orna- 
ment to architecture ; of this we have evidence in the temple of Sol- 
omon, in the construction of which, however, Phoenician artists were 
chiefly employed. The commerce and wealth of the Phoenicians 
were favorable to the arts ; there exists no genuine and proper statue 
as a specimen of their sculpture ; the same is true respecting the 
Persians and Parthians, who were advanced to a considerable degree 
of civilization, and whose views of propriety required that the figures 
should be clothed in some sort of drapery; such monuments as we 
have, however, in the sculptured architectural ornaments which have 
been preserved, give us no occasion to mourn our loss. 

On the general character of the sculptured monuments of the eastern nations, see Heereii's 
Ideen liber die Politik, der Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt. 

Gbtt. 1826. 6 vols. 8 Hock's Veteris Media? et Persiee Monumenta. Gott. 1818. 4.— Cf. Memes, 

Hist. &c. (as cited § 169), p. 32.— See our Plate XXVI. fig. 3, 4. 

§ 172. The Etrurians or Etruscans are more worthy of notice in 
the history of this art. In a very early period they occupied the up- 
per part of Italy, and attended much to sculpture. With them the 
art seems to have been of native origin, not introduced or acquired 
from Egypt, although their intercouse with Egypt and with Greece 
no doubt contributed to the improvement of their arts. Five periods 
may be pointed out in the history of Etruscan art : the first charac- 
terized by a rude and uncultivated state ; the second by works in the 
Grecian and Pelasgic style ; the third by works bearing an Egyptian 
and mythological stamp ; the fourth by a higher degree of excellence, 
yet confined within the limits of the older Grecian fictions ; the fifth 
by a still fuller perfection according to the more refined models of 
the Greeks. 

See Heyne's Versuch einer n'ahern Bestimmuug der Klassen und Zeiten fur die Etr. Kunst- 
werke, in JV. Bibli. d. sch. Wiss. B. XIX. XX. ; also in Wincklemann, Histoire, &c. (cited 
$ 32), vol. ]. p. 633 — L. Lanzi, Saggio di Lingua Etrusca e di altre antiche d'ltalia, &c. Rom. 
1789. 3 vols. 8.—F. Inghirami, Monumenti Etruschi, illustrati, &c. Fiesole. 1820. 

§ 173. There are many remains of Etruscan art, although their 
resemblance to Grecian performances often makes it difficult to de- 
cide their true origin. That Grecian artists had a great share of 
agency in Tuscan works is evident from inscriptions and other mon- 
uments. Independent of a large number of statues in bronze and 
marble, there are many works in half relief, which are, not without 
grounds, considered as Etruscan remains. There is also a great vari- 
ety of vases, remarkable both for the beauty of their form and for the 
paintings on them, which have been called Tuscan and Campanian, 
but may be with more probability considered as old Grecian, and as 
monuments of Greek colonies, which were in the vicinity of Cuma, 
Naples, and Nola. 

1 u. Learned men and amateurs have taken much pains in collecting, por- 
traying, and describing these remains. The most beautiful collection of the 
kind is that made by Wm. Hamilton ; it is now in the British Museum, Lon- 
don. — Wedgewood and Bentley have made imitations of several of these 
vases, in terra cotta, among which the Vase of Barberini, or the Portland 
Vase, as it is also called, is the most memorable. 



Etruscan remains. 97 

An account of the collection of Sir Wm. Hamilton was published by Chevalier cPHancar- 
ville, with the title, Jl Collection of Etruscan, Oreck and Roman Antiquities, &c. Naples, 1766- 
1779. 4 vols. fol. — A later work is, Rccueil des Gravures des Vases antiques, tirees du Cabinet 
de M. le Chev. d'Hamilton, gravees par Tischbein. Naples, 1793. 3 vols. fol. — See also respect- 
ing these vases, A. F. Oorii Museum Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 2 vols. fol. — J. B. Passerii Pictu- 
re Etruscorum in vasculis, &c. Rome, 1767-75. 3 vols. fol. — Peintures des Vases antiques, vul- 
gairement appellees Etrusques, gravees par Clener, accompanies d'explications par Millin. 
Par. 1808. 2 vols. fol. — J. Millingen, Peintures antiques de vases de la collection de Sir J. Cog- 
hill. Rome, 1817. fol. — Lanzi, De Vasi antichi dipinte vulgarmente chiamata Etruschi. 1801. 
8. with plates.— Cf. $ 223. 

2. " The Portland Vase, now in the British Museum, was found in the 16th 
century inclosed in a marble sarcophagus, in the sepulchral chamber called 
Monte del Grano,on the road from Rome to Frascati." — " It is a semi-trans- 
parent urn, of a deep blue color, with brilliant opaque white ornaments upon 
it in bas-relief, cut by the lapidary in the same manner as the antique cameos 
on colored grounds. Mr. Parks states, " that several of the nobility and gen- 
try, being desirous to possess a copy of this beautiful specimen of ancient art, 
engaged Mr. Wedgewood to attempt an imitation of it ; and he actually pro- 
duced a vase of porcelain, which for elegance was considered fully equal to 
the original." The height of the vase is ten inches, its diameter at the broad- 
est part only six inches. It has two curiously wrought handles, one on each 
side. The sculpture is in the greatest perfection ; the figures full of grace 
and expression ; every stroke as fine, sharp, and perfect as any drawn by a 
pencil." — "The body of this vase, which for a long time was erroneously 
supposed to be formed of porcelain, is made of deep blue glass." 

Sillimaii's Journal of Science, &c. vol. xxvi. on Porcelain, &c. p. 243, with a drawing of the 
vase. — Cf. Lardnei-'s Cabinet Cyclopcedia, article Glass. — See also J. Wedgewood, Description of 
the Portland Vase. Lond. 1790. 4. — Graf. (i. e. Count) Von Veltheim, Abhandlung iiber die 
Barberini-jetzt Portland Vase. Helmst. 1791. 8. — J. Millingcn, on the Portland Vase, in the 
Transactions of the Royal Lit. Society of the United Kingdom, vol. i. pt. 2d, p. 90. Lond. 
1829. — J. G. King, on the Barberini Vase, Archceologia (as cited §243. 3.), vol. viii. p. 307, with 
drawings of the whole device upon it. — Class. Jour. xix. 226. 

In one of the barrows called Bartlow Hills (cf. P. IV. § 341), there was found, in 1835, a 
beautiful bronze vessel ornamented with enamels of different colors. The cavities in which 
the enamels are inserted seem to have been finished with the chisel. " The enamels are true 
glasses. The colors are three ; blue, red, and green." A fac-simile is given in the Archceolo- 
gia (as cited $ 243. 3.), vol. xxvi. p. 300. 

3. Many of the remains of Etruscan art have been found in repositories for 
the dead, in which the people were accustomed to inter with the body various 
articles of metal and clay. At Volaterrae (Volterra) were vast sepulchral 
chambers. Similar structures have been discovered in the vicinity of Viter- 
bo. In these sepulchres are found urns of stone or of baked clay, about two 
feet in height, which contained the ashes of bodies after burning. Painted 
vases also are found in the same repositories ; likewise the engraved -patera. 
The latter are numerous and curious. They are shallow dishes of brass or 
bronze, with a rim slightly raised, and a handle. On the bottom inside there 
is usually engraved some mythological subject, of simple design, expressed in 
a few bold lines. The use of these vessels is not known. Some have con- 
sidered them as employed in sacrificing, others as designed for mirrors. 

Within the last ten years many remains have been disinterred from the hy- 
pogasa in Etruria. In 1828 one of these sepulchral chambers was accidentally 
discovered, not far from Volcium, the ancient capital of the Volcientes (Plin. 
Hist. Nat. iii. 8.) called " OvoXxoi by Ptolemy. This occasioned examination 
and extensive excavations and led to the discovery of numerous other recep- 
tacles, in a large plain, called from a neighboring abbey Piano dell'Abbadia, on 
the banks of the Arminia. From these were taken monuments in gold, brass, 
and ivory. More than tico thousand painted vases were collected ; bearing 
devices illustrative of a great variety of subjects ; often with the name of the 
manufacturer and the painter, and sometimes with whole sentences, inscribed 
on them. 

See Archce.ologia (as cited $ 243. 3.) vol. xxm. p. 130. a catalogue of vases and other Etruscan 
antiquities discovered in 1828, and 1829, by the Prince of Canino ;— specifying 200 articles, with 
remarks. — J. Millingen, on late Discoveries of ancient Monuments in Etruria; in the Transact, 
of the Royal So c. of Literature &.C. vol. n. p. 76. Lond. 1834. — Illustrazioni di due vasi fittili 
recentement trouvati in Pesto &c. Rom. 1809. Fo\.—Memes, History of Sculpture, <fcc. (cited 
§ 169.) p. 71. — Q.nthoii's Lempriere, under Hctruria — Inghirami, cited § 172. 

§ 174. The highest rank in the history of ancient art unquestiona- 
9 



98 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 



bly belongs to the Greeks. The first idea of image-work among then? 
was without doubt derived from abroad, from the Egyptians more prob~ 
ably than from the Phoenicians, perhaps in some degree from both 
(cf. § 42). The opinion, that their earliest notions came from the 
Egyptians, agrees well with the whole character of their mythology, 
the fountain and source of their arts, and with the style of their more 
ancient performances. But at length they surpassed all other nations. 

lu. The exact time of the rise of this art in Greece cannot be decided, nor 
so much as the name of the first artist. Some mention Dibutades, others 
Rhoecus and Theodoras, as inventors of the art of molding, or of working in 
soft wax, and in brass. Daedalus, who lived three generations before the Tro- 
jan war, was celebrated as the first improver of the plastic art among the 
Greeks. It was undoubtedly practiced at a very early period, and even in the 
time of the Trojan war, or at least in the age of Homer, had gained a remark- 
able degree of cultivation. 

"2 Concerning Daedalus, the first of the Athenian sculptors, doubtful or 
fabulous accounts have reached us ; but a careful investigation of circumstan- 
ces proves, that of whatsoever country a native, he had rendered himself re- 
nowned by the exercise of his skill at the court of Minos before settling in 
Attica. The facts attending his arrival there, and the history of his previous 
labors, enable us to fix dates, and to trace the true source of improvement in 
Grecian art at this particular era. Of the early establishments of the Greeks 
planted in the isles of the ^Egean, which even preceded the mother country 
in the acquisition of wealth and intelligence, the Doric colony of Crete en- 
joyed, from a very early period, the happiness and consequent power of settled 
government. External advantages of situation first invited the access, while 
domestic institutions secured the benefits, of ancient and uninterrupted inter- 
course with Egypt. Hence the laws and the arts of the Cretans. With the 
former, the Athenian hero, Theseus, wished to transplant the latter also ; and 
while he gave to his countrymen a similar system of policy, he did not fail to 
secure the co-operation of one whose knowledge might yield powerful aid in 
humanizing a rude people by adding new dignity to the objects of national ven- 
eration. Accordingly Daedalus, accompanying the conqueror of the Minotaur 
to Athens, fixes there the commencement of an improved style, 12*34 years 
before the Christian era. — The performances of Daedalus were chiefly in wood, 
of which no fewer than nine, of large dimensions, are described as existing in 
the second century, which, notwithstanding the injuries of fourteen hundred 
years, and the imperfections of early taste, seemed, in the words of Pausanias, 
to possess something of divine expression. Their author, as reported by Dio- 
dorus, improved upon ancient art, so as to give vivacity to the attitude, and more 
animated expression to the countenance. Hence we are not to understand, 
with some, that Dsedalus introduced sculpture into Greece, nor even into 
Attica ; but simply that he was the first to form something like a school of art, 
and whose works first excited the admiration of his own rude age, wbile they 
were deemed worthy of notice even in more enlightened times. Indeed the 
details preserved in the classic writers, that he raised the arms in varied posi- 
tion from the flanks, and opened the eyes, before narrow and blinking, suffi- 
ciently prove the extent of preceding art." (Memes.) 

It has however been doubted whether Dsedalus ever had an actual existence, some supposing 
a mere mythic personage meant, whose name was intended for any eminent artificer. — Hirt, 
Geschichte der Baukunst (cited § 243. 4).—Heyne, ad Horn. II. 18. 590.— Gedoyn, L'Histoire de 
Dedale, Mem. Acad. Inscr. ix. 177. — Class. Journ. iv. 21. 

3 u. Many favorable circumstances combined to promote the advancement 
of sculpture in Greece ; the influence of a delightful climate upon physical 
and moral education ; the constant views of beauty not only in the various 
natural scenery, but especially in the human form as produced among the 
Greeks ; their peculiar religion involving so much of poetry and imagination 
and yet so addressed to the senses ; the high honor and rewards bestowed 
upon artists ; the various uses and applications of sculpture (cf. § 178) ; and 
the flourishing condition of the other imitative arts and of letters in general. 



GRECIAN SCULPTURE. 99 

See Gurlitfs Einleitung in das Studium der schbnen Kunst &c, and K. 0. Mueller's Arch- 
aologie &.c, as cited § 32. 4. — An Enquiry into the causes of the extraordinary excellency of 
ancient Greece in the Arts. Lond. 1767. 8. — Winckelmann, Hist, de l'Art, &c. Liv. iv. ch. 1. — 
Tytler , s History, ch. xx. 7.— On the estimation, in which artists were held among the Greeks, 
Comte de Caylus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. p. 174. 

§175. In presenting a historical view of the progress and character 
of the art in Greece, and of the age of the principal productions and 
their authors, four periods have been pointed out. The first includes 
the duration of the ancient style of execution, extending to Phidias, 
who lived B. C. about 450. The second reaches from this artist to 
the time of Alexander the Great, B. C. about 340, and may be char- 
acterized as the period of the grand style. The third, that of the 
beautiful style, and the most flourishing period, commencing with 
Praxiteles extends to the rise of the Imperial Power of Rome. The 
fourth includes the efforts of Grecian art under the emperors, and is 
the period of its fall. But this whole division is too arbitrary and 
indefinite, and the source whence it was derived, the sketch of Pliny, 
is not sufficiently exact and distinct. 

See Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv, xxxvi. — Heyne's Abh. iiber die Kiinstlerepochen des Plinius, 
in his Sammlung antiquar. Aufs. St. i. — Also by same, Artium inter Gnecos tempora, in his O-pusc. 
Acad. V. 5. — Tliiersch, iiber die Epochen der bildenden Kunst unter den Griechen. Munchen, 
1316. 4. — J. B. Emeric-David, Essai sur le classement chronologique des sculpteurs Grecs &c. 
Par. 1806 ; republished in Lemai?-e's Pliny, cited P. II. $ 470 ; it names, in order, the principal 
Greek sculptors, and mentions the chief works wrought by them. — C.de Caylus, De la sculpture 
et des sci|lpteurs anciennes ; in the Mem. Acad. Insc. xxv. 302. — For a general historical view of 
sculpture, see S. C. Croze-Magnan, Discours Historiques sur la Peinture et la Sculpture, be- 
longing to the Musee Francaise, cited § 191. 4. — Memes, as cited § 169. 

§176. Among the Greeks, as in other nations, the first attempts in 
sculpture were rude and imperfect ; the works in the art were marked 
by that incompleteness and want of fitness and agreeableness in de- 
sign and performance, which has already been mentioned (cf. §157). 
Subsequently there appeared more of truth and accuracy in the sketch 
and outline, while there was still a severity or stiffness, which was 
much deficient in expression as well as beauty. There are many re- 
mains of Grecian art, which are commonly assigned to the earlier ages, 
some of them correctly ; yet it is difficult in some cases to decide to 
what period a performance really belongs ; and it is too hasty a con- 
clusion, if a person assigns to the earliest period any piece of unfin- 
ished workmanship, with no other proof or evidence ; since such a 
work might come from the hand of an inferior artist of later times, or 
might receive its rude appearance from design. Endoeus, Smilis, 
Dipcenus, Scyllis, Agelladas, Dionysius of Argos, and Mys, were the 
principal sculptors of the first period. 

§ 177a. With the growing prosperity of the Grecian States, the arts, and 
especially sculpture, steadily advanced. Among the means of improvement 
were the schools of art, for the instruction of young artists both in painting 
and sculpture, which were established at Sicyon, Corinth, and ^Egina. The 
first of these was the most eminent, founded by Dipoenus and Scyllis, and num- 
bering among its pupils Aristocles, and subsequently other celebrated painters 
and sculptors. Corinth, on account of its favorable situation, became early one 
of the most powerful of the Grecian cities ; Cleanthes was one of the most an- 
cient artists there. The school of ^Egina, also, seems to have been early estab- 
lished, and the island gained much celebrity from its arts ; Callo, Glaucias, Si- 
mon, and Anaxagoras, were distinguished in this school. The flourishing 
condition of these cities, in consequence of commerce and navigation, made 
them eligible places for the establishment of such schools of art. 

§178. The occasions for the execution and use of statues in Greece 
were very frequent and various. Not only were the temples of the 



100 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

gods ornamented with their statues and with sculptured representations 
of their mythological history, but works of this kind were required in 
great number for public squares and places, for private dwellings, gar- 
dens, country seats, walks, and for architectural ornament in general. 
The portico at Athens, receiving its name Poecile from its variety of 
ornaments, was crowded with statues. To heroes, wise men, poets, 
and victors, statues were erected out of gratitude and respect ; to 
princes, out of flattery. Thus did the statuary always find encourage- 
ment and reward for the exercise of his art, and for the application of 
all his talents, which were quickened and stimulated the more by 
emulation. 

See De V Usage des statues, dies les Anciens ; Essai Historique. Brux. 1768. 4. 

§179. Hence in the second period, reaching from Phidias to Prax- 
iteles, or the time of Alexander, the art of sculpture obtained much 
higher excellence in Greece than among other nations. Its charac- 
teristic at this period was loftiness and grandeur in style; yet this was 
accompanied with more or less of that want of softness and ease, which 
marked the works of preceding artists. There was a very rigid ob- 
servance of outward proportion. The expression in gesture and atti- 
tude was bold and significant, rather than captivating and pleasing. 
Phidias was the first and the most distinguished artist. His stalues of 
Minerva and Jupiter Olympus (cf. §160) were among the most cele- 
brated works of antiquity, although known to us only by the unani- 
mous praise of so many writers. Besides Phidias, among the cele- 
brated were Alcamenes, Agoracritus, Polycletes, Myron and Scopas ; 
the latter, however, more properly belongs to the next period. 

&.Z. Valkel, uber d. grossen Temple und die Statue des Jupiters zu Olympia. Leipz.1794. 8. 
— T. Ph. Seibenkees, iiber den Temple und die Bildsaule de Jup. zu 01. Niirnb. 1795. 8. — E. H. 
Talken, de Phidiae Jove Olympic* observationes. Gott. 1812. 8. — E. Falconet, Sur deux CEuvrages 
de Phidias, in his Works. Lausanne, 1781. 6 vols. 8.—C. 0. Mueller, De Phidiae vita et operibus 
&c. Gbtt. 1827. — See also an account of Phidias and his works, in the Appendix to Memorandum 
on LordElgin's Pursuits &c. cited §190. 4. — Qedoyn, L'Hist. de Phidias. Mem. Acad. Inscr. ix. 189. 

§180. Sculpture, together with the rest of the fine arts, attained the 
highest excellence, not far from the time of Alexander. In the period 
marked by the beautiful or elegant style, a peculiar grace was united 
with the accuracy and noble expression already acquired. This grace 
appeared both in a higher refinement in the design or conception, and 
greater ease in gesture, attitude and action. A distinction may be 
made between the majestic grace which is conspicuous in the statues 
of the gods, belonging to this period, and that which is merely beauti- 
ful ; the latter again may be distinguished from an inferior and lighter 
sort, exhibited in comparatively trifling performances. Praxiteles, Ly- 
sippus, Chares, and Laches, were the most eminent sculptors of this 
period. 

§181. Gradually Grecian art declined from its high excellence, and 
finally ceased. The causes are obvious; the prevalence of luxury 
and consequent corruption of taste and morals; the internal changes 
and commotions, and the infringements upon civil liberty from the 
time of Alexander, and its final loss after the subjection of Greece to 
the Romans. There were however in this period some skillful artists, 
as Arcesilaus, Pasileles and Cleomenes ; and the plastic arts remained 
in credit in some of the cities of Asia and Sicily. 

See F. Jacobs, Uber den Reichthum der Griechen in plastischen Kunstwerken. Munche»» 

1808. 4. 



SCULPTURE AMONG THE ROMANS. 101 

§182. On the subjection of the Greeks, their arts passed, as it were, 
Into the hands of the Romans, by whom however the arts were hon- 
ored and furnished with opportunities for their employment, rather 
than actually acquired and practiced. In early periods of the republic, 
distinguished merit was rewarded with statues. After the second Pu- 
nic war, a great number of splendid works of sculpture were brought 
to Rome from captured cities, Syracuse s Capua, Corinth, Carthage ; 
also from Etruria and Egypt. Likewise Grecian artists nocked to 
Rome, and there produced new works. With the advancement of 
wealth, the Romans devoted greater and greater expense to the orna- 
menting of their temples, their public and private buildings, their gar- 
dens and manors, until at length there were was a most extravagant 
and luxurious indulgence. 

1. Among the treasures plundered from the Sicilians hy Verres were a num- 
ber of celebrated statues, wrought by the most distinguished artists ; as a Cu- 
pid in marble by Praxiteles ; a Hercules in bronze by Miron ; and two Cane- 
phorse in bronze by Polycletus, all taken from a single citizen of Messana. It 
is said to have been for the sake of his fine statues that Verres was proscribed 
and murdered by Mark Antony. 

Middleton's Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 131, 114, as cited P. II. § 404. 1. — Fraguicr, Galerie de 
Verres, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vi. 565. 

2u. The Capitolium (particularly the temple of Jupiter, included in it), 
■the Comitium, and the Rostra, were in a special manner adorned with statues. 
Inspectors were appointed (tutelarii ceditui), whose business it was to guard the 
edifices thus ornamented from injury and plunder, a duty afterwards assigned 
to a particular magistrate. The senate alone could authorize the erection of 
statues, and the censors corrected abuses. Hence is found sometimes on Ro- 
man statues the inscription Ex Senatus Decreto ; and sometimes E. Decurionum 
Decreio. (Cf P, IV. § 260. 3. § 320.) Statues were erected in the colonies 
and free cities. The buildings and public places of Rome were adorned by 
the first emperors with a great number of works of sculpture, most of which 
Jiowever were prepared by Grecian artists. 

Edm. Figrelii de statuis illustrium Romanorum liber singularis. Holmice. 1756. 8. — Lipsii A&- 
miranda s. de magnitudine Romana libri iv. Antw. 1637. fol. — Rycquii de Capitolio Rom. cora- 
jnentarius. L. B. 1696. 8. Sillig, Catalogus artificum Greecorum et Romanorum. Dresd. 1827. 

§183, In the last half of the second century after Christ, there 
-was an obvious decline of good taste in sculpture, and soon after the 
middle of the third, the art was wholly prostrated, through political 
-disasters and other conspiring influences. Esteem for the art and its 
productions was lost, and many unfavorable circumstances happened 
■so that a number of the most valuable works of sculpture were muti- 
lated, buried in ruins, or entirely destroyed. This resulted partly 
from the warlike character of the tribes that invaded Italy, partly from 
the avarice and rapacity of some of the later Roman emperors, from 
frequent earthquakes or conflagrations, from the repeated capture and 
sacking of Rome and Constantinople, and from a mistaken zeal of 
many Christians against the preservation of heathen monuments. 

See Florillo\s Geschichte der Malerei. bk. i. p. 11. — Heyne, De Interitu operum Artis priscae 
&c. as cited § 76. 5. 

§184 u. Notwithstanding all this ruin, many monuments of sculpture, and 
some of them of high excellence, have been preserved. Since the revival of 
the fine arts, which commenced in Italy, the last seat of ancient sculpture, 
these monuments have been diligently sought out, collected, and described. 
Yet most of them have suffered from time or accident, and very few are wholly 
free from mutilations. There have been attempts to remedy these injuries by 
rejoining and repairing, but without surficient judgment or skill. For such 

9* 



102 



ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 



attempts require not only mechanical dexterity, but a very correct apprehend 
sion of the exact design of the original artist, and especially a capacity to adopt 
perfectly his manner and style. No modern has been more successful in labors 
of this sort, than Cayaceppi. 

See Raccolta d'antiche statue etc. restaurate da B. Cavaceppi. Rom. 1768—72. 3 vols. fol. — 

Abhand. ueber Restaur, von Kunstwerken contained in the Propylceen, n. 1. p. 92 Hcnrici Com- 

mentationes de statuis antiquis mutilatis, recentiori manu refectis. Vit. 1803. sqq. 4. 

§185*. Anything like a full specification even of the more valuable 
monuments of ancient sculpture, would transcend the limits and de- 
sign of this treatise. A slight glance at some of them is all that will 
be attempted. This will include a notice of statues ; busts and works 
in relief; and also works in mosaic, since they have been mentioned. 

§186w. Of the statues, we shall mention here only some of the most cele- 
brated ; such among them as deserve the first rank. 

1. The splendid group of Lao coon in the Belvedere of the Vatican at Rome. 
It is larger than life, wrought of white marble, not wholly finished on the 
back. It consists of three principal figures, the father and his two sons,' 
writhing in the coil of two huge serpents. This was found, in the year 1506, 
among the ruins of the Baths of Titus ; and it probably belongs to the times 
of the first emperors. The expression of extreme agony in the features, and 
muscles of the whole body, especially of Laocoon, the struggle to break the 
dreadful grasp, the cry of distress indicated by the mouth, the anxious, en- 
treating look of the sous, fixed on the father, are among the striking excel- 
lencies which mark this extraordinary performance. Critics, however, differ 
in opinion respecting the real design of the artist as to the expression and de- 
gree of the anguish of the father. 

Heyne's antiquar. Aufs. St. 2.—Propylceen, l.—Hirt, in the Horen, 1797 .— Winckelmann's 
Werke. cited § 32. 4. vi. I.—Lessina-'s Laocoon, § 5. p. 75, as cited $ 168.— J. B. Emeric-Da- 
vid, Essai &c. cited $ 175. 

Read Virgil's description of Laocoon and the Serpents. JEn. ii. 201-225.— Cf. Pliny, Nat. 
Hist, xxxvi. 4.— See Plate IV. fig. 5. 

2. The group of Niobe and her children. Her children being slain by Apol- 
lo and Diana, the mother (cf. P. III. § 38.) through grief was changed into 
stone. This work has marks of the lofty style, and is perhaps from the hands 
of Scopas. It consists of fifteen figures. It was discovered in 1583, and is 
still in the Duke's collection at Florence, where the figures are merely placed 
by the side of each other, as their proper arrangement in a group is difficult 
to discover, and even their original connection is not fully proved. There is 
an uncommonly elevated and tragic expression in all the figures and great 
variety in the combination. 

Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. A.—Angelo Fabroni, Diss, sulle Statue appartenenti alia favola di 
Niobe. Firenze. 1779. M.—Meyer,°m the Propylceen. II. and in Bozttiger's Amalthea (Musee 
de l'antiquite figuree). Dresden, 1824. l.— Winckelmann, Werke, VI. 1.— On the moral of the 
Laocoon and Niohe, see remarks in The Philosophy of Traveling, by T. Johnson, M. D. (p. 118, 

Am, ed. N. York, 1831.) See also the work entitled Choix de Tableaux et Stataes des plus cel- 

ebres Musees, Sfc. Par une Societe d' Artists, 8fc. Par. 1819-21. 3 volsr 8, intended to be com- 
pleted in 12 vols. 

The 3d volume of the last named work gives the fifteen figures with a description. The 1st 
figure is Niobe with her youngest daughter clinging to her ; the figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, are' the 
other daughters ; figure 8 is the Pedagogue or instructor of the children (Le Maitre) ; and fig- 
ures 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, are the seven sons There is also in the Duke's Collection a fig- 
ure of two wrestlers, which some have supposed to represent two sons of Niobe, and to be- 
long to this group. It is given in the 1st volume of the work just cited ; also in Mongei, Ta- 
bleaux, Statues, &c. as cited § 191. 2. 

3. The Farnese Bull, the largest of all ancient groups. It consists of a bull, 
two youth larger than life, Zethus and Amphion, and three smaller figures, 
two of which are taken for Dirce and Antiope, represented upon a rock. The 
rock and figures are 12 Parisian feet in height, and 9 1-2 in width. This 
group was found about the middle of the sixteenth century, in the baths of 
Caracalla, and lodged in the palace Farnese at Rome, and afterwards placed 
in the public museum, called Museo Borbonico, at Naples. Many parts of it 
are modern ; of course the expression is defective. Pliny speaks of a similar 
work of art ; perhaps it is the very same. 

Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. A.— Heyne's Antiquar. Aufs. St. %—ReJifues, Neapel. Th. 3. p. 93. — 
JFinchclmann, Werke, VI. 1.— A representation of this piece of statuary is given in the Choix 
des Tableuax, i'c. (as cited above, 2.) vol. l. 



REMAINS OF ANCIENT STATUARY. 103 

4. The Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of ancient statues, on 
account of the perfection of art displayed in it. It is an ideal of youthful 
beauty and vigor. It seems to represent Apollo just after discharging his ar- 
row at the serpent Python, and indicates in its expression a noble satisfaction 
and assurance of victory. It was found at Antium in 1503. It was purchased 
by Pope Julius II., then a cardinal, and placed in the part of the Vatican 
called Belvedere. The legs and hands have received modern repairs. 

JHRrt's Bilderbuch, I. p. 32.— Winckelmann'' s Werke, VI. 1. This statue is represented in 

Plate IV. fig. 3. 

5. The Venus de Medici. It is in the grand Duke's gallery at Florence. It 
is of pure white marble, and the height of the statue but little over five feet. 
On the pedestal appears the name of Cleomenes as the sculptor, but the in- 
scription is modern. The design of the artist was to represent Venus either 
as just coming from the bath, on the point of dressing herself, taken by sur- 
prise, and full of virgin modesty, or as appearing before Paris for his judg- 
ment in the contest with Juno and Minerva for the prize of beauty. This 
statue must be distinguished from the Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, of which 
we possess only copies. 

R. Levczow, iiber die Frage, ob die mediceische Venus ein Bild der knidishen von Praxiteles 
sei. Berlin, 1808. 4. — Winckelmann, VI. %.—Heijne> s Antiq. Aufs. St. 1.— Johnson'' '$ Philosophy 
of Traveling, p. 121, as above cited. 

6. The Hercules Fames e, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome, now at 
Naples. It is a colossal statue, almost three times as large as nature, of beau- 
tiful Parian marble. The feet were at first missing, and others were substi- 
tuted by Delia Porta with such art, that the original ones, being subsequently 
found, were only placed by the side of the statue. The inscription names Gly- 
con as the artist, whom, however, no ancient writer mentions. One admires 
in this work the firm, vigorous body, although in repose, resting on the club. 

Winckelmann, Werke, VI. 1. — Dupaty, Voyages d'ltalie. — W. Fisk's Travels in Europe. N. 

York, 1838. 8. p. 204. — Class. Jour. vol. l v. p. 246. A view of this statue is given in Plate 

IV. fig. 6. 

7. The antique work called the Torso, in the Belvedere at Rome. It con- 
sists merely of the body or trunk, of white marble, executed in a very supe- 
rior manner. On account of its size and appearance of muscular strength, it 
is commonly taken for the body of a statue of Hercules. It has been called 
the Torso of Michael Angelo, because he particularly admired and studied it. 

See Winckelmann'' s Werke, VI. 1. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 544, 545. 

8. The Gladiator Borghese, formerly in the villa Borghese at Rome, now in 
the Royal Museum of Paris. This is the representation of a hero or warrior, 
who seems to be defending himself against a cavalier. In the opinion of Heyne 
it belonged to a group. Connoisseurs in art do not agree respecting its design. 
It is a beautiful and noble figure, of manly age, athletic, with the muscles in 
strong tension, yet not overstrained or ttnnatural. The inscription on it as- 
cribes the work to Agasias of Ephesus, who is not mentioned by any ancient 
writer, but certainly must have belonged to the period of the highest perfec- 
tion of Grecian art. 

See Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. St. 2. — Winckelmann, Werke, VI. 1. p. 263.— Anthonys Lempriere, 

Agasias. — Compare § 168. Quatrimere de Quincy, Sur la course armee, &c. — nouvelle ma- 

niere d'expliquer la statue d'Agasias, Mem. de V Institut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Jinc. vol. l v. p. 
165, 190, with a plate ; he supposes it to be a statue of an oplitodrome. 

The Masee Royal (vol. it. 2d series, as cited § 191.) contains a beautiful engraving of this 
6tatue, showing the side opposite to that presented in our Plate IV. fig. 4. 

9. The Dying Gladiator (Gladiator dejiciens) in the Campidoglio at Rome. 
He lies upon a shield, supported by his right hand, with a collar or chain 
{torques, cf. P. IV. § 284. 2.) upon his neck, and seems to be exerting his ut- 
most strength to rise. Some parts of the figure are modern, but admirably 
wrought, and ascribed to Michael Angelo. 

See Heyne's Aufs. St. 2.— Winckelmann' 's Werke, VI. 1. p. 59.— Montfaucon, (cited P. III. 
§12. 2. d). vol. in. p. 267. pi. civ. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 226. — A. Mongez, Sur denx des Stat- 
ues antiques desis. par le nom de Oladiateur, in the Mem. del' Institut, Classe Lit. et Beaux Arts, 
vol. ki. p. 243, with engravings of the heads.— See our Plate IV. fig. 1. 

10. Antinous, a very beautiful statue in the Belvedere at Rome. It has been 
considered, although without grounds, as a representation of Antinous, the 



104 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

favorite of Hadrian. Winckelmann took it for a statue of Meleager, or some 
other young hero, and admired very much its head. It is now quite common' 
ly viewed as a Mercury. 

Levezow, iiber den Antinous dargestellt in den Kunstdenkm'alern des Alterthums. Berlin. 
1808. A.— Winckelmann. vi. 1. p. 305.— Battiger's Andeutungen, cited above § 169. — The His- 
toric Gallenj of Portraits and Paintings &c. as cited $ 187. vol. 7th. 

There are several ancient monuments which are considered as representations of Antinous. 
One of these is the celebrated bust of the villa Mbani, a beautifully finished bas-relief in 
white marble ; a part only of the work is preserved. This is given in Plate IV. fig. 2, from 
Winckelmann. The head is crowned with a garland of lotus-flowers ; in the right hand was 
held something, which is now lost ; a wreath of flowers has been conjectured from the appear- 
ance of a ribbon which remains, and accordingly such a wreath is attached to it in the modern 
restoration. — See Winckelmann, Histoire <fcc. as cited § 32. 4. vol. ii. p. 464. 

11. A Flora, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome (thence called the 
Flora Farnese), now at Naples. The body only is ancient ; the rest is modern 
by Delia, Porta ; whence it is not certain that this statue originally represented 
Flora. Winckelmann considered it as intended for a Muse. Its principal merit 
is in its drapery, which is regarded as the best of all ancient statues. It is 
nearly as large as the Hercules Farnese, yet its whole expression is feminine. 

See Winckelmann' s Werke, iv. p. 124. 

12. Marcus Aurelius, an equestrian statue, of gilded metal, in the square 
of the modern capitol at Ptome. It is much larger than life. It retains now 
but few traces of the gilding, but is otherwise in good preservation. Its effect 
is increased by the pedestal on which it was elevated by Michael Angelo. 
The horse particularly is admired, seeming actually to move forward, and ex- 
hibiting, generally, fine proportions. 

Falconet, Observations sur la Statue de Marc-Aurele, par Amst. 1771. 12 — Winckelmann^ 
Werke, vi. 1. p. 318. 

Parts of an equestrian statue, which is said to bear some resemblance to that of Aurelius, 
was found on a triumphal arch in Pompeii ; the workanship is inferior. — There are in the 
Museo Borbonico, at Naples, two equestrian statues, excecuted in marble, called the statues of 
the Balbi. They were excavated at Herculaneum, and are said to be striking specimens of 
sculpture. — Cf. Pompeii, p. 116. as cited § 226. — Fisk's Travels p. 200. as cited above (6). 

13. The statue of Pallas, found in 1797 in the vicinity of Velletri and 
brought to Paris, where it is lodged in the Royal Museum. 

A representation of the Pallas of Velletri is given in the Masee Francaise as cited § 191. 4. vol. 
iv. Part 2d. — See also Landon, Galerie du Musee Napoleon, cited § 191. 4. An account of it is 
given by Fernow, in the JV. D. Mercnr, for 1798. Th. 1. p. 299. 

It may be thought that a statue of Aristides discovered at Herculaneum, and now in the Mu- 
seo Borbonico, deserves mention here. " The philosopher stands with his arms folded in his 
cloak, in all the dignity and integrity of his character. It is a work as near perfection, I think, 
as human art can achieve. This is the kind of statuary which I covet, for my country. I had 
much ado to refrain from a violation of the command, Thou shalt not covet, when looking at 
this matchless figure. Could I have it, thonght I, to exhibit to the youth of America, to the young- 
men of our universities, such a dignified personification of integrity, in the person of Aristides 
the just, might greatly aid in elevating their characters and strengthening their principles." 
W. Fisk, as just cited. 

§ 187 u. Among the valuable remains of antiquity are many busts, which y 
aside from the skill and beauty in their execution, afford much pleasure and 
utility by preserving the features of celebrated persons. The correctness of 
these likenesses is not certain, especially as in many cases they have under- 
gone the process of restoration by modern hands. Many also exhibit no dis- 
tinct characteristics, to enable us to decide any thing as to the persons they 
represent. The uncertain character of the inscriptions has already been men- 
tioned (§ 168) ; and sometimes the head and pedestal do not belong together. 
It may be too that the portrait is the mere fancy of the artist. — Among the 
most distinguished and authentic are those of Homer, Socrates, Plato, Alex- 
ander the Great, Scipio, Julius Csesar, and others found in the collections of 
statuary about to be mentioned. There is the largest number in the Capitol 
at Rome : engravings of these are found in the Museo Capitolino. 

See Gurlitfs Versuch iiber Biistenkunde. Magdeb. 1800. 4. — C. P. Landon, Galerie Histor- 
ique &c. Par. 1803-11. 13. vols. 12.— The Historic Gallery of Portraits and Paintings. Lond. 1807, 
ss. 8. — L. P. Bellorius, Veterum illustrium Philosophorum, Poetarum, Rhetorum et Oratorum 
Imagines— illustratas. Rom. 1685. fol. — Visconti and Mongez, Iconographie Ancienne. Par. 1810 
— 1821. 5. vols. fol. This splendid work owes its existence to Napoleon and was executed at 
the public expense. It contains portraits of celebrated personages of Greece and Rome drawn 
from ancient statues, busts &c. with learned and valuable notices. The Iconographie Romaine- 
by Mongez was published in 1821. The Iconographie Grecque, containing 304 portraits, by £. 
Q. Visconti, was published in 1810, 3 vols, fol.— See notices in Ventouillac'' s French Librarian, 



REMAINS OF ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 105 

p. 311. Class. Journ. No. xiv. vol. vn. p. 209. Revue Encycl. vol. xxvi. 427.— E. Q. Visconti, 
Iconografia Romana ; and (separately) Iconografia Greca. Mil. 1823. 8 vols. 8 — We add, Anti- 
ehita di Ercolano, cited Q 243. 2. The 5th volume (entitled Bronzi di Ercolano &c. Neap. 1767. 
fol.) is on Busts ; and the 6th is on statues in bronze. 

§ 188 u. There likewise remains a multitude of works in relief, either in 
whole pieces, or fragments on edifices, columns, shields, helmets, tripods^ 
tombs, altars, &c. Vases and drinking utensils, urns and funeral lamps, are 
often found in antiquarian collections ; many of distinguished excellence as 
works of art. It would be too long to enumerate the monuments adorned 
with relief, even the most celebrated ; and we only mention the triumphal 
arches still existing at Rome, erected by the emperors Titus, Septimius Sev- 
erus, and Constantine, and the columns of Trajan and Antoninus Marcus. 

1. Among the most remarkable of the vases, is that now called the Warwick vase. " It is a 
monument of Grecian art, the production of Lysippus, statuary to Alexander the Great. It 
was dug up in Adrian's villa, at Tivoli, and was sent to England by Sir Wm. Hamilton in 1774. 
It is of sculptured marble adorned with elegant figures in high relief ; vine leaves, tendrils, 
fruit and stems, forming the rim and handles." {Arner. Journal of Scienceby Silliman, vol. xxvi. 
p. 244.) — " The Warwick vase is six feet and eleven inches in diameter. In magnitude, form, and 
beauty of workmanship, it is the most remarkable vessel of antiquity which we possess, in 
which the ancients used to mix their wine. It is accordingly very appropriately adorned with 
spirited Bacchic masks, and the handles have the appearance of vines growing out of the vase 

and surrounding it with their foliage." (Waagen, as cited below, § 190. 5. vol. 3d. p. 1C3.) 

Dr. Humphrey, speaking of a visit to " a superb show-room of cutlery, medals, vases <fcc," in 
Birmingham, says " The most imposing object was a stupendous bronze vase, a fac-simile of 
the marble one, which we afterwards saw in the gardens at Warwick castle. It will hold about 
two hundred gallons, and the proprietor of this beautiful imitation has refused ten thousand 
pounds for it." w It is said to have cost five thousand pounds and six years' labor. (H. Humphrey, 

Tour in Great Britain &c. N. York. 1838. 2. vols. 12. vol. i. p. 139.) In 1836, a beautiful 

vase was found at Alexandria, and came into the possession of the French consul ; it is said to 
resemble the Warwick vase so exactly that one must have been a copy of the other, and some 
have considered the Alexandrian vase as the original. (Gf. Incidents of Travel in Egypt &c. by 
an American (Mr. Stevens, N. York, 1837). — A collection of articles, which was sold in Paris 
in 1833,as belonging to " the late French consul in Egypt," contained a small bronze vase, call- 
ed in the catalogue a fac-simile of the Warwick vase. Cf. Waagen, as just cited above. 

Another celebrated monument of the same kind is that known by the name of the Lanti vase. 
It was found in Adrian's villa at Tivoli, and was formerly possessed by the Lanti family, but 
is now at Woburn Abbey (Eng.) the seat of the Duke of Bedford. It is of beautiful marble, and 
nearly equal to the Warwick vase, being 6 feet and 2 inches in diameter and 6 feet in height ; 
its general form is the same, and its handles are constructed in a similar manner ; it is also 

adorned with Bacchanalian masks. — Cf. Hunt's Descr. of Wob. Abbey, cited below § 191. 

On sculptured vases, see C. Antonini, Manuale di vasi ornamenti componenti la serie de vasi 
Antichi si di Marmo che di Bronzo &c. Rom. 1821. Fol. 1st. 2d. and 3d. vols, in one.— Cf. §173. 

2. The column of Trajan was erected in the middle of the market or forum called by his 
name. Its height has been stated differently, 128 feet, and 144 feet ; its diameter is about 12 
feet at bottom and ten at the top. It is encrusted with marble, on which the exploits of Tra- 
jan and his army, in Dacia particularly, are represented in bas-relief. On the top was a colos- 
sal statue of the emperor with a sceptre in his left hand, and in his right a hollow globe of gold, 
which is said to have received his ashes ; although Eutropius states (vni. 5.) that they were 
deposited under the pillar. There were steps inside for ascending to the top, with windows to 
admit the light. (R. Fabretti,~De columna Trajana Syntagma. Bom. 1683. fol.) — The column 
of Antonine, erected by the senate after his death / is said to be 176 feet high. It has steps for 
ascending to its top, with windows. The sculptures in relief upon it represent the military 
achievements of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus among the Germans. His statue was placed upon 
the summit. The whole monument resembles that of Trajan, but is inferior to it. — One of 
the popes, Sextus V., absurdly caused statues of the apostles Peter and Paul to be placed on 
these columns. The triumphal column of Bonaparte at Paris is built after the model of Tra- 
jan's pillar ; it is 140 feet high and 12 in diameter at the base ; encompassed with brazen plates 
which were made of cannon taken at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz and are covered with 
commemorative bas-reliefs ; surmounted with a statue of Napoleon. 

The Arch of Titus was erected in honor of his capture of Jerusalem. Among the bas-reliefs 
on it are representations of the spoils of the temple, as borne in the triumphal procession ; e. g. 
the incense vessels, the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the jubilee trumpets. 
Thus, through the vanity of a Roman conqueror, are transmitted to us models of the holy uten- 
sils planned by the Divine Architect. See our Plate xxvi. rig. E. The Arch of Septimius 

Severus was erected in the beginning of the third century ; directly over the Via Sacra ; con- 
sisting of a main arch in the centre, and a smaller arch on each side ; adorned with figures in 
bas-relief commemorative of his victory over the Parthians ; surmounted with equestrian 

statues. The Arch of Constantine consists also of three arches ; the noblest monument 

of the kind ; in fine preservation. It has been thought that this may be the arch erected in 
honor of Trajan, as the bas-reliefs appear to represent chiefly his achievements. Good en- 
gravings of these arches, andof the columns above mentioned, are given in Montfaucon, L'An- 
tiquite Expliquee, vol. iv. Plates cvm. — cxn. (as cited P. III. § 12, 2. (d). 

3. Many remains of sculptured bas-relief have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
See Antichita d'Ercolano, cited § 243. 2. The 8th. volume is on lamps &c, entitled Le Lucerne ed 
i Candelabri &c. Napl. 1792. — Catalogo degli Antichi Monumenti dissoterrati dalla discoperta 

citta di Ercolano. Nap. 1755. fol. On the remains of bas-relief at Rome, a valuable work 

is the following : Li Bassi-relievi antichi di Roma, incisi da T. Piroli, colle illustrazioni di O. 

Zoega, Rom. 1808. 2. vols. fol. Transl. into German by Welcker. Giessen, 1811. On the whole 

sibject, see references given below § 191 ; also references in Suiter's Allg. Theorie (cited 
$ 147), under the article Flaches Schnitzwerk. 



106 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

§ 189 u. Of the remains of mosaic, the most beautiful is that found at Ti- 
voli representing four doves around the rim of a vase. The largest is that 
called the Mosaic of Praneste, having once been the floor of the Temple of 
Fortune in that place. It represents an Egyptian festival. It is in the Palace 
Barberini built upon the ruins of the temple just named, in the village now 
called Palestr-ina. Other works of this kind have been discovered in modem 
times. 

1. A remarkable specimen of ancient mosaic was discovered at Seville in Spain, in 1799, and 
is commonly called the Mosaic of Italica. " It extends above forty feet in length by nearly 
thirty in breadth ; and contains a representation of the Circus games in a parallelogram in the 
centre, three sides of which are surrounded by circular compartments containing portraits of 
the Muses, interspersed with the figures of animals and some imaginary subjects." 

A specimen of mosaic, said to be very beautiful, was found in a house in Pompeii. It is 
presented in our Plate VI. fig. bb. A Chorodidascalus, or master of the chorus, is instructing 
his actors in their parts, for a representation in the theatre. He sits on a chair in the Chora- 
gium, or place devoted to these pieparatory lessons, surrounded by performers. At his feet on 
a stool, and behind him on a pedestal, are masks, which appear to be in readiness for him to 
distribute. One of the actors has received his mask and placed it on the top of his head and 
seems to be, with another actor at his side, listening attentively to the teacher, while a third is 
assisted by a fourth in putting his arms through the sleeves of a thick tunic. The two former 
have no clothing except a goat-skin about their loins. In the middle of the scene are two fe- 
males ; one of them, crowned with a wreath, is playing on the double flute, or perhaps tuning 
the instrument. Beyond these figures appear the Ionic columns of the portico, with garlands 
hanging in festoons between them. In the antique itself appear also (although not included 
in the drawing in the Plate), the entablature and a sort of gallery above it decorated with fig- 
ures and vases. This mosaic and others discovered at Pompeii are composed of very fine pieces 
of glass, and seem to have been made in a manner similar to the modern Italian mosaics now 
so celebrated. 

2. The various remains which have been preserved clearly show that the ancients had at- 
tained great perfection in this form of image-work, which is often included under painting, and 
with more propriety because different colors are employed. Interesting specimens are lodged 
in the British Museum. In the Townley collection, it is said, is a ring containing in glass a 
representation of a bird so small as not to be distinctly visible without a magnifying glass. 
Winckcbnann describes an antique, the whole size of which is but one inch in length by a third 
of an inch in breadth, and yet it contains in mosaic the picture of a mallard (a species of 
duck), which in brilliancy of coloring and in distinct representation of parts, even of the 
wings and the feathers, equals a miniature painting ; and, to add what is more remarkable, on 
being turned it presents the same picture without a discoverable variation on the opposite side. 

3. See Winckelmann, Histoire, &c. cited § 32. 4. vol. l. p. 48,—Barthelemy, Explication de la 
Mosaique de Palestrine. Par. 1760. 4; also in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxx. p. 503. — Viscon- 
ti, Osservazioni su due Musaici antichi istoriati. Parm. 1787. 4. with plates. — Al. de Laborde, 
Mosaique d'ltalica. Par. 1800. fol. with colored plates. This mosaic is also given in Labor- 
de's Voyage Pittoresque, cited § 243. 3. (PL lxxxv. vol. n.)— J. Ciampini Vetera Monumenta, 
in quibus prsecipue opera musiva illustrantur. Rome, 1690, '99. 2 vols. fol. — Furietti Liber de 
Musivis. Bome, 1752. 4, with plates. — Ourlitt, uber die Mosaik. Magd. 1798. 4.— J. Elmes, 

Dictionary (cited § 206), Mosaic— De Vielle, Essai sur la Peinture en Mosaique. Copies of 

several antique mosaics may be seen in Montfaucon, as just (§ 188) referred to, and in Stuart, 
as cited § 234.3. Some mosaic pavements have been found in England ; see Archceologia, (cited 

$ 243. 3.) vol. xxn. p. 49. For a notice of the modern art, Lardncr's Cabinet Cyclop, vol. 

on Porcelain and Olass. 

§ 190. Many collections have been made of remains of ancient 
Sculpture. The following are the most celebrated public collections. 

1 u. In Italy we find the greatest number and the most valuable remains : 
particularly at Rome, the Vatican, in which are the Museo Clementino and the 
Museo Chiaramonti ; in the Museum of the Capitol ; in the Palaces Barberini, 
Mattei, Massimi ; in the Villas Mbani, Ludovisi, Pamfili, and Medici : at Flo- 
rence, in the Gallery of the Grand Duke and the Palace Pitti : at Naples, in the 
Royal Museum; at Portici, in the Museum of Antiquities, where are collected 
the remains discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae } at Venice, in 
the Fore-hall of St. Mark's Library. 

Details respecting the collections mentioned here and below may be drawn from works of 
Topography and Travels in the several countries specified.— In reference to Italy, the follow- 
ing authors and travelers may be mentioned : Keyssler ; Volkmann, with BernouillPs additions ; 
Count Stolb erg ; Morgenstern; Cochin, Le voyage Pittoresque d'ltalie ; Dupaty, Lettres sur 
l'ltalia.— Also Eustace, Classical Tour through Italy. Lond. 3d ed. 1815. 4 vols. 8.— Johnson 
(M. D.), Philosophy of Traveling. Republished from Eng. ed. N. York, 1831. 8.— Remarks on 
Antiquities, Arts, #c. (during an excursion in Italy, in 1802 and 1803.) Republished from Eng. 
ed. Boston, 1818. 8. — Cf. Edinb. Rev. No. xliv.— W. FisVs Travels, cited $ 185. 6. 

2 u. In France the most important collection of this kind is in the Royal 
Museum, at Paris. This collection was greatly augmented after the French 
war in Italy, 1796, by master-pieces of art brought from Rome and other cit- 
ies of Italy, and from Netherlands and Germany. But on the victory of the 



COLLECTIONS OF ANCIENT SCULPTURE, 107 

allied powers over Bonaparte in 1815, these plundered treasures were re- 
stored to the places whence they had been taken. Nevertheless the collec- 
tion in the Royal Museum is still one of the richest in Europe. 

3u. In Germany there is a collection at Vienna, in the Imperial Museum, 
particularly rich in Vases ; at Munich in the Antiquarian Hall (Antikensaal, 
Antiquarium) of the Palace and the Glyptothck, where are particularly notice- 
able the iEginetan sculptures, discovered in 1811, and afterwards purchased 
by the Crown-Prince of Bavaria ; at Dresden, in what is called the Japanese 
Palace (a beautiful Collection) ; at Charlottenburgh, in the Royal Mansion, near 
Berlin ; at Sans-Souci, in the edifice erected by Frederic II. of Prussia, by the 
name of Temple of Antiques. 

On the iEginetan marbles, see J". M. Wagner, Bericht uber die iEginetischen Bildwerke in 
Besitz Sr. Kim. Hokeit des Kronprinzen von Baiern. (with remarks by Schelling.) Stuttg. 
1817. 8. Cf. Wolfs Analekten, Vol. n. p. 167.— For other references on the collections in Ger- 
many, and also in other countries, see Suiter's Allg. Theorie, &c. vol. i. p. 188. 

4 m. In England the chief is in the British Museum, London, where are the 
valuable monuments brought from Greece by Lord Elgin in 1814, and purchas- 
ed by Parliament for the Museum. — Interesting remains of bas-reliefs are seen 
in the Arundelian collection at Oxford. — Valuable works of ancient art are in 
possession of rich individuals; among the most distinguished are those be- 
longing to the Duke of Pembroke's Collection. 

When the storm of the French revolution hurst over the different countries of Europe, 
the general distress and the insecurity of property brought into market an immense number 
of works of art, which had for centuries adorned the churches, or the palaces of the great. Of 

these, England found the means to obtain the most and the best. The British Museum now 

contains a various and splendid collection, to preserve which a new edifice of spacious dimen- 
sions was commenced in 18-23. — Among the most important monuments of sculpture here de- 
posited, are those designated as the Elgin Marbles. In 1779, Lord Elgin went as ambassador 
extraordinary to Constantinople. He took with him several artists and settled them at Athens 
for the purpose of making plans of the ancient edifices and casts of the most important works of 
sculpture. These artists saw the destruction daily committed on the existing monuments by 
travelers and by the Turks. The finest statues, some of those supposed to be the workmanship 
of Phidias, were pounded to pieces by the Turks and burnt to make lime. A whole temple had 
disappeared in the lapse of a few years. Lord Elgin is said to have been influenced by these 
facts to resolve on saving to the world some portion of the still existing remains. As the Eng- 
lish government was now in great favor with the Turkish government, in consequence of the 
eminent services rendered by the former to the latter in the defeat of Bonaparte in Egypt, the 
ambassador easily procured from the Sultan two firmans, which secured to him free access to 
the Acropolis of Athens, with authority to make plans or casts, and to remove what he might 
think proper. Lord Elgin removed nearly all the statues from the pediments of the Parthenon, 
fifteen metopes, and three sides of the bas-reliefs which ran around the cella of the temple as a 
frieze, and also many other works. Only a part of what he collected ever reached England, the 
vest being lost at sea. Those now in the British Museum have been considered as superior to 
all the antique sculptures before discovered. — - Cf. Memorandum on the Earl of Elgin's Pursuits 
in Greece. Lond. 1811. 8. — Lawrence, as below cited §191. — Visconti, Memoire sur les ouvrages 

de sculpture du Parthenon. Lond. 1816. The collection bearing the name of diaries Toxcn- 

ley is also now a main ornament of the Museum. Besides the works of sculpture, among which 
are a number of interesting Greek busts, it is rich in vessels of terra cotta. — Hamilton's collection 
of sculptured vases (cf. § 173) also belongs to the Museum ; and Payne Knight's collection of 
bronzes. — The Museum now possesses also a great number of Egyptian monuments ; among 
them, the collection of Mr. Salt. — — Some private collections, besides that mentioned above by 
the author, ought perhaps to be named here ; as that at Holkam House, the seat of Mr. Coke, 
now Earl of Leicester ; that at Woburn Abbey, the seat of the Duke of Bedford ; that of the 
Duke of Devonshire ; and that of Sir R. Worsley (who was minister at Venice, 1785 — 87), at 
Apuldercombc House in the Isle of Wight. 

On the collections in England : G. F. Waagen, Works of Art in England. Transl. from Germ, 
by H. E. Loijd. Lond. 1838~ 3 vols. 12.— On the Elgin Collect. Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 513. 

5. Scarcely any of the genuine remains of ancient art have been brought to our own country. 
But copies and casts in plaster have, to some extent, been employed as substitutes, and may be 
■of great service. The Boston Atheneum has a few bas-reliefs, busts, and other antiques. It has 
also, in plaster or marble, copies of some of the most valued monuments of ancient statuary : 
the Laocoon, Apollo Belvedere, Venus de Medici, The Torso, Antinous, Gladiator Borghese, &c. 
(Dr. Bass, as cited § 139. 1.) — The Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia has likewise°some an- 
tiques and a number of copies of celebrated pieces. Cf. Fessenden's Register of Arts. 

§191 u. In order to give those, who cannot visit in person these remains of 
ancient art, some visible representation of them, drawings and plates have been 
published, which are usually accompanied with descriptions and critical re- 
marks. We will here name some of the principal of these works, in addition 
to such as have been already mentioned. 

1. Works of a general character, more or less extensive.— P. S. Bartolus, Admiranda Roma- 
norum Antiquitatum ac veteris Sculpture Vestigia, delineata (cum not. J. P. Bcllorii). Rom. 
1699. M.—Domen. de Rossi, Raccolta di Statue antiche e moderne, colle sposizioni di Paolo Al- 
cssandro Maffei. Rom, 1704. fol. — Gorii Muscuai Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 3 vols, fol.— Comte d& 



108 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

Caylus, Recueil des Antiquites Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques, et Romaines. Par. 1752— 67, 
7 vols. 4. — Giov. Winckelmann, Monumenti antichi inediti, spiegati ed illustrati. Rom. 1767* 
2 vols. fol. — Winckebnjann, Alte Denkmaler der Kunst. Transl. into Germ, from Ital. by Brunn. 
Berl. 1799. 2 vols, fol — A work ranked among the best of the smaller general collections is, 
J. J. Preisler, Statuae Antique seri incisse, del. ab Edm. Bouchardon. Norimb. 1732. fol. — We 
add here, Ed. Dodwell, Alcuni Bassirelievi dell. Grecia &c. Rom. 1812. fol.' — J. Millingen, An- 
cient Unedited Monuments. Lond. 1822. 4. — Lenormant, Musee des Antiquites Egyptiennes, ou 
Recueil des Monumens Egyptiennes, Architecture, Statuaire, Glyptique, et Peinture : Com- 
menced Par. 183d, to be completed in 10 livraisons. 

2. Relating more particularly to remains preserved in Italy. — Museum Capitoli- 

num. Ed. Bollari, Foggidi, et Gtierci. Rom. 1750 — 83. 4 vols. fol. II Museo Capitolino. 

Museum Flor entinum. Cum observ. A. F. Gorii. Flor. 1731 — 42. 6 vols. fol. The 3d vol. 
is on statues. — 4. M. Zannetti, Raccolta delle antiche statue nell' Antisala della libreria di S. 

Marco illustr. Ven. 1740 — 43. 2 vols, fol Barbault, Les plus beaux Monuments de 

Rome anc. &c. Par. 1762. fol. — Mongez, Tableaux, Statues, Bas-relief*, et Camees de la Gale- 
rie de Florence et du Palais Pitti, dessines par M. Wicar &c. Paris (chez Lacombe, ed. de l'ouv- 
rage), 1789. fol.— II Museo Pio- CI ementino , descritto da Oiamo. (ed. Enn. Q/uir.) Vis- 
conti. Rom. 1782—1807. 7 vols. fol. (Cf. Opere di E. Q. Visronti, Mil. 1818. 4.)— 11 Museo 
Chiar amonti , aggiunto al Pio-clementino, con Dichiazione diAnt. Nibby, &c. Rom. 1737. 
2 vols. fol. 

3. Relating to remains in Germany. — L. Beger, Thesaurus Brandeburgicus selectus, Colon. 
March. 1696 — 1701. 3 vols. fol. — Description des Statues, Bustes et Demibustes, qui forment 
le collection du R. de Pr. <fcc. Berl. 1774. 8. — 1. L. Krueger, Antiquites dans la Collection de 
Sans Souci &c. Prem. Part. Berl. 1769. fol. Sec. Part. Dantz. 1772. fol — W. Reitzii et H. Mar- 
tini Descriptio Musei Franciani. Lips. 1781. 8.— W. G. Becker, Augusteum, Dresden's antike 
Denkmiler enhaltend. Lpz. 1804 — 11. 3 vols. fol. 

4. Remains in France — Galerie du Mu see Nap oleon, (publiee par Filhol et redigee par 
Lavallee. Par. 1802 — 15. 10 vols. 8. — Landon Galerie complete du Musee Napoleon. Par. 64 liv- 
raisons. 4. — A. Lenoir, Description historique et critique des statues, bas-reliefs, &c. du Musee 
Royal. Par. 1820. 8. There is an English translation of an earlier edition of this by J. Griffiths. 
Par. 1803. 8. — P. Bouillon, Musee des Antiques &c. Par. 1826. 3 vols. fol. — E. Q. Visconti and 
J. B. Emeric-Daoid, Le MuseeFrancais; Recueil complet des Tableaux, Statues, et Bas- 
reliefs, qui composent la Collection nationale &c. (publiee par Robillard Peronville et Laurent.) 
Par. 1803—9. 4 vols. fol. Vol. 4th contains ancient statues, with explanations. — Le Musee 
Roy ale; Recueil de Gravures, d'apres les plus beaux Tableaux, Statues, et Bas-reliefs 
de la Collection royal &c. (publie par H. Laurente.) Par. 1816 — 18. 2 vols. fol. This is a 
continuation of the preceding ; they are designated as 1st Series and 2d Series. — Raoul-Rochet- 
te, Monuments Inedits d'Antiquite rlguree &c. Par. 1828, 29. 2 vols. fol. — Visconti and De Clar- 
ac, Description des Antiques du Musee Royal. Par. 1820. 8. 

5. Remains preserved in England. — J. Kennedy, A description of the Antiquities and Curiosi- 
ties in Wilton Hot:se, illustrated with twenty-five engravings of the Capital Statues, Bustos, 
and Relievos. Salisb. 1769. 4. — Richardson, JEdes Pembrochianse, or a Critical Account of the 
Statues &c. at Wilton House. Lond. 1774. 8. — Dr. Hunt, Description of the Woburn Abbey Mar- 
bles. Lond. 1822. fol. — R. Lawrence, Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon. Lond. 1818. fol. — 
Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, ^Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek and Roman, selected from collections 
in Great Britain, by the Society of Dilettanti. Lond. 1809. imp. fol. 75 plates.— Museum Wors- 
leyanum, a collection of antique Basso-relievos, Bustos, Statues, etc. Lond. 1794. fol. " a mag- 
nificent work" (Dr. Waagen). also Lond. 1824. 2 vols, fol. — Cockerell, Ancient Marbles of the 
British Museum. Lond. 1830. 

6. On the subject of sculpture generally, we add the following : — Dillaicay's Statuary and 
Sculpture of the Ancients. 8. — Flaxmaii's Lectures on Sculpture. Lond. 1829. 8. with plates. — 
Consult also Krebs, Handbuch d. Philol. Biicherkunde. vol. n. p. 331. — Sulzer's Allg. Theorie. 
vol. i. p. 188, 416.— K. O. Mueller, Archaeologie &c. as cited $ 32. 4. 



II. — Lithogtyphy , or Engraving on Gems. 

§192. Engraving upon such materials as metals, ivory, shells, crys- 
tals, and gems, is a particular application of the general art of image- 
work. It is done either by elevating the figures above the surface of 
the material used, or depressing them below. Gems, or precious stones 
(?.l&oi, gemma), are most commonly employed for this purpose, and 
the art has thence been called Lithoglyphy (f.i&oylvyia). As the en- 
graved stones were very frequently inserted in rings for the fingers, 
the art was also termed by the Greeks daxrviioyivcpla. — The great va- 
riety of objects represented by it, the beauty and perfection of the 
workmanship, and the extensive utility of it in relation to literature^, 
render this art particularly worthy of notice. 

See Suher '5 All gem. Theorie &c. vol. n. p. 386. 



PLATE V . 




110 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

§193. At a very early period probably men became acquainted with 
gems, and in the same way it is likely as with metals, by the subver- 
sion or abrasion of the soil in which they existed. Even the imper- 
fect lustre of the rude gem might attract attention, and accident might 
first suggest the idea of increasing the lustre by friction. It needed 
but a glance at a fractured gem to perceive, that it would be rendered 
brighter and more beautiful by removing the exterior surface or 
roughness. This was perhaps originally done by rubbing two stones 
together ; since, as is known, almost every precious stone may be 
polished by its own powder. The evidence of this early acquaintance 
with gems will be given below (§199). 

§194 w. A particular knowledge of the nature, formation, and divisions of the 
precious stones belongs properly to the naturalist. Yet the artist and amateur 
cannot wholly dispense with this knowledge in order that they may judge of 
the real substance of gems, although the design and execution of the engrav- 
ing are their principal object of attention. — As to the classification of gems, 
the mineralogical systems differ in principles ; some distinguishing the stones 
by their elementary parts, others by their degree of density and transparency, 
or by their colors. The two last methods are not sufficiently exact, as they 
are not based on essential and exclusive characteristics. — Hardness, lustre, 
transparency, and beauty of color, are the most important peculiarities and 
recommendations of a gem. 

See F. B. Brueckman> s Abhandlung von Edelsteinen. Braunschw. 1773. 8. and Beitraege to 
the same, Braunschw. 1778 and 1783. — For a View of the nature of gems, see F. S. Beudant, 
Traite element, de Mineralogie. Par. 1830. vol. l. p. 704. Cf. Dictionnaire classique d'Histoire 
Naturelle, par Audouin, &c. Par. 1828. tome m. p. 542. — Mawe, Treatise on Precious Stones. 
Lond. 1813. 8. with colored plates. — L. Feuchtwanger, Treatise on Gems &c. a Guide for the 
Lapidary, Artist, Amateur, &c. N. Yk. 1838. 8. 

§195. Without going into a full enumeration of all the kinds of 
precious stones, we shall mention those which are worthy of notice 
on account of their use in lithoglyphy. 

lu. The Diamond (aduuag, adamas), with the ancients, held the first rank 
among precious stones, on account of its brilliancy, hardness, and transparency. 
Tet it is not certain that they employed it for engraying. Even the polishing 
of it seems to have been unknown to them, or the art was lost and discovered 
again about 1467 by Louis de Berguen of Brixen. 

The Ruby {nvqumog^carbunculus) approaches the Diamond in hardness, and 
often surpasses it in lustre. The Romans named different varieties of this gem 
rubacellus, palassius, spinellus. Pliny (xxxvii. 29.) mentions lychnis as a sort 
of ruby. 

The Emerald probably had its name (smaragdus, auuqaySoc derived from 
uaQuoow) from its peculiar gloss. On account of its beautiful green, both 
agreeable and salutary to the eyes of the artist, it was frequently used in 
lithoglyphy. The ancients seem to have included under the term smaragdus 
all gems of a green color, and especially the dark Beryl called by jewelers the 
aquamarine. The smaragdites was merely a variety of green marble, which, 
although often called smaragdus (a,), must be distinguished from the emerald. 

The Sapphire (ou7iip£iQog, sapphirus, also v.vavog, cyanus), of a beautiful sky- 
blue color, was esteemed nearly equal to the Diamond. That, which had 
mingled with it tinges of gold, was called chrysoprase (xQvaoTcqaoog). 

The name of Beryl ((J/;ov,l?.og, beryllus) was given to all transparent stones of 
a pale or sea green. The Chrysoberyl was of a yellowish hue'. 

The Jacinth or Hyacinth (vuxivBog) is of a deep red, often an orange color. 
The stone of violet hue, to which the ancients gave also the same name, seems 
to have been rather a species of Amethyst. 

The Amethyst (uai&voTog), violet colored in different degrees and shades, was 
much sought for by ancient artists. One variety of it was held in particular 
estimation ; that which they termed 7raidi(>wg, or avriQwg, and the gem of Ve- 
nus (gemma Veneris). 



GEMS USED IN LITHOGLYPHY. Ill 

The Agate (a/unis) received its name from the river Achates in Sicily, 
where the stone was first found. Agates (b) are of various shades in transpa- 
rency and color. The agate-onyx, with a white surface and another color be- 
neath, was often employed for engraving in relief, the surface of the stone be- 
ing used for the figure. There are numerous sorts. 

The Cornelian is so called from its color resembling that of flesh (carnis). 
It belongs to the class of agates. It was very frequently used for purposes of 
engraving (c), on account of the ease with which it could be wrought. 

The Sardine or Sardius (ouodivog, ouodiog, sarda) is likewise red and of the 
same kind as the Carnelian. It is used for seals and signets very much, be- 
cause it is so readily detached from the wax. The term sarda was a common 
name for every kind of Carnelian. 

The Opal (drcaUiog, opalus) is ordinarily white, but occurs with other colors. 
It was much esteemed (d) by the ancients. 

The Jasper (latmig, iaspis) presents various colors, red, green, brown, gray 
which sometimes appear simple, and sometimes mingled. For lithoglyphy the 
latter kind was preferred, particularly that with red spots upon a green ground, 
which was also called heliotropia. 

The Onyx (ovv£) took its name from its whitish red color resembling the nails 
of the hand. That which presents veins of red was termed Sardonyx. A kind 
of marble of similar color was also termed onyx or Onychitis, and likewise 
Alabastrites. 

The Crystal (xqvoral/.og, crystallus) was so called from its resemblance in 
form to ice (y.ovog, y.qvaraoi). Ancient artists made use of it both in lithogly- 
phy, and for drinking vessels on which devices were to be sculptured. 

(a) Pliny speaks of many varieties of the Emerald. The real gem was highly prized When 
the rich Lucullus visited Alexandria, Ptolemy is said to have presented to him an emerald 
bearing on it an engraved likeness of the king of Egypt ; and this was considered as the most 
valuable present which could be made. But, whenit is stated that the hall of Ahasuerus Avas 
paved with emerald ; that a temple of Hercules was adorned with pillars of emerald ; and that 
whole statues were cut in emerald; the maragdites, or some variety of marble, must be meant. 
Gems of emerald have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. — (b) Agates seem to have 
been frequently used for vases ; some beautiful vases of this stone are preserved in the collec- 
tions at Dresden and Brunswick. If a stone presented two colors, so that the raised figure could 
be of a color different from the rest of the surface, it was specially valued. Very fine speci- 
mens of such engraved stones are preserved in the Royal Museum at Paris. — (c) The Carnelian, 
and the stones included under the names of Agate and Onyx, seem to have been the ones most 
commonly used in forming cameos (cf. §196). "Many very fine specimens are preserved in the. 
public collections. — (d) " Nonius, a Roman senator, possessed an Opal of extraordinary beauty 
valued at £160,000 ; rather than part with which to Mark Antony, he chose to suffer exile. He 
fled to Egypt ; and there, it was supposed, secreted his gem;" and it was never more heard of 
until, in modern times, a Frenchman by the name of Roboly pretended to have found it amidst 
the ruins of Alexandria. Only a few engraved specimens are found in the collections. 

2 u. In reference to the accounts given of precious stones by ancient writers, 
particularly by Pliny, the 37th Bk. of whose Natural History is devoted to this 
topic, it must not be forgotten that the names and characteristics therein given 
do not always belong to the stones which bear those names in modern science. 
Many of the ancient gems must be distinguished from such as have the same 
names now, but different characteristics. The smallest points of variance 
were sufficient with the ancients to secure to a precious stone a new name. 

See L. de Launay's Tableau de Comparaison de la Mineralogie des Anciens avec celle des 
Modernes, in his Mineralogie des Anciens. Brux. 1803. 2 vols. 12. — JV*. F. Moore, Ancient Mine- 
ralogy, or Inquiry respecting the mineral substances mentioned by the ancients &c. N. York. 
1834. 12. commended in Silliman's Journal of Science, vol. xxvm. p. 188. 

3. Several precious stones are enumerated in Exodus (xxviii. 17 — 20) ; by 
the Sept. thus : auqSiov, totvuliov, Ouaouydog, Ttv&Qa&, ouTTipaiqog, XaGitig, ?.iyv- 
Qior, a/art]g, uuiOvoroc, yovooAidog, (itjOv?.?.LOv, bvvyiov. The list in Rev. xxi. 
contains also zalxijdwv, oaodovvg, yovOuTtqaoog, vuy.iv&og. 

See Epiphanius, de xii Gemmis &c. on the xii gems in the breast-plate of Aaron, in his Opera, 
Colon. 1682. 2 vols, fol — also in Gessncr, De fossilium genere, cited P. II. § 268. 

4. Some have included among the gems the Murra or murrhinum, men- 
tioned by Pliny, of which were made the vessels (vasa murrina) so much val- 
ued by the Romans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been 
many conjectures, of which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind 
of porcelain. " The vases were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the 
Christian era, that two of them were bought by one of the emperors at the 
price (a) of 300 sestertium, more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of 



112 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

holding three sextarii (4 1-2 pints) was sold for seventy talents ; and a dish for 
three hundred; a talent being equal to £180 English." 

(a) Silliman's Amer. Journ. of Science and Art. vol. xxvi. p. 236. — See Graf von Veltheim, 
Abhandlung liber die Vasa murrina. Helmst.1791. 8. — Ghirlitt, uber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb, 
1798. 4. — Roloff, uber die rnurrinischen Gefsesse der Alten, in the Museum der Alterthumsw. by 
Wolf&. Buttmann (Bd. n). — Launay, Mineral, des Anciens, above cited, vol. l . p. 85. — Le Blond &. 
Larcher, Les Vases murrbines, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xliii . p. 217, 238. — Monq-ez, Sur les vases 
murrhins, Mem. de PInstit. C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. n. p. 133.— Cf. Class. Journ. i. 242, 
. 5. The substance called alabaster (a?.a^aorQog) was employed by the ancients as the mate- 
rial for their unguentary vases, or the vessels for holding precious perfumes and ointments. 
Hence the term aXufiaOTqov came to be used as a common name for a vase or bottle designed 
for this purpose (cf. Matt. xxvi. 7.), of whatever it might be formed, whether of alabaster, gold, 
glass, or other material. The alabaster of the ancients was, according to Dr. E. D. Clarke, 
carbonated lime, and precisely the substance which forms the stalactites in the famous grotto of 
Antiparos.— Clarke's Travels, vol. m. p. 275, ed. N. Yk. 1815. 

§196. On these gems the figures were formed either in depression 
below the surface, or in^relief above. Those of the first kind were 
called, by the ancients, Aidoi Siuyivnroi, gemmce diaglyphicce, insculptce. 
Those of the other kind were called MQoi avuyivnroi, gemmce ectypce^ 
anaglyphicce, exsculptce. The moderns also apply distinguishing 
terms to the two kinds : gems with figures cut below the surface are 
called intaglios ; gems with figures in relief above the surface are 
called cameos. 

1 u. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the gem, the depres- 
sion is of different degrees, according to the perspective. Sometimes the sur- 
face of the gem receives a swelling form like that of a shield, to enable the 
artist to express the prominent parts more naturally and without curtailment 
and preserve a more accurate perspective. 

2 m. The word cameo was formed, it may be, from the union of two words, 
viz. gemma onychia, as it originally was applied only to gems of onyx having 
two colors, the figure in relief being formed of the upper color, and the other 
appearing in the ground. Or it may have come from the name of a shell, Came, 
which is found on the coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures 
on it in a sort of relief. 

See J. D. Fiorillo, Abh. uber das Wort Camee, in his Klein. Schrift. artistischen Inhalts. 

§197. The objects represented upon engraved gems are very vari- 
ous. Often the figures transmit and preserve the memory of particu- 
lar persons, remarkable events, civil and religious rites and customs, 
or other matters worthy of notice. Sometimes the whole is an arbi- 
trary device of the artist, combining and exhibiting mythical, allegor- 
ical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find merely heads, of 
gods, heroes or distinguished personages, either singly, or one after 
another [capita jugata), or facing each other (adversa), or turned the 
opposite way (aversa). The heads usually appear in profile. In dis- 
covering and explaining the design, it is useful to compare the pieces 
with coins and with other gems. 

§198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either 
single or grouped. There are, for example, full figures of gods with 
various costumes, and appendages. Frequently mythical and allego- 
rical representations are united. Many times the engravings illustrate 
points of history and antiquities. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, 
feats in hunting and the like, are often presented. There are gems 
also with inscriptions, which usually give the name of the artist, but 
not with certainty, because the inscription is so often made subse- 
quently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large 
letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. 
Occasionally the inscription contains the words of some sacred ox 
votive formula ; scarcely ever an explanation of the subject represented. 



GEM-ENGRAVING OF THE EGYPTIANS. 113 

See Fr. de Ficoroni, Gemmae antiqure literatse. Rom. 1757. 4. Particular gems were con- 
sidered as peculiarly appropriate to certain gods ; e. g. representations of Bacchus were spe- 
cially common on the Amethyst having the color of wine ; Neptune and the nymphs were 
executed in Aquamarine having the greenish color of water.— In Plate V. fig. 5, and 6, we 
have specimens of whole figures engraved on gems. In fig. 5. Daedalus is seen sitting on a 
block and fabricating a wing which rests on a tripod ; it is curious that he seems to be work- 
in? with a mallet. In fig. 6~ Cupid is sitting on a shell, and playing with a butterfly ; the oval 
ring in the fig. shows the^actual size of the beautiful gem here exhibited. This may be an alle- 
gorical device, as the butterfly was regarded by the ancients as an emblem of the soul. TVinck- 
elmann sives an antique, in which a philosopher is looking contemplatively upon a human skull 
with a butterflv on the crown of it, supposed to represent Plato meditating on the immortality 
of the soul. So in the gem here exhibited, the artist may have designed to intimate the influ- 
ence of love upon the soul, or to remind, the observer of the allegory of Eros and Psyche (cf. P. III. 

§ 50). In figs. 7, and 8, we have a Hermes and a Hermcracles, as engraved on gems. In fig. 1, 

is a mythological representation : Harpocrates, the god of silence, sits on a lotus flower, holding 
in his left hand a scourge (flag-ellum), instead of the horn of plenty, which more commonly he 
holds, and placing the fore finger of his right hand upon his lips ; on one side of him is the sun, 
and the moon on the other ; on his head he has a vessel of some sort instead of a crown. 

§199. The history of this art has its different periods, and princi- 
pal changes and characteristics in reference to origin, progress and 
decline, in common with sculpture or image-work in general. Like 
sculpture, it depends much on design; its advancement is effected 
by the same causes as that of sculpture ; so also is its decline ; its pro- 
gress, likewise, presents the same varieties of style, the rude, the more 
cultivated, and the elegant. It is probable, that soon after the discov- 
ery of precious stones men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps 
mere characters or simple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices 
of the art, in the precious stones of the Ephod and the Breast-plate 
of Aaron, on which were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. Gems and precious stones are spoken of at a still earlier 
period. 

Cf. § 195. 3. — See Gen. ii. 12. Job. xxviii. 6. 16. 19. Comp. Lev. xxvi. 1. — J, J. Bellermann^ 
Die Urim und Thummim, die altestens Gemmen. Berl. 1824. 8. 

§ 200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the Egyp- 
tians, among whom it had been long known, and had been promoted 
by their superstitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of such 
stones in the preservation of health. In this view they were marked 
with hieroglyphic characters, and used as talismans, or amulets. 

1 u. Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like that of 
the beetle, termed Scarabcei (xuoapog) ; however, many of them were wrought 
at a later period, after the time of Christ, to which more recent class belong 
also those called by the name of Abraxas. 

2. The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force 
of its corresponding Greek letters, a (i o a c a g , signifies 365, the number of 
days in the year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilides, who main- 
tained that there were so many heavens ; or by some one of the sect called 
Gnostics. The engraved stones designated by this name are supposed to have 
proceeded from the followers of this sect and to have been designed as a sort 
of amulets or talismans. Great numbers of them are preserved in the cabi- 
nets of Europe. 

Montfaucon divides the gems called Abraxas into seven classes ; 1. those with the head of 
a cock usually joined to a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents ; 2. those with the 
head or body of a lion, having often the inscription Mithras ; 3. those having the inscription or 
the figure Sera-pis ; 4. those having Anubis, or scarabeei, serpents, or sphinxes ; 5. those having 
human figures with or without wings ; 6. those having inscriptions without figures ; 7. those 
having unusual or monstrous figures. The term Abraxas, sometimes written Abrasax, is found 
only on a few. A specimen of the first class is given in our illustrations, Plate V, fig. 2. 
The image engraved has the body and arms of a man ; in the right hand is held a round 
shield ; in the left the flagellum; the head is that of a cock with a crest, and the legs assume 
the form of serpents. It bears the inscription 1 A \jj , t « o», which is commonly found on these 
stones, on the shield or on some other part ; this may be intended to correspond to the Hebrew 
of Jehovah (see Plate I a, in fig. e, line b) ; the word Ailonai is found on some of these stones. 

Avery singular specimen is given in Walsh, on Coins &c. p. 68. as cited $213. The mystic 

word ABPACA/iABPA is supposed to have come from the same sect. An amulet was formed 
by writing these letters in such a wav that they should make an inverted cone or triangle with, 

10* 



114 ARCHjEOLGY of art. 

the whole word at the base and the letter A at the apex ; which was done by beginning the 
word one place farther to the right in each successive line and also cutting off at each time ono 
letter from the end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever. 

See Montfaucon, L'Antiquite expliquee. tome n. p. 353 (part 2. livre iii.) — Joa. Macarii, 
Abraxas s. Apistopistus ; antiquaria disquisitio de Genlmis Basilidianis. Antv. 1657. 4. — P. C. 
Jabldnsky, De Nominis Abraxas vera significatione, in the Miscell. Lips. Nov. (Bd. 7. Th. 1.) 
— J. J. Bellermarm, iiber die Gemmen mit dem Abraxas-bilde, und tiber die Scarabaeen-Gem- 
men. Berl. 1817. 8. 

3. The most fanciful and superstitious notions have prevailed respecting the marvelous pow- 
ers of gems. Fabulous accounts of the origin of different stones were invented by the ancients. 
Particular gems were imagined to hold peculiar relations to certain planets, constellations, and 
months of the year. The gem appropriate for a particular month was worn as an amulet dur- 
ing the month, and was supposed to exert a mysterious control in reference to beauty, health, 
riches, honor, and all good fortune ; as e. g. a sapphire for April, an agate for May, and an eme- 
rald for June. Different gems were also supposed to possess specific powers ; e. g. the emerald 
was an antidote to poison, and a preventive of melancholy ; the amethyst was a security against 
intoxication, if worn as an amulet or used as a drinking-cup ; the ruby or spinelle was a pro- 
moter of joy and a foe to all bad dreams. Such notions were cherished also among the Ara- 
bians and eastern nations ; and were embraced in Europe in the middle ages. Indeed, to un- 
derstand the virtues of gems was esteemed an important part of natural philosophy, and trea- 
tises were written on the subject (cf. P. II. § 268). Marbodus, a monk of the 12th century, who 
was made bishop of Rennes, wrote a poem (De gemmis) setting forth, in Latin verse, the mi- 
raculous efficacy of precious stones. Cf. Wartoris Hist. Eng. Poetry. Lond. 1824. 2d vol. p. 214. 
Twelve gems were appropriated as symbolical of the twelve Apostles, and called " The Apos- 
tle gems ;" the hint having been drawn from the twelve gems representing the twelve tribes on 
Aaron's breast-plate, and from the figurative language of the Apocalypse of John (Rev. xxi. 14, 
19, 20), in which the walls of the new Jerusalem are represented as having twelve foundations 
of precious stones, inscribed with the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb. 

4. We may mention here a class of engraved stones, sometimes called 
Socratic, having heads of various animals connected with the form or feet of a 
cock, or other devices, among which is found a head resembling Socrates. 

See Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, &c. vol. n. p. 399. — Joa. Chiflctii Socrates, s. de Gemmis ejus im- 
agine cslatis Judicium. Antv. 1662. 4. — Middleton's Antiq. Tab. xxi. sect. 10. cf. Doddridge-, 
Family Expositor. Note on Rev. iv. 7. (p. 913. Am. Ed. Amherst, 1833.) 

§201. Among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plastic 
arts, and on account of the same hindrances (§ 169), never reached 
any distinguished excellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorn- 
ed with figures in relief, were much less common among them than 
among the Greeks and Romans, with whom a greater degree of lux- 
ury in general favored the exercise of this art in particular. 

" The ancients appear to have obtained the emerald from Egypt. Cailliaud has succeeded fn 
finding the old emerald mines in the the Theban deserts on the Arabian Gulf. He mentions 
having found subterranean mines capable of allowing four hundred men to work ; he like- 
wise found tools, ropes, lamps and other utensils." 

§ 202. Among the Ethiopians and Persians, and other nations of 
Asia and Africa, this art must have been known in very ancient times, 
because their sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek 
and Roman writers. Persian gems are still in existence of various 
kinds. But the Etrurians were more remarkable. They either bor- 
rowed the art from the Egyptians, or very soon became imitators of 
the Egyptian manner and like them wrought gems in the form of the 
scarabseus or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much fur- 
ther, but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have re- 
maining but few sculptured gems, really Etruscan : most of those so 
called are probably of Grecian origin; at least the evidence that they 
are Tuscan is very unsatisfactory. 

<§ 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt cannot be 
decided any more certainly than the exact time when they became ac- 
quainted with it. That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period is un- 
questionable ; but that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed it 
from that country by no means follows. Probably it arose among 
them at the same time with sculpture. It seems to have been known 
in the time of the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt on the 



GEM-ENGRAVING OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 11& 

point. This writer and others mention, as the most ancient remarka- 
ble gem among the Greeks, that belonging to the signet of Polycrates, 
king of Samos. 

1m. This seal was an emerald or sardonyx on which was carved a lyre. Ac- 
cording to tradition, this jewel, having been thrown by the king into the sea 
to avoid an accident that threatened him, was brought back by a fish that was 
served at his table. The artist, who wrought it, was Theodorus of Samos, who 
flourished about 530 years before Christ. The art was at that time quite im- 
perfect, but afterwards it advanced rapidly. 

2. For the story of this ring, cf. Herodotus, iii. 39—41. — Pausanias, viii. 14 Pliny, xxxiii. 1. 

xxxvii. 1. — " In the temple of Concord at Rome, in the time of Pliny, a sardonyx was shown 
which was said to be the ring of Polycrates. It was kept in a golden box, and was a present* 
from Augustus. According to Herodotus the stone was an emerald." — Barthelemy's Anachar- 
8is. vol. vi. p. 265, 447. 

§ 204. The art of gem-engraving reached its highest perfection 
among the Greeks about the time of Alexander. In this flourishing 
time, no graver of gems equaled Pyrgoteles in celebrity. While 
Apelles alone was allowed by Alexander to paint bis likeness, and 
Lysippus alone to carve his statue, Pyrgoteles was the only one per- 
mitted to sketch his miniature on the precious stone. In the same 
period lived also Sostratus, whose name is inscribed on some of the 
most beautiful gems still existing. Somewhat later, although it is not 
certain precisely of what time, were Apollonides and Cronius, artists 
of nearly equal celebrity. Many other names of Grecian lapidaries 
occur both on existing ancient gems and in ancient writers. Not 
much reliance, however, is to be placed on the inscriptions (cf. 
§198). Some of the names are the following : Agathangelus, Agatho- 
pus, Aulus, Alpheus, Arethon, Epitynchanus, Albius, Evodus, Mycon, 
Admon, ^Etion, Anteros, Goeus, Pamphylus, Philemon, Sosocles, 
Tryphon, &c. 

See Chr. Tlieoph. de Murr. Bibliotheque glyptographique. Dresd. 1804. 8. — Fr. Vettori, Disser- 
tatio glyptographica &c. Rom. 1739. 4.— D. A. Bracci, Memoire degli antichi incisori, chi scol- 
pirono i loro nome in Gemme e Camei. Fir. 1784. fol. — On the history of Gem-sculpture, see 
references § 213. 3. 

§ 205. The Romans possessed this art only as the conquerors and 
lords of Greece. Engraved gems were highly valued among them, 
and were bought at exorbitant prices. Yet they can claim no proper 
merit for the advancement of this art, because all, who were most dis- 
tinguished in it among them, were Greeks by birth. Of these, Dios- 
corides and Solon, in the time of Augustus, were the best. Gems 
which are engraved in the proper Roman manner (and such are re- 
cognized by the costume) are not. valued so highly as the Grecian. — 
It is to be remarked that this art fell at the same time, and from the 
same causes, with the other arts. In the middle ages, however, 
lithoglyphy was not wholly neglected, since to this period belong 
the stones already mentioned (§ 200) as passing under the name of 
Abraxas, and designed for magical purposes. 

§ 206. The use of engraved stones with the ancients was two-fold, 
for seals, and for ornaments ; in both cases it was common to make 
of them rings. The early use of gems for such purposes is evident 
from passages in the Bible (cf. § 199). For seals, the figure was 
generally cut below the surface of the stone (iiflo^ji) ; but when the 
stone was designed merely for ornament, it was usually formed in re- 
lief (^°/l). The ancients made collections of gems, which they termed 



116 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

dactyliotheccB i 8cty.TvXiob>' i y.ai, from Say.rviiog a ring; artists who wrought 
these gems were from the same circumstance called daxrvUoyivtpoi, 
Pliny (xxxvii. 5.) mentions several such collections, and among them 
that of Mithridates, which was brought to Rome to the Capitol by 
Pompey. Julius Caesar placed six different collections in the temple 
of Venus Genitrix; and Marcellus, son ofOctavia, one in the temple 
of Apollo. It is however probable, that these collections were com- 
posed, at least in considerable part, of gems not engraved. 

On the use of engraved gems for seals and rings, see J. Elmes, Dictionary of the Fine Arts. 
Lond. 1826. 8. on the word Seals. — Also the references in Suiter's Allg. Theorie, vol. n. p. 394. 
— P. Mariette, Traite des pierres gravees. Par. 1750. 2 vols. fol. 

Some specimens of seals and rings are given in our Plate V. — In the figures, a, b, c, d, e, are 
rings (annuli) suited to wear upon the finger. They were formed of some metal, with some 
precious stone inserted. Sometimes the inserted gems were merely polished so as to be smooth 
and brilliant, as in fig. d. More frequently words or letters were engraved on the stones, as in 
fig. a, which has the initials of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Sometimes the sculpture was the bust 
of a friend or some distinguished personage, or of one of the imaginary gods, as in fig. b, which 
shows a head of Mercury ; sometimes it was merely a representation of some common article of 
utility, as a key or a pruning knife, as in fig. c ,• sometimes it contained a mythological repre- 
sentation, as in fig./, where a goat and satyr are dancing together ; or some ceremony of ancient 
superstition, as in fig. e, where we see perhaps the crooked wand (lituus) and the chicken, in- 
dicating the augury called tripudium. In short, the devices were exceedingly various. — 
Rings, which were used also for seals, were called by the Romans annuli signatorii, or signet- 
rings. — It should be remarked, that they made use of other seals (sioilla), of a more common 
sort, which were made of the less precious metals, most frequently of brass, and wrought into 
a great variety of forms. In fig. 3, we have a common sigillum of this kind, resembling in form 
the bottom of a shoe or sandal (calceus), and bearing the image of a heart and the name of prob- 
ably the owner, Ursinus, in the genitive case, cut in relief. Such seals appear to have been 
employed by the rich Romans, among other uses, for marking their wine vessels. 

§ 207. Respecting the mechanical operations in this art among the 
ancients, we are not well informed. They seem to have been similar 
to the methods of modern artists, except that the ancients perhaps had 
some unknown way of giving to their works their high degree of deli- 
cacy, completeness, and finish. For the ancient gems are certainly 
marked by these excellences, united with singular beauty of design, 
taste in arrangement, variety in subject and illustration, and truth in 
expression. They are also characterized by a peculiar purity and 
polish, and great fullness and freedom in the sculpture. 

Law. Natter, Traite de la methode antique de graver en pierres fines, comparee avec la me- 
thode moderne. Engl. Transl. Lond. 1754. fol. with plates. — On the question whether the an- 
cient artists used lenses and magnifying glasses, see JVinckehnann, Histoire &c. vol. n. p. 109, 
as cited § 32. 4. 

§ 208. Yet fixed and infallible criteria cannot be given for distin- 
guishing ancient from modern gems, or spurious from genuine an- 
tiques ; since modern gem-engravers have approached very near the 
perfection of the ancient artists, and have surpassed those among them 
who were of a secondary rank. The discriminating eye and judgment 
of the connoisseur are formed perhaps more by practice, than by any 
general rules ; attention, however, must be paid to notice the material 
of the gem, the manner and air of the etching, the nature of the pol- 
ish, and frequently to consider and compare various circumstances in 
history and antiquities. 

See Von Vcltheim, Sammlung einiger Aufs'atze. Hemst. 1800. 2 Th. 8.— On the modes of pro- 
ducing fictitious gems, see the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, under 
the word Gems. 

§209. The study of ancient gems is recommended by its manifold 
utility. Aside from the aids to literature and taste which it affords 
in common with the study of antiquities in general, it has a peculiar 
advantage from the fact, that we have remaining a greater number 
and variety of gems, than of monuments of the other plastic arts, and 



IMITATIONS OF ENGRAVED GEMS. 117 

that they are in a better state of preservation. The latter circum- 
stance gives them a preference even before coins, whose impressions, 
notwithstanding any beauty in them, by no means equal the engrav- 
ings of the better Greek gems. A frequent examination of them may 
form the mind to a quick sense and correct judgment of the beautiful, 
enrich the fancy of the poet and artist, and familiarize the student 
with the conceptions and the spirit of ancient genius. 

See Klotz, iiber den Nutzen und Gebrauch der geschnittenen Steine und ihrer Abdrucke. Al- 
tenb. 1768. 8.— Also Mariette, cited § 206. and Natter, cited § 207. 

§210. These remains of ancient art have been rendered much 
more extensively useful from the ease with which they are multiplied 
by means of imitations. Imitations in glass are the most valuable, 
because in color, lustre, and translucency, they can be made so nearly 
like the originals, that it is at first even difficult to distinguish them. 
Something similar was the Vitrum Obsidianum of the ancients. Much 
less valuable are impressions in sulphur and in wax, although the lat- 
ter have an advantage in the facility of execution. 

1. The art of multiplying copies of gems by means of impressions on colored 
glass, or the vitrified substance called paste, is interesting not only to mere 
antiquaries and artists, but also to men of taste. It is of considerable antiquity, 
and perhaps was practiced by the Greeks. It is supposed to be alluded to by 
Pliny ; and is mentioned by Heraclius, in the 9th century, in a work entitled De 
coloribus et artibus Romanorum. Indeed it is said, that among the existing 
antique cameos are found imitations of the onyx in glass. 

Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26. — Encyclop. Britann. under Gems. — Mariette, as cited § 206. 
vol. i. p. 93. — Feuchtwanger, p. 48, as cited § 195. 

2. The translucid substance termed Obsidianum seems to have received its 
name from Obsidius, a Roman who first brought it to Rome from Ethiopia. It 
\z considered as the same mineral which is now called Obsidian, and has been 
termed lava-glass in reference to its appearance, in which it resembles glass, 
and to its origin, which some have supposed to be volcanic. The Romans 
manufactured mirrors and gems from it. 

Cf. Pin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 67. — Launay, Mineralogie des Anciens, as cited § 195. 2. vol. i. 
p. 361. — R. Jameson's Mineralogy. Edinb. 1820. 3 vols. 8. vol. i. p. 319. — Comptc de Caylus, in 
the Mem. de VJlcad. deslnsc. vol. xxx. p. 457. 

Su. The material invented by Prof. Lippert of Dresden, which is a fine 
white substance, is very useful for taking casts and impressions. The casts 
in this show the work to better advantage perhaps than sulphur. They are li- 
able to be injured by friction. Lippert prepared a series of casts amounting to 
3000 in number, of which each 1000 was sold separately. 

Those of the first thousand were arranged and described by Prof. Christ of Leipsic, and those 
<nf the second and third thousand by Prof. Hcyne of Gottingen, in a Latin Catalogue. Lips. 
1755 — 63. 4. A more full account is given by Lippert himself, in his Dactyliothek. Lpz. 1767. 
2 vols. 4. and the Supplement. Lpz. 1776. 4. 

4. The pastes and imitations of Wedgewood, the distinguished English porce- 
lain manufacturer, are very highly esteemed. " His imitations of jasper, by 
which cameos, and white figures in relief, are raised on a colored ground, are 
exquisitely beautiful." — Wedgewood and Bentley invented a peculiar com- 
position, of a dark appearance, which is considered as very useful for making 
copies of sculptured stones. 

A Catalogue of the Casts of Wedgewood and Bentley was published Lond. 1790. 8.— cf. Silliman's 
Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 244. 

5. The glass pastes of James Tassie, a native of Glasgow, resident at Lon- 
don, have acquired great celebrity. His collection of impressions of ancient 
and modern gems amounted to 15,000. His pastes were brought into greater 
notoriety by the jewelers, who inserted them in seals, rings, and other orna- 
ments. 

An account of his numerous impressions was published under the following title : A De- 
scriptive Catalogue of a general collection of ancient and modern Oems, cast in colored pastes, 
svnite enamel, and sulphur ; by J, Tass,ie,— arranged and described by R. F. Raspe,— and illus- 



1 18 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

trated with Copperplates ; to which is prefixed an Introduction on the various uses of this col- 
lection, the origin of the art of engraving on stones,' and the progress of pastes. Lond. 1791. 

2 vols. 4. 

6. Copies of coins and medals are also multiplied by means of casts in sul- 
phur and other substances. Thus, e. g. the medals struck in commemoration 
of events in the life of Bonaparte, are imitated and made known extensively 
by sulphur casts ; the medals consisting of 160 pieces ; the casts forming a 
suite of 185 pieces including several reverses. 

See Laskeifs Series of Bonaparte's Medals, royal 8vo. Lond. — On the general subject of pastes 
and casts, we may here refer to Suiter's Allg. Theorie &c. under the words Mdrueckc, Abgiies- 
se, Paste. 

§ 211. Of the great number of existing gems only a few will be 
named, of such as are the most celebrated. Of this class are the 
following : — the signet of Michael Angelo (cachet de 3IicheI Ange), 
as it is called, in the Royal Museum at Paris, a carnelian, on which 
is represented with masterly skill an Athenian festival, or as some 
think (a), the training of Bacchus ; — a very beautiful Medusa's head 
upon a chalcedony, formerly in the Strozzi collection at Rome, now 
in possession of the Baron von Schellersheim ; — the head of Socra- 
tes on a carnelian in the collection of St. Mark's at Harlem ; — Bac- 
chus and Ariadne upon a red Jasper in the collection of the Grand 
Duke at Florence ; — the heads of Augustus, Maecenas, Diomedes, and 
Hercules, inscribed with the name Dioscorides ; — a head of Alexan- 
der, a cameo of Sardonyx (6), with an inscription scarcely genuine of 

the name Pyrgoteles. Among the largest gems remaining (c), are 

the following : — an onyx in the Imperial collection at Vienna, on which 
is exhibited the Apotheosis of Augustus and Livia ; — the so called 
Mantuan Vessel, formed of onyx (d), in possession of the family of 
the Duke of Brunswick ; and the celebrated (e) Barberini or Portland 
vase. 

1. (a) It has been remarked that the seal of Michael Angelo affords a nota- 
ble instance of the errors and controversies of antiquarians. " By one the 
subject is supposed to be Alexander the Great represented as Bacchus ; by 
another it is thought a religious procession of the Athenians ; and there are 
others, who suppose it simply a vintage, or sacrifical rites relative to the con- 
quest of India. But it is said to be proved, that instead of being an antique, 
this gem was engraved by an intimate friend of Angelo himself. It was 
bought by the keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV. of France for 800 crowns, 
and Louis XIV. having afterwards acquired it, frequently wore it as a ring." 
(New Edinb. Encyc.) 

Cf. New Edinb. Encycl. under Gems. — Winckelmann mentions, as one of the finest antique gems, 
a cameo from the hand of Athenion, preserved in the Farnese cabinet at Naples $■ representing 
Jupiter in a chariot hurling his thunderbolts and driving over the prostrate Titans. He gives an 
engraving of it. Cf. Histoire &x. vol. n. p. 112, 115, as cited § 32. 4. 

2. (b) The cameo of Sardonyx bearing the head of Alexander was publish- 
ed by Stosch in his work cited below (§ 213. 1). It is also given, with other 
supposed portraits of that conqueror, in a paper in the Memoirs of the Institute. 
Speaking of engraved stones which present in relief the heads of illustrious 
personages, Winckelmann says, the first rank may be assigned to a bust of Au- 
gustus, on a flesh colored chalcedony, in the library of the Vatican. Jameson, 

mentions as very fine an engraved gem of heliotrope (cf. §195. 1.) preserved in 
the national or royal library at Paris ; it represents the head of Christ scourg- 
ed {Christ Flagellt), and is so cut that the red spots of the gem represent drops 
of blood. 

Cf. Mem. de VInstitut, Classe de Lit, ct Beaux Arts. vol. i. p. 615. — Winckelmann, Histoire &c 
livre iv. ch. vn. § 67-70. R. Jameson, Mineralogy. Edinb. 1820. 3 vols. 8.— A gem with a beau^ 
tiful female head and bust is noticed in the Hist, de VAcad. Insc. vol. in. p. 244. Sur une Prime 
d' Emeraud antique ; supposed by some to represent Eucharis, the celebrated female dancer at 
Borne. 



COLLECTIONS OF ANCIENT GEMS. 119 

3. (c) Mongez, in the Memoirs of the French Institute, describes three an- 
tique cameos said by him to be the largest known. The first is a Sardonyx, 
in the cabinet of the king of France, and is called the Agate of Tiberius. It 
is of an irregular oval form, nearly one foot (un pied) in length and about ten 
inches (diz ponces) in the greatest breadth. The sculpture on it exhibits three 
scenes; one, in heaven, is the apotheosis of Augustus ; another, on earth, is 
the investiture of a priestess, in the family of Tiberius, for the worship of Au- 
gustus ; a third scene presents captives of various nations of the earth. — The 
second cameo is in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna. It is about one third less 
than the one just specified, and represents Tiberius as descending from a char- 
iot. — The third is a Sardonyx, which in 1808 belonged to a public collection in 
Holland ; it represents Claudius and his family drawn by Centaurs. 

4. (d) " The concentrically striped onyxes, which are very rare, were much prized by the an- 
cients and they cut upon them very beautiful figures in demyrelief. One of the most beautiful 
works cut in this variety of chalcedony is the celebrated Mantuan vase, which was seized by 
the Germans at the storming of Mantua, and ever since has been preserved in the Ducal collec- 
tion in Brunswick. Several beautiful plates of onyx are preserved in the Electoral Cabinet in 
Dresden ; there is one valued at 44,000 dollars."— (e) The Portland vase is not formed of a 
natural gem ; it has been already described (cf. § 173. 2). 

Mongez, in the Mem. de I'lnst. Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vin. p. 370.— K. A. Bozttiger, 
Ueber die iEchteit und das Vaterland der antiken Onyx-Kameen von ausserordentlicher Grosse. 
Lpz. 1796.8. — Jameson, as above cited, vol. i. p. 244. 

§ 212. The most celebrated collections of ancient gems are the 
following : — the Grand Duke's at Florence, which contains 3000 ; — 
those of the families of Barberini and Odescalchi at Rome, the latter 
of which formerly belonged to Christina queen of Sweden ; — the royal 
Cabinet or Museum at Paris ;— the collection, formerly belonging to 
the Duke of Orleans, now at Petersburg ; — some private collections 
in London, particularly those of the Duke of Devonshire and Count 
Carlisle ; — the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna ; — the collection of the 
King of Prussia, of which the gems formerly belonging to Baron de 
Stosch form the largest and most valuable part ; — that of the King of 
Netherlands at Hague. 

See Gurlitt, as before cited § 195. — Respecting the collections in England, Waagcn, as cited 
§ 190. 6. — On the Cabinet of the grand duke at Florence, see Johnson's Philosophy of Travel- 
ing, p. 119, as cited § 190. 6. The Royal Museum at Naples, which is now enriched with 

the treasures of several private collections, contains many precious stones, besides fine stat- 
ues, bronze figures, vases, and antiques in glass. — See Finati (and others), Real Museo 
Borbonico. Nap. 1824-33. 8 vols. 4.— E. Gerhard &c Th. Panofka, Neapels Antike Bild- 
werke ; commenced 1828. 

The collection of gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch, above mentioned, is now 
lodged in the Royal Museum at B e r 1 i n. "And we should remark, that this Museum now con- 
tains the gems and also the statues and other antiques formerly deposited in the Royal Man- 
sion and at Sayis Souci (cf. $ 190. 3). It also contains Roller'' s collection of Vases from Cam- 
pania and other parts of Italy ; Bartoldiano's collection of Antiques in Bronze ; several smaller 
collections made by different persons ; and a number of statues recently procured from Italy. 
It is called a splendid assemblage. 

Casts of ancient gems or medals are found in the libraries or museums of most public insti- 
tutions. The Boston Atheneum has several cases. 

§ 213. Engravings and Plates are a useful help in attaining a 
knowledge of sculptured gems. Various works containing plates 
and descriptions of the most remarkable specimens, with historical 
and critical observations, have been published. 

1. Works referring to particular cabinets or collections.— A. F. Gorii, Museum F 1 o r e n t i- 
num, as cited § 191. 2. The 1st and 2d volumes treat of Gems. — Le Museum de Florence, 
ou Collection des Pierres gravees, Statues, Medailles, et Peintures, qui se trouvent a Florence 
principalement dans le Cab. du Gr. Due, &c. grave par David, avec explanations par Mulot. 
Par. 1781-88. 6 vols. 4.— Mongez, Camees, &c. de la Galerie de F 1 o r e n c e et du Palais Pitti, 
&c. as cited $ 191. 2. — — Winckelmann, Description de Pierres gravees du feu Mr. Le Baron d e 
Stosch. Flor. 1760. 4.—F. Schlichtegroll, Auswahl vorzuglicher Gemmen aus der Stosch- 
ischen Sammlung. The 1st vol. Niirnb. 1797. 4. A 2d vol. in continuation, under the title 
Dactyliotheca Stoschiana. Niirnb. 1806. 4. — P. J. Maricttc, Recueil des pierres antiques de la 

collection de Mr. de Gravelle. Par. 1735-37. 2 vols. 4. Le Blond et De la Chan, Description 

de principales pierres gravees du Cabinet du Due d' Orleans. Par. 1780-84. 2 vols. fol. 
Abridged, with notes bv J. G. Jacobi. Zur. 1796. 4. P. J. Mariette, Recueil de pierres gra- 
vees Tan creux) du Cabinet du Roi. Par. 1750. 2 vols. fol. J. Eckel, Choix des Pierres 



120 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

gravees du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques, representees en 40 Planches, &c. Vien. 1788. 4* 
> P. E. Viseonti, Gemme incise d. Cavaliere G. Girometti, &c. Rome, 1836. fol. 

2. Works of a more general character. — Dornen. de Rossi,i Gemme antiche figurate, colle 
sposizioni del P. A. Maffei. Rome, 1707-1709. 4 vols. 4. — Ibr. Gorlmi Dactyliotheca, cum notis 
Jac. Gronovii. Lugd. Bat. 1695, 1707. 2 vols. 4.— Phil, de Stosch, Gemmce antiquae caelatag, 
sculvtormn nominibus insignitse. (seri incisse per Bern.'Picart.) Amst. 1724. fol. — AmadutiL, 
JVovus Thesaurus Gemmarum veterum. Rome, 1753. fol. — J. M. Raponi, Recueil de Pierres 
antiques gravees, &c. Rome, 1786. fol. with numerous plates.— G. Ogle, Antiquities Explain- 
ed, being a collection of figured Gems, illustrated by descriptions from the classics. Lond. 
1737. 4. — A. L.Millin, Pierres gravees inedites tirees des plus celebres Cabinets de l'Europe^ 

Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8. We will add here R. Walsh, Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals, and 

Gems, as illustrating the Progress of Christianity in the early ages. Lond. 1828. 12. 

3. It may be proper to mention also some works which relate to the subject of gem-engraving- 
in general, or to the theory and history of the art. — Theophrasti, Eresii, nsql ZiQoiv (ii(i%LOv r 
in his Opp. ed. Schneider, cited P. II. § 192. 2 ; also in I. de Laet, de Gemmis et Lapidibus libri n. 
Lug. Bat. 1647. 8 ; in English, with remarks by I. Hill, Lond. 1748 ; and. in German, with the 
remarks of Hill, and a treatise on the ancient art of Engraving on Gems, by A. M. Baumgart- 
ner, Nurnb. 1770. 8.—Discorides, tteqL vlrjg iarqtxfjg, 5th Book. — Pliny, Natural History, 
37th Book. — Jo. Kirchman, de Annulis liber singularis. L. B. 1672. Vi.—Anselmi Boetii (de 
Boot) Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia, aucta ab Adr. Tollio. L. B. 1647. 8. — P. J. Mariette, 
cited § 206. — L. Natter, cited § 207. — 1. L. Millin, Introduction k l'Etude des Pierres gravees. 
1796. 8. — Gurlitt, uber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798. 4. — See also Sulzer's Allg. Theo- 
rie, article Geschnittene Steine. — Encyc. Americ., Edinb. Encyc., &c- 



III. — Painting. 



§ 214. Painting, as a fine art (yqayiy.r], twyoa^i^v), is the represen- 
tation of visible objects upon a plane surface by means of figure and 
color. It is not confined, however, to the mere exhibition of mate- 
rial bodies and forms ; but expresses also their invisible powers and 
immaterial and spiritual nature and affections, by gestures, attitudes, 
and the like. It also employs the form of sensible objects allegori- 
cally to signify things very different from what actually meets the 
eye. (Cf. § 147.) — The real foundation of painting is laid in the 
art of designing, that is, representing objects on a plane by lines and 
strokes ; by the advancement of which in correctness and beauty 
the progress of painting must be forwarded, almost as a matter of 
course. 

§ 215. It has been already remarked (§ 155), that the art of design- 
ing, or sketching, although it is of so great importance as a foun- 
dation and help to all the plastic arts, is yet probably of later origin. 
So the art of coloring merely was doubtless of earlier origin than 
painting, properly so termed ; which implies the filling up, with col- 
ors suitably chosen and applied, of an outline sketched designedly. 
Yet the art of designing and painting existed, beyond all question, in 
a very early period, although we cannot determine exactly when, or 
in what nation, it originated. It is still a controverted question, 
whether it existed in Greece at the time of the Trojan war : and the 
negative is certainly quite probable. This however would not imply 
that it did not then exist in other countries. 

§ 216. The Egyptians were acquainted with this earlier than the 
Greeks, although not so much earlier as according to Pliny (Nat. 
Hist. xxxv. 5) they claimed. Sketching or designing seems to have 
become common among them quite early. Originally the art was 
chiefly temple-painting, and we must distinguish between that which 



PLATE VI 








122 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

is found upon the walls of edifices, and that upon mummies and pa* 
pyrus rolls. Painting remained very imperfect in Egypt, as did the 
plastic arts in general. The artists applied their colors in uniform 
tints, without shading or contrast. Some paintings found in Egypt 
seem to be an exception to this remark, but they were probably exe- 
cuted in the time of the Ptolemies by Grecian artists. 

1. " Egyptian painting, seldom, if ever, attempts more than an outline of 
the object as seen in profile, such as would be obtained by its shadow. To 
this rude but always well-proportioned draught, colors are applied, simply 
and without mixture or blending, or the slightest indication of light and 
shade. The process appears to have been, first, the preparation of the ground 
in white; next, the outline was firmly traced in black; and, lastly, the flat 
colors were applied. The Egyptian artists employed six pigments, mixed up 
with a gummy liquid, namely, white, black, red, blue, yellow, and green; the 
three first always earthy, the remaining, vegetable or at least frequently trans- 
parent. The specimens from which we derive these facts, are the painted 
shrouds and cases of mummies, and the still more perfect examples on the 
walls of the tombs. It can furnish no evidence of extraordinary experience 
or practice, that these paintings still retain their color clear and fresh. The 
circumstance merely shows the aridity of the climate, and that the coloring 
matters were prepared and applied pure and without admixture." (Memes.) 

Some notices of Egyptian painting may be found in J. 6. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs 
of the Egyptians. Lond. 1837. 3 vols. 8. with some colored plates. — See, also, in Denon (as 
cited § 238. 2.), vol. i. p. 177, a notice of the paintings in the tombs at Thebes. — Lond. Quart, 
Rev. xix. 192, 421. 

2u. That painting, or at least the art of coloring, existed early among the 
Chaldeans and Israelites is indicated by passages in the Bible. Ezek. xxiii. 
14 ; viii. 10 ; comp. Numb, xxxiii. 52. 

§ 217. According to the common tradition of antiquity, which 
\ agrees well with the natural probability of the case, painting, or 
leather designing, took its rise originally from the tracing of the shad- 
ov^ of objects upon a wall, and marking the outline with carbon or 
challc^ Ardices of Corinth and Telephon of Sicyon are said to have 
been th\e first who, by drawing the inner parts, presented something 
more thato, the outline, and indicated light and shade. The earliest 
Greek pictures were drawn with a single color, and are thence termed 
fiovoxQuiiara ; a r<ed color was chiefly used, perhaps because it resem- 
bled that of flesh'un the human body. The first that employed vari- 
ous colors appearsvto have been Bularchus, who lived in the time of 
Candaules, king oft Lydia, about 720 B. C. 

" The first painting on record is the battle of Magnete by Bularchus, and' 
purchased by Candaiples, King of Lydia, for its weight in gold, or as some 
say, a quantity of g jld coins equal to the extent of its surface. This estab- 
lishes the first era of the art in Greece." But painting had been practiced 
for several centurid'S preceding, especially at Corinth. The art is said to have 
passed through seweral gradations ; as, simple skiagraphy, or shadow-paint- 
ing ; the monogralphic stjde, consisting of a simple outline ; monochromatic 
compositions, in /which one color only was employed ; and polychromatic, 
Where a variety of hue was used, but without shading. It is, however, hard- 
ly supposable thfat the art advanced by any perfectly regular series of steps. 

See Memes, p. 12JW, 121, as cited $ 169.— Caylus, (Dissertations relat. a i'histoire et a Part ;) 
Abhandlungen zrir Geschichte und Kunst. (bk. ii. p. 23. 74.) Altenb. 1768. 2 vols. 4.—Ram- 
dohr, Ueber Mal.erei, &c. bk. ii. p. 176, as cited § 226. 2. 

§ 218. 'The succeeding Greek painters used only four principal 
colors; viz. white, yellow, red, and black; which are called, by 
Pliny, AileUnum, Atticum, Sinopis Pontica, and Atr amentum. Of 
the re a1 nature of these pigments, and of the modes of mixing and 
preserving them, we know but little. Oil colors appear not to have 



ANCIENT PAINTING. ENCAUSTIC. 123 

been known to the ancients ; they always used water colors, to which, 
especially to black, they sometimes added vinegar. They also, es- 
pecially in paintings upon plaster or in fresco, made use of a sort of 
varnish of wax to increase the brightness and durability of the col- 
ors. Both these objects Apelles effected by means of a fine black 
varnish which none could imitate. 

" In the pictures at Naples and Rome, is greater variety of coloring than, 
from some passages in their writings, has been allowed to the ancients. And, 
indeed, unless Pliny be supposed to point out a distinction in this respect be- 
tween the practice of the earlier and later painters, he contradicts himself; 
for in all, he enumerates no less than five different whites, three yellows, nine 
reds or purples, two blues, one of which is indigo, two greens, and one black, 
which also appears to be a generic expression, including bitumen, charcoal, 
ivory, or lamp-black, mentioned with probably others." (Memes, p. 128.) 

See Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 5-42. — De Caylus, on certain passages of Pliny, &c. Mem. Acad. 
Inscr. xxv. 149. — G. E. Lessing, Vom Alter der Oel-maherer aus dem Theophilus Presbyter, 
in his Swmmtliche Schriften (as "cited §168), vol. vm. p. 285. — F.W. Doering, Progr. de coloribus 
Veterum. Goth. 1788. 4. — Stieglitz, u'ber d. Malerfarben der Griech. und Rom. Lpz. 1817. 8. — 
JVinckelmann, Histoire, &c. lib. iv. ch. viii. sect. 31. 

§ 219. Single pieces of painting were usually executed upon wood, 
and therefore called nlvaxsg, tabulce. The wood of the larch tree 
(larix) was preferred on account of its durability and its not being 
liable to warp out of shape. They painted more rarely upon linen 
cloth ; as in the colossal picture of Nero mentioned by Pliny. The 
most common kind of painting was that upon plaster ; which is now 
called fresco-painting. Less common was drawing or painting on 
marble and ivory. 

1 u. The fresco-painting was executed upon a moist as well as upon a dry 
ground. In this last mode of painting, the colors were probably laid on with 
a peculiar sort of glue or size, since in many pieces of this kind that have 
been found, they are so well fixed and preserved, that a wet sponge or cloth 
may be drawn over them without injury. Previous to the paintings, the walls 
received a double coating, and the surface was carefully polished. 

Beautiful deep blue colors have been found in the fresco-paintings on the walls of ancient 
Roman structures. " In clearing away the rubbish within the baths of Titus, the walls of 
which display many beautiful specimens of fresco-painting, the painter's room was discov- 
ered ; and in several of the jars were found different kinds of paint, and among others a quan- 
tity of the beautiful celestial blue, which retained its lustre and freshness so remarkably on the 
walls, i Sir Humphry Davy, on analysis, found it to consist of a frit of copper, soda, and si- 
lex ; and by recomposition formed the same color from fresh materials. 

Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 407.— Rode et Reim, de la Peinture chez les Anciens (in Winckcl- 
mann's Histoire, &c. Par. 1803. (Vol. in. p. 59, 137.) 

2. The terms niva'S. and nivuxiov seem to have been applied to any material 
on which a picture was drawn. The easel, or frame to which the material 
was fixed, while the artist was painting, was called by the Greeks 6xoi(tug > 
yoatfig and vnoyqaipig signified the style and pencil (penicillus) ; zq<x>uutcx and 
(puquaxa, the colors ; ?./ { xvdog, the box in which they were kept. Etxwv signi- 
fied a portrait or likeness as well as statue ; a mere sketch was termed vno- 
YQ U( f>'t> the word oxiaynay la signifies, etymologically, shadow-painting; it is 
commonly interpreted the art of sketching or delineating. 

§ 220. There was a kind of painting peculiar to ancient times, 
called encaustic, which we know only by the imperfect description 
given by Pliny, who speaks of three methods of it. 

1 u. The first of these methods consisted, it seems, in mingling wax with 
the colors, and laying them on by means of fire and certain instruments called 
cauteria (xavTijQia). The second was employed upon ivory, and was called 
y.iOTQwoig, because the outline was cut in the ivory by a pointed graver, termed 
xtOTQov (veruculum), and the colors afterwards applied. The third seems to 
have been a process of laying on melted wax by means of a brush. A fourth 



124 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

kind, used in painting upon walls, is mentioned by Vitruvius. Men of science 
and artists have attempted to discover and restore this art. 

Pltny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 41. — Vitruv. De Archit. vii. 9. — Don Vincenzo Requeno, Saggi sul ris- 
tabilimento dell' antica arte de' Greci e de' Romani pittori. Parma, 1787. 2 vols. 8 ; in French, 
Rome, 1786. — Bmttiger's Geschichte der Enkaustik der Alten, in the Journal des Luxus und der 
Moden, for the year 1794. — Rode and Rcim, as above cited in Winckelmann, vol. in. p. 161.— Cay- 
lus, On encaustic painting, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvm. 179. English Transl. by J. H. 
Muni. Lond. 1760. 8. — Phil. Trans, for the year 1751. — Trans, of Soc. for Encouragement of 
Arts. Lond. 1787.— Suher's Allg. Theorie, vol. n. p. 59. 

2u. The peculiar mode of representing visible objects which was termed 
mosaic-ioork, is often included under the denomination of painting. This has 
already been noticed (cf. § 167, 189). — Respecting the peculiar method of 
painting glass which was practiced by the ancients, we know but little. 

Le Vieil, L'art de la Peinture sur verre. Par. 1774. fol. German transl. Num. 1780. — For 
an account of attempts to restore this art, Fiorillo , s Klein. Schrift. artistischen Inhalts. — Cf. 

Suiter, Allg. Theorie. article Olasmahlerey. — Edinb. Encycl. article Glass. A recent traveler, 

speaking of the show rooms of the establishment for the manufacture of porcelain at Sevres 
in France, observes, " here were vases, cups, pitchers, urns, statues, table sets, toys, chim- 
ney ornaments, all of the most splendid and costly character. The ware itself is of the most 
perfect kind, and then the painting and the gilding, and the setting of brilliants and precious 
stones, add immensely to the expense. Brogniard (the director, 1835) has added much to the 
painting department by his discoveries in the art of painting glass. He is said to have ascer- 
tained the means of equaling all the ancient colors in glass except the red." 

§ 221. Our judgment respecting the merits of the ancients in 
painting we derive in a great degree from the unanimous encomi- 
ums of their writers. We infer it also from their known excellence 
in other arts, which are kindred to it, and, like it, essentially con- 
nected with the art of designing. From the few imperfect and bad- 
ly preserved specimens of ancient painting ever seen by the moderns 
no valid arguments can be drawn. Many questions therefore re- 
pecting the subject of ancient painting remain unsettled ; as, for ex- 
ample, whether the artists understood perspective. Their greatest 
attention seems to have been given to coloring. 

Fiorillo, on the Perspective of the Ancients (in his Kl. Schrift. cited § 220). — Comte de Cay- 
lus, on the same subject, in the Mern. Acad. Inscr. xxm. 320 ; also as cited § 217. — Saltier, on 
the same topic, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vm. 97. — Memes, History of Sculpture, &c. p. 127. — Cf. Sul- 
zer's Allg. Theorie. vol. m. p. 686. 

§ 222. Among the Greeks there were schools of painting as well 
as of sculpture. The four most celebrated were at Sicyon, Corinth, 
Rhodes, and Athens. Hence there were different styles and tastes 
in the art, the Asiatic and the Helladic, the Ionian, Sicyonian, and 
Attic ; the three last being, however, modifications of the second. 
Sicyon especially was looked upon as the native land and nursery of 
the best painters. But paintings were not by any means so numer- 
ous in Greece as were works of sculpture. — The most flourishing 
period of the art was about the time of Alexander. Some of the 
most celebrated masters were Polygnotus, Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Par- 
rhasius, Timanthes, Eupompus, Pamphylus, Apelles, and Protogenes. 

1. The history of painting among the Greeks is divided by Memes into four 
periods. The first terminated with Bularchus, B. C. 720, whose battle- 
piece has been mentioned (§ 217). The second period extends from Bular- 
chus to Zeuxis, about 400 B. C. Polygnotus was one of the most eminent in 
this period ; his pictures were admired by Pliny at the distance of six hun- 
dred years. Towards the close of this period, the pencil is said to have been 
first used by Appollodorus of Athens, the instructor of Zeuxis. The third 
commences with Zeuxis and ends with Apelles, who nourished about 330 
B. C. In this period great improvement was made, in which the genius of 
Zeuxis opened and led the way. Parrhasius, Timanthes, Eupompus, and 
Pamphylus, the master of Apelles, are named among the distinguished paint- 
ers of this era. The fourth period is dated from the time of Apelles. This 



PAINTING AMONG THE ROMANS. 125 

age witnessed the full glory and decline of the art. Apelles is said to have 
united the excellences which had been separately exhibited in his predeces- 
sors. His Venus Anadyomene, which was long " afterwards purchased by 
Augustus for one hundred talents, or £.20,000 sterling, was esteemed the most 
faultless creation of the Grecian pencil, the most perfect example of that 
simple yet unapproachable grace of expression, of symmetry of form, and 
exquisite finish, in which may be summed up the distinctive beauties of his 
genius." Protogenes of Rhodes, a contemporary of Apelles, was next to him 
in merit. Nicias of Athens was a reputable painter. Later were Nicoma- 
chus, Pasius, and others, with whom the art began to decline. 

Levesque, Sur les progres successifs de la peinture chez les Grecs; Mem. de PInstitut, C 1 a s s e 

de Lit. et Beaux A?-ts, vol. i. p. 374. Respecting the principal artists above named, and their 

works ; Battiger, Ideen zur Archsologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1811. 8. — Gedoyn & De Caylus, 
on Po!yguotus° Mem. .dead. laser, vi. 445, & xxvn. 34. — Brottier, on a painting of Protogenes, 
Mem. Acad, friscr. xlvi. 463. — Srnauld, La vie et les ouvrages d'Apelle, in the same Mem. &c. 
xux. 200. — C. de Caylus, La Venus d'Apelles dite Anadyomene, Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. 
xxx. 442, with a plate drawn from a figure in bronze. — Quatr. de Qui?icy, Sur de defi d'Apel- 
les et de Protogenes, Mem. de PInstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. v. p. 300, with curious 
plates. Cf. Plin. xxxv. 10. — A famous painting of Zeuxis is described in the Zev^tg of Lu- 
cian. 

2. Respecting the comparative number of paintings and statues in Greece, 
the following statement is in point. " Pausanias mentions the names of one 
hundred and sixty-nine sculptors, and only fifteen painters ; while after three 
centuries of spoliation he found in Greece three thousand statues, not one of 
them a copy, he describes only one hundred and thirty-one paintings." — It 
may be also worthy of remark, that the Greeks preferred busts to portraits, 
and this branch of painting does not seem to have been so much cultivated as 
others. " While Pausanias enumerates eighty-eight masterpieces of history, 
he mentions only half the number of portraits, which he had seen in his trav- 
els through Greece in the second century." 

See Memes, p. 120, ss. — Cf. M. Heyne, Sur les causes de la perfection a laquelle Part parvint 
chez les Grecs, et sur les epooues qu'il paroit avoit eu chez ce peuple ; in WinckelmamP s His- 
toire, &c. 

§ 223. In Italy painting was early cultivated. Evidence of its 
advancement is given by those rich vases, already mentioned (§ 173), 
which are generally termed Etruscan, but are probably the work 
chiefly of Grecian artists. It may be remarked, that the color which 
fills up the figures, mostly red or black, was the proper ground color 
of these vessels, and that the color of the surrounding space was 
laid on afterwards. It is possible that these paintings are copied 
from larger pictures of the best Greek masters, and so may furnish 
us some means of judging of the conceptions and devices of those 
artists. 

See Bwttiger's Griech. Vasengem'alde. — J. Christie's Disquisitions on the Painted Greek 
Vases. — Lanzi, D. Vasi dipinti. Firenze, 1805. — Cf. Mem. de PInstitut, CI asse d , Lit. et Hist. 
Anc. " sur un Vase peint apporte de Sicile," vol. in. p 38. with a plate. 

§ 224. At Rome also, in early times, there were various paintings. 
But after the subjugation of the Grecian territories they were more 
numerous and more valuable. The Romans, however, did not labor 
to signalize themselves in this art, but were contented with posses- 
sing the best pieces of Grecian painters, some of whom resided at 
Rome, particularly under the first emperors. Yet Pliny has record- 
ed the names of several native artists, as Pacuvius, Fabius, Turpi- 
lius, and Quintus Pedius. 

Pacuvius, known also as a tragic poet (cf. P. II. § 353), was one of the first Romans distin- 
guished as a.painter. A piece which he executed for the temple of Hercules, in the Forum 

Boarium, was particularly celebrated. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 4. Comte de Caylus, Sur les 

princes, qui ont cultive les arts, (Roman emperors and others,) Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxix. 160.— 
Cf. Life of Mich. Angelo, in the Library of Useful Knowledge. 

11* 



126 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

§ 225. But painting, like the sister arts, ere long declined and fi- 
nally became almost extinct, from various causes ; the irruptions of 
the northern tribes, the dominions of the Goths and Lombards, the 
controversy of the Iconoclasts in the eighth century, the general cor- 
ruption of taste, and the general want of knowledge and refinement. 
The art was not wholly lost, but the uses made of it, and the per- 
formances actually produced by it, were such as tended only to bring 
it into greater neglect. 

See Fiorillo's Geschichte der zeichnenden Kiinste. Cf. § 183. 

§ 226. After the revival of the arts, much curiosity was awakened 
respecting the monuments of ancient painting. A considerable num- 
ber, which were concealed in ruined buildings, tombs, and the like, 
or had remained unnoticed, were sought out; and by means of plates 
and copies, a knowledge of them was communicated to amateurs of 
the art. 

1 u. Among these monuments are the pictures found on the pyramid of C. 
Cestius, of the time of Augustus ; some paintings on the walls of the palace 
and baths of Titus, of which some are preserved in the Escurial at Madrid \ 
some antique paintings preserved at Rome, in the palaces Massimi and Bar- 
berini, and particularly the piece called the Mdobrandine festival, formerly in 
the Villa Aldobrandini, now in the pope's collection. We may mention, as 
among the most remarkable, the pictures found in the tomb of the Nasos in the 
year 1675. Many remains of ancient painting were discovered at Hercula- 
neum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, which are still preserved in the museum at Por- 
tici. They are above a thousand in number, most of them upon dry plaster or 
chalk, but some upon a moist ground, or proper fresco-paintings. Many of 
them, by being exposed to the light and air, lost their colors. Others were 
mutilated and injured in detaching them from the walls, before a safe and suc- 
cessful method was discovered. 

Respecting the tomb of Cestius, see Descrhione di Romana Anticlia, con le Autorita. di 
Panvinio, Nordini, &c. Rom. 1697. — Winckelmann, Histoire &c. livre iv. ch. 8. <S 13. Note. — 
Johnson's Phil, of Travel, p. 178. cited §190.1. — L'Mbe Rive, Hist. Crit. de la Pyram. de C. 
Cestius. Par. 1790. — A view of this tomb is given in our Plate XV. fig. 3. For an expla- 
nation of the Jlldobrandine festival, see Bcettiger's arch'aologische Ausdeutung &c. Dresd.1810. 4. 

— Winckelmann, Histoire &x. livre iv. ch. 8r $ 8 Of the pictures in the tomb of the Nasos, 

with others, plates were published in Bartoli and Belleri, Picturse antiquse Cryptarum Roman- 
arum et sepulchri Nasonum. Rom. 1738. (it. 1750, 1791.) fol. Cf. Grmvii Thes. Ant. Rom. 

tome xn. p. 1021, and Winckelmann, Histoire, &c. livre iv. ch. 10. § 8. liv. vi. ch. 6. § 13. 

On the paintings discovered at Herculaneum, see the stately work entitled Le jintichita 
di Ercolano, cited § 243. 2. Five volumes of it relate more particularly to the paintings : viz. 
vols. 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th and 7th, which bear the title of Le Pitturc antiche d' Ercolano. — On the 
monuments of ancient painting, see also Winckelmann'' s Histoire &c. livre iv. ch. 8. — There 
are some notices of paintings found at Pompeii, in the work styled Pompeii, republished from the 
English edit. Bost. 1833. 12. with wood-cuts. 

2 u. It will be proper to mention here other works that treat of the painting 
of the ancients. 

Franc. Jitnii de Pictura Veterum Libri. III. Roterod. 1694. fol. in Germ. Transl. Breslau. 
1777. 8. — Mr. Durand, Histoire de la peinture ancienne, extraite de l'histoire naturelle de Pline. 
Lond. 1725. fol. — Geo. Trumbull's Treatise on Ancient Painting. Lond. 1740. fol. with 50 en- 
gravings of ancient paintings. — History of painting among the Greeks, in J. J. Rambach, Ver- 
such einer prasrmatischer Litter'arhistorie. Halle, 1770. 8. — Reim, uber die Malerei der Alten. 

Berl. 1787. ; cf. Winckelmann, Histoire de l'Art. (Paris, 1803. tome n. 2eP. p. 69) C. A. Batti- 

ger's Ideen zur Arch'aologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1811. 8. — ./. J. Grund, Malerei der Griechen. 
Dresd. 1810. 2 vols. 8. — F. Kuegler, Handbuch der Geschichte des Malerie von Constantine 

dem Grossen &c. Berl. 1837. 2 vols. 8. — J. G. Legrand, cited § 243. 1 Croze-Magnan, Dis- 

cours Historique sur la Peinture &c. belonging to the Musee Francaise, cited §19lf — Lanzi's 
Geschichte der Malerei ; transl. by A. Wagner, with additions by Quandt. 1833. ' Ramdohr, iiber 
Malerei und Bildhauerei in Rom. Lpz. 1799. 3 vols. 8. — There is a valuable but rare work, 
from the zeal of Count Caylus, Recueil des peintures antiques imitees fidelement pour les cou- 
leurs et pour le dessein, d'apres les dessseins colories faits par P. S. Bartoli. Paris, 1757. (im- 
proved, 1784.) fol. — Raoul-Rochette, Peintures Antiques Inedits, precedees de Recherches sur 
l'Emploi de la Peintures dans le decoration des Edifices sacrees et publics chez les Grecs et chez 
les Romains. Par. 1836. fol. illustrated by plates; a Supplement to his Monum. Lied, cited §191. 4. 
— See Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Art. Mahlcrey. 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 127 



IV. — Architecture. 

§ 227. Architecture may be contemplated in two different points 
of view, — as a mechanic art, or as a fine art. In the latter view it is 
to be considered here; that is, so far as the general rules of taste are 
applicable to it ; so far as it has not mere utility, comfort, or durability, 
but rather beauty and pleasure, for its object. Order, symmetry, noble 
simplicity, fair proportions and agreeable forms, are the chief pecu- 
liarities that are requisite to render a building a work of taste ; and 
these are the points to which the artist and the observer must turn 
their attention. 

1m. In its origin architecture was only a mechanic art, and scarcely deserved 
that name. It commenced in the first human society, as men must have imme- 
diately felt the need of defence against the heat of the sun, the violence of 
storms, and the attacks of wild beasts. The dwellings of men, after they were 
dispersed and lived in an unsettled state, were at first, it is likely, caves and 
clefts of rocks ; and then huts and cabins, rudely constructed, according to the 
nature of the climate and the genius of the occupants, of reed, cane, boughs, 
bark, mud, clay, and the like. 

2m. The writings of Moses (Gen. iv. 17. xi. 4.) present the earliest notices 
of architecture in the residence of Cain, and the tower of Babel. 

§ 228. " There are three grand causes of structure and form in architecture ; 
three leading principles, which not only originated the primeval elements of 
design, but which to a great degree have governed all the subsequent combi- 
nations of these. This influence extends not merely to the essentials of sta- 
bility, equilibrium, and strength, but has suggested the system of ornament. 
These master dispositions are, first, the purpose ; secondly, the material of ar- 
chitecture ; and thirdly, the climate." 

Climate will necessarily expert some influence on architecture ; chiefly, how- 
ever, upon the external arrangements. According to the latitude of the situa- 
tion, buildings will be contrived to admit or exclude the sun, to give shelter 
from biting cold, or to secure against scorching heat, or merely to yield shade, 
without immediate reference to either extreme. All these, however, will not 
affect the internal harmonies or properties of the constituent parts. Climate, 
therefore, is only modifying, not creative, as the two other causes ; it may 
suggest composition, but hardly design. 

§ 229. "The materials employed in architecture have influenced its forms 
and character; not only in the peculiar styles adopted in different countries ; 
but likewise in the general principles of the science. The choice of materials 
in the first instance is determined by the resources of the particular country; 
but the arrangement of the materials must be, in some measure, determined by 
laws which are universal, and over which taste and ingenuity can exert only 
a limited control. Since a mass of stone is heavier in all positions, and weaker 
in most positions, than timber of equal dimensions, it is obvious the whole 
structure, that is, the system of architecture, will be modified as the one or the 
other material is employed. In wooden erections, the supporting members 
may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone ; because, in 
the former, the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter, and will carry 
an incumbent weight — as a roof — over a much wider interval than in the lat- 
ter. It is apparent, also, even for the ordinary purposes of stability, that, in 
constructing edifices of stone, whether of the perpendicular or horizontal mem- 
bers, the dimensions would be greater than in elevations of wood ; and in the 
case of columnar structures, that the altitude, in proportion to the diameter, 
would be far less in stone than in timber supports. Hence the two grand 
characteristics of a massive or solemn, and a light or airy, architecture. 
Hence, also, when genius and taste had begun to consider the arrangements 
of necessity and use in the relations of effect and beauty, new combinations 
would be attempted, which approached to one or other of these leading divis- 



PLATE VI a. 




ARCHITECTURE. ITS BRANCHES. EGYPTIAN. 129 

ions. It must, however, be obvious, that the field of these experiments is nar- 
rowed by the very principles on which they would be first suggested. In the 
art we are now considering, the human agent has less power over the inert- 
ness of matter than in any other. Imagination comes in contact with reality 
at every step." 

1 u. In early times, wood seems to have been the most common material. But the use of 
this in building presupposes the invention of various instruments and tools, which probably 
were made of stone, earlier than of metal (§10). Edifices of stone were of later origin, as the 
construction of such demands a greater advance in knowledge. We learn from Moses (Ex. i. 
14. v. 7 — 14), that in his times burnt bricks were common in Egypt. How early hewn stone, 
mortar, and gypsum, were employed in building, cannot be determined. Several auxiliaries 
seem evidently prerequisite ; as," for example, machines for collecting the materials, and for 
working metals, especially in iron. In Egypt, a country destitute of wood, appears to have 
been the earliest and most frequent use of stone, which the people could easily transport upon 
their canals, from inexhaustible quarries. 

2. In Plate I. of our illustrations, figures 7, and 8, are seen several of the tools employed by the 
ancients in architecture and in the mechanic arts ; they are given by Montfaucon (vol. hi. pi. 187, 
189) as taken from ancieni monuments, in part from the tomb of Cossutius. Among them are the 
saw, serra: the hammer and mallet, tudes, malleus; the hatchet or adze, scalprum,ascia; the square, 
norma ; the rule and compass, regula et circinus ; the plumb-line, amussis, or perpendiculum ; the 
instrument for cutting lines, or carving, ctslum, scalper ; a sort of gimlet or piercer, terebra ; and 
other tools whose use is not obvious, as one with a spear-head and a star, cuspis stellifer, and 
another consisting of a handle, capulus, and a sort of notched wheel, rotula serrata, perhaps 
designed for marking, by its revolution, equidistant points or dots. 

3. The influence of the material in modifying the style of architecture is strikingly exhibit- 
ed, when we contrast the ancient structures reared in Egypt with those of Palestine and Sy- 
ria. We see the heavy and massive style in those mysterious edifices, still standing as land- 
marks between known and unknown time. " In the ponderous members of these solemn 
piles, the narrowness of the intervals, the crowded pillars, the massive base, and the lessened 
perpendicular, is found every principle previously assumed as characteristic of that architec- 
ture, which would be governed by necessity before the sensation of beauty had been felt, or at 
least methodized. In that region of Asia, already noticed as the scene of the earliest recorded 
labors of the art, wood was abundant. From the descriptions of Holy Writ we accordingly 
find, that this material was much employed even in their most sacred and important build- 
ings. Thus, though few details capable of giving any just architectural notions, are preserved 
of Solomon's Temple, it is yet plain, that cedar wood was the chief material both for roofs and 
columns, that is, both for supported and supporting members. Hence, the temples of Pales- 
tine, and of Syria generally, by which we understand the Asia of the Old Testament, already 
described, were more spacious, but less durable, than those of Egypt, and with fewer upright 
supports. Of this, a singularly striking proof occurs in the catastrophe of the House of Da- 
gon, when Samson, by overturning only two columns, brought down the whole fabric. In an 
edifice constructed on the plan of the Egyptian temple, where pillar stands crowded behind 
pillar, in range beyond range, to give support to the ponderous architrave and marble roof, the 

overturning of two of these columns would produce but a very partial disintegration." It 

is obvious, that the style may have a different modification, when different materials are com- 
bined in the same structure, as was evidently the case in the buildings of Persepolis. The 
marble columns were connected by cross-beams of wood, and they probably supported a roof 
of light structure ; and they are accordingly loftier, further apart, and fewer in number, than 
in Egyptian buildings. (Memes, p. 233, ss.) 

§ 230. The purpose of a building, or use for which it was designed, would 
necessarily, in an early stage of art as well as in a later, in a great measure 
determine both the magnitude and the form. The purpose or design of struc- 
ture is the foundation of a division of Architecture into three general kinds, 
or grand branches, Civil, Military, and Naval. The two latter, which treat of 
ships, castles, towers, forts, and the like, come not into consideration among 
the fine arts. The former is subdivided according to its various purposes into 
Sacred, Monumental, Municipal, and Domestic. 

Sacred architecture appears among the earliest efforts of the present race of 
man. " The first impress of his existence left upon the soil, yet moist from 
the waters of the deluge, was the erection of an altar ; and the noblest evi- 
dence of his most accomplished skill has been a temple." 

Monumental architecture is also of very early origin. Pillars of stone and 
mounds of earth are the primitive records both of life and death. Mounds or 
barrows have been used for monumental purposes throughout the globe. The 
pyramids of Egypt and India may be considered as mounds of higher art and 
more durable materials. Columns and triumphal arches are a species of mon- 
umental structures. 

Under the head of Municipal architecture may be included all public build- 
ings more especially connected with the civil and social affairs of men ; as 
for example, halls of legislation and justice, baths, theatres, and the like. 

Domestic architecture refers particularly in the dwellings of individuals, 
whether palaces, manors, villas, or common houses. 

§ 231. It was in the east, and particularly in Egypt, that architec- 



130 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

ture first reached any considerable improvement, and this was m re^ 
spect of solidity and grandeur rather than beauty. The Egyptians 
in their most celebrated works of this art seem to have intended to 
awaken the wonder of the latest posterity, rather than to gratify the 
taste of the connoisseur. Their most famous structure was the La- 
byrinth of extraordinary extent, situated near lake Moeris, the work 
of twelve Egyptian kings. Their pyramids and obelisks too, which 
were probably designed both for monumental erections and for dis- 
play, are ever remarkable for grandeur and solidity. 

1. The temples of the Egyptians should be noticed as among their remark- 
able structures. One of the most ancient and celebrated is the Memnonium 
at Thebes. It is represented as having been about 200 feet wide and 600 feet 
long ; with an extensive propylaeon, of which above 200 feet are still ob- 
served. In this is a colossal statue of Osymandyas, which is sometimes con- 
founded with the vocal statue of Memnon, but must be distinguished from it. 
Cf. §169. 2. — Another celebrated temple, called the finest in Egypt, is that at 
Denderah ; this however belongs to a later period, being ascribed by Belzoni 
to the age of the first Ptolemy. — Monolithal temples are mentioned among 
the Egyptian structures. One of great size, and consisting of a single mass 
of stone, is described by Herodotus as having been hewn out of the solid rock 
and transported from Elephantis to Sais, and placed near the temple of Neith, 
which was itself another very celebrated edifice. Another monolithic temple 
is found at Antseopolis. 

Quat?-imere de Quincy, De l'Architecture Egyptienne. Par. 1803. 4. with 18 plates. Cf. Re- 
view of it in the Amer. Quarterly, vol. v. p. 1. — Lenormanfc Musee des Antiquites Egyptiennes, 
ou Recueil des Monum. Egypt. Architecture, Statuaire, &c. Begun Par. 1836. fol. Plates with 
explanatory text.— Grobert, Description des Pyramids de Ghize. Par. 1800. (Transl. into Ger- 
man, Gera, 1808.)— Clarke, Travels in Greece, Egypt, &c. — Belzoni, Narrative of the recent 
operations and discoveries within the pyramids, temples, <fec. in Egypt and Nubia. Lond. 
1820.— Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xvi. 8 ; xvn. 166; xix. 195, 394.— Buckingham's Lectures, JV. 
York Observer, Oct. 27, 1838.— Zoega, De origine et usu obeliscorum. Rome, 1797. fol. — See 

also references given P. V. § 177. For a view of some obelises, see Montfaucon, Antiq. 

Expliq. vol. ii. pi. cxliii. ; and Denon, as cited § 238. A view of some on a smaller scale is 
given in our Plate VII. figs. 15, 14, 10. This plate exhibits the comparative height and mag- 
nitude of various celebrated structures, both ancient and modern. — In Plate Via. figs. a,b,c, 
are seen specimens of Egyptian columns, which may show the massiveness of style prevalent 
in Egyptian edifices. Fig. a represents a column of a tomb at Silsilis ; as given in Denon'a 
plate xliii. (as cited § 238), it appears still more massy. On Egyptian pillars see farther re- 
marks, § 238. 3. — For a view of a massy Egyptian door-way, see our Plate XXV. fig. c. On 

Egyptian art in general, consult especially Mueller's Archasologie, cited § 32. 4. 

It may be proper to advert to the fact, that excavations in the pyramids are now going on 
(1838), and that several chambers have been opened without discovering any thing ; in one, 
however, was found a cartouch of hieroglyphics, i. e. a proper name in the hieroglyphical al- 
phabet. Cf. P. III. § 96. 3. 

2. It is an interesting fact, that architectural remains are found in the re- 
gions of central America, which bear a very striking resemblance to those of 
Egypt. These are said to be the monumental relics of a great nation, whose 
existence had become, at the time of the Spanish conquest, a matter of vague 
record under the name of " giants and wandering masons." They are called 
Tultecan monuments. Among these remains are pyramids, some of them 
said to be larger than those of Egypt. The pyramid at Cholula resembles the 
tower of Babel as described by Herodotus. There are also temples and other 
structures, the most remarkable being at the city of Palenque, where are 
likewise bas-reliefs and other sculptured monuments. 

Del Rio, Ruins of an Ancient City, lately discovered in Guatimala. Lond. 1822. 4. — Bul- 
lock's Travels in Mexico.— Nebel's Archaeological Voyage. Par. 1835. — Dupaix, Antiquites 
Mexicaines. Par. 1836. fol. The author was at the head of a Commission sent out by the 
Spanish government for the purpose of investigating the subject. — Cf. Amer. Bib. Repository, 
No. xxvii. July, 1837, p. 219.— Also the Republication of Quarterly and other Reviews. Oct- 
1836, p. 17, 137. 

3. We may properly here advert to the Cyclopean architecture. In Greece 
and Italy there are celebrated remains of vast rock-built walls and fortresses, 
which are called Cyclopean, because said to have been built by the Cyclops. 
In the regions of America above mentioned there are structures which very 
much resemble them, called by the natives, granaries of the giants. The 
most celebrated of these remains in Greece are at Tiryns and Mycenae. They 



GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. TEMPLES. ISi 

consist, in both places, of a wall or fortification, inclosing the summit of a 
nearly insulated rock, the Acropolis, in the language of the later Greeks 5 
the enclosure of which was at once a palace, a fortress, and a temple They 
are composed of large blocks of unhewn stone ; the blocks are generally po- 
lygonal and well fitted to each other. At Tiryns the enclosure is about 220 
yards in length and 60 in breadth. At JV3ycena3 the enclosure is 300 yards- 
by 200 ; in the eastern side a remarkable gateway still exists, called the Gate 
of" Lions, from two lions rudely sculptured over the lintel. 

W. Cell, Argolis, or Itinerary of Greece. Lond. 1807. 4, with plates.— E. D. Clarke, Trav- 
els in Egypt, Greece, &c. Lond. 1824. 10 vols. 8.— Pompeii, p. 64. as cited § 226. 1^-W. Hamil- 
ton, Fortresses of ancient Greece, in the Archmologia, (cited § 242. 3), vol", xv. p. 315 — Class. 
Jour. vol. v. p. 262. 

§ 23°, In Asia Minor architecture must have made considerable 
advances by the time of Homer. Of this there is evidence from the 
descriptions he gives of buildings in both his epic poems, even if we 
allow much for poetic ornament and exaggeration. As examples, 
notice the description of the palace of Priam at Troy (a), and of 
Paris (b), and especially the palace of Alcinous, king of Phasaciaf c), 
and that of Ulysses in several passages of the Odyssey. The manner 
also in which Homer, in these poems and in the hymns, speaks of 
temples, seems to presuppose a construction of such edifices by no 
means rude. 

(a) II. vi. 243. — (0) IL vi. 313.— (c) Odyss. vii. 85. — On the condition of domestic architec- 
ture as exhibited in the Iliad and Odyssey, see Mejnes, p. 252, as before cited § 169. — Also Sal- 
lier, Etat de l'Architecture au temps d'Homere, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvu. 19.— Cf. Muel- 
ler's Hist, and Ant. of Doric Race, bk. iv. ch. i. 

§ 233. Yet the art was very far from the perfection, which it af- 
terwards attained among the Greeks. With them, its most flourish- 
ing period may be dated from about the middle of the fifth century 
before Christ. During about a century succeeding this date, or be- 
tween the time of Pericles and Alexander, there were erected in 
Greece, and particularly at Athens, a vast number of superb edifices* 
of various kinds ; temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, porticos, &c. 
Religion, policy, emulation, luxury, all united to encourage and ad- 
vance architecture, which the Greeks were the first to raise fully to 
the rank of a fine art. It was however chiefly upon public buildings 
that they bestowed their care. Private dwellings, even those of the 
more celebrated personages, and in the most flourishing period of the 
art, were comparatively simple and free from ornaments. 

For a historical view of Grecian architecture, consult Memes, p. 248.^JV*ew Edinb. Encyolop* 
Art. Civil Architecture.— Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst, and Stieglitz ; both cited $243. 4.— On 
tbe origin of Grecian architecture, comp. Chateaubriand, Travels in Greece, &c. translated by 
F. Schoberl (p. 354.) Am. edit. N. Yk. 1814. 

§ 234. The countless multitude of divinities occasioned an im- 
mense demand for temples ; and those consecrated to a particular deity 
were, both in number and magnificence, proportionate to his supposed 
dignity and importance. These structures were, in general, not de- 
signed to receive within them assemblies of worshipers, but to form 
as it were habitations and memorials of their appropriate gods. Hence 
they were often small in size. They were usually raised so as to be 
entered by an ascent of steps, ornamented with statues, and with pil- 
lars erected completely around them, or at least in their front. 

lu. The porch or space in front was called nQoraog. In the Dorian temples, 
the doors were brought to a point at the top, and generally, it was by these 
openings alone that light was admitted ; they were commonly lighted also by 
lamps within. The interior was adorned, on the covering and on the walls, 
with the ornaments both of architecture and sculpture. 



132 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

Quatr. de Quincy, sur la maniere dont etoient eclaires les temples des Grecs et des Romains, 
■Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. ei Lit. Anc. vol. ni. p. 166. 

2. The temple was frequently surrounded by an enclosed court (nzQifiolog), 
which often included a grove, statues, and buildings appertaining to the temple. 
The body of the temple was usually quadrangular, oblong, and enclosed by 
walls ; this was the temple in the strict sense ; and was called by the Greeks 
the vuog ; by the Romans the cella. The number and disposition of the pillars 
which were employed to adorn it, gave occasion for the architectural terms 
used to designate different kinds of temples. Vitruvius, in this way, discrimi- 
nates seven kinds. 

In our Plate XVI, are given plans to represent these kinds. The first, is the Temple with 
Antm (1), which has only square columns or pilasters on the sides, with two square columns or 
pilasters in front, one at each angle, and two round columns between them ; as in fig. d in the 
Plate. — The second, the Prostyle (2), having a row of columns in the front, and only in front ; 
as in fig. e — Third, the Amphiprostyle (3), having columns at both ends ; as in fig. /. — Fourth, 
the Peripteral (4), having a single row of columns extending wholly around the building ; as in 
fig. a; and also in fig. h, in which the cell and its surrounding colonnade is circular. If the 
walls of the cell were thrown back so as to fill the intercolumniations, the temple was called 
Pseudo-peripteral. — Fifth, the Dipteral (5), having a double range of pillars around th«*whole 
cell 5 as in fi. c. — Sixth, the Pseudo-dipteral (6), having one row of pillars only, these pillars 
being at the same distance from the cell as in Dipteral temples, and the inner row of pillars 
being omitted. — Seventh, the Hypmthral (7), was so named because the temple was open to the 
sky ; it was also marked by the number of its columns, being the largest and most magnificent 
kind of temple ; it was dipteral, having a double row around it, and amphiprostyle, having ten 
pillars besides at each end ; it has also a range of columns within the cell, as in fig. b.— There 
was another variety, termed Monopteral (8), which consisted of a circular colonnade, without a 

cell, but with an altar in the centre ; as in fig. g. Temples were also designated according 

to the nearness of their columns to each other ; being called Pycnostyle (a), when the columns 
were placed in the closest order allowed, i. e. one diameter and a half apart ; Systyle (&),when 
they were two diameters apart ; Eustyle (c), when two diameters and a quarter ; Diastyle (d), 
when three diameters ; and Arceostyle (e) when the interval was greater. 

(lyjLvraiog(-). (^)UQoOrv?.og. (3) y Au(pm(>6orvZog. (^)LTsqi7tTEQog. (5)Jl- 

Tireqog. (6) l FsvdodiTtTsQog. (7) CI Ynaidqog. ( 8 ) MovoTCTtqog. (a) Hvxvo- 

arvf.og. (o)2vorv?.og. ( c ) 'Evorv?.og. (d)Jiuorv?.og. (e) > Aqaioorv'Aog. 

See Vitruvius, On the Temples and Intercoiuminations of the Ancients. Lond. 1794. 8. with 
plates. — J. Bigelov), Elements of Technology. Bost. 1829. 8. — Pompeii, p.104. as cited $226.1. 

3. Among the temples most celebrated for their extent and magnificence 
were the following ; that of Diana at Ephesus ; those of Apollo at Delphi and 
Miletus ; those of Jupiter at Athens and Olympia ; and that of Minerva, 
called the Parthenon, at Athens. The temples at Agrigentum in Sicily were 
celebrated ; especially that of Jupiter, called also the temple of the Giants, 
a colossal building now completely in ruins. The dimensions of the temple of 
Diana of Ephesus were 425 feet by 220 ; those of Jupiter at Athens, 354 feet by 
171 ; and those of Apollo Didymseus, 303 by 164. 

VAbbe May, Temples anciens et modernes. Par. 1774. 2 vols. 8.—Stieglitz,as cited $ 243.4. 
— Winckelmann, Observations sur le temple de Girgenti ; in the Histoire, 8fc. cited $ 32. 4. vol. 
ii. — Hirt. Beschreibung des Temple der Diana zu Ephesus. Bed. 1809. 4. — QrundeWs Seven 
Churches of Asia (containing remarks on the temple of Diana). — Falconer, Pliny's account of 
Diana's temple, &c. in the Archmologia (as cited $ 242. 3), vol. xi. p. 1. — Comte de Caylus, La 
Diana d'Ephese et son temple, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxx. 428. — For comparative view 
of the Parthenon, Temple of Giants, and other structures, see Plate VII. fig. 17, 18, &c. See 
Plate XVI. — For a notice of existing Greek temples, see Neio Edinb. Encycl. article Civil Arch- 
itecture. — Also Stuart's Dictionary (Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8), under the words Temple, Agrigen- 
tum, $c. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vii. 301 ; xi v. 514. Consult the references below, $ 243. 

§ 235. The ancient theatres were structures of vast extent, some- 
times ^stplly built of marble. They had on one side the form of a 
semicircle with its ends somewhat prolonged, and on the other side 
the ends were united by a building passing directly across from one 
to the other. The Greek theatre was divided into three principal 
parts. One was the stage or scene (axr^,]) in the part extending 
across the semicircle ; this was appropriated to the actors. A second 
was the part occupied by the spectators, who sat in the concentric 
rows (sd(h?.La, ordines) around the semicircle ; this part strictly speak- 
ing was the theatre {d-iarqov, called also y.Zo.ov, cavea). The third 
was between these two, and called the orchestra (o^^v'o-roa), being 
the part assigned to the choir of mimes, singers, and dancers. 



ARCHITECTURE. THEATRES. GYMNASIA. 



133 



1 k, The seats for spectators rose behind each other in regular succession ; 
they were often however divided into two or three compartments, according 
to the size of the building, by means of wide passages (diaLcbuara, prcecinctio- 
nes) running the whole length of the seats and concentric with them. There 
were likewise openings or stair-ways (yJAuay.sg) passing like radii to the semi- 
circle, transversely to the seats. These free spaces facilitated the distribution 
of the audience. The several portions or compartments of seats between 
them (xsQy.idsg) resembled wedges in shape, and were called cunei by the Ro- 
mans. The magistrates and distinguished persons took the lowest seats, in 
the portion (called fiovZevTixov) nearest the stage. The successive rows of 
seats were, by a definite arrangement, appropriated to other citizens, and were 
often designated by a specific name; e. g. a certain part was assigned to 
youth and called lytfiiv.hv. A particular place was also reserved for strang- 
ers. Outside of the whole part occupied by the spectators there was usually 
a portico. 

2. The Greeks usually constructed their theatres on the side of a hill ; and 
when the nature of the place allowed, as at Chgeronea, Argos, and other 
places, many of the seats were cut out of the solid rock. The principal in- 
stances now known of theatres built on a plain are those of Mantinea and 
Megalopolis. The size of the Grecian theatres is sometimes very great. It 
is asserted that the theatre of Bacchus at Athens was capable of containing 
30,000 persons. The theatre at Epidaurus is 366 feet in diameter ; those at 
Argos and Sparta were about 500.— Cf. P. IV. § 89, 238. 

3 m. The edifices called Odea, designed for the exhibitions (§ 65) of musi- 
cians, poets, and artists, were constructed in a manner similar to theatres. 
The most celebrated was that of Pericles ('Qdsior) at Athens. 

A plan of a Greek theatre, from Vitruvius, is given in Plate VI. fig. 1. For a more full 

description of Greek theatres, see Stua?-t\$ Dictionary of Architecture. — Anthoii's Lempriere. — 
Pompeii, (cited § 226) p. 213. — H. Ch. Genelli, das Theater zu Athen, hinsichtlich auf Archi- 
tectur, Scenerieund Darstellungskunst. Berl. 1818. 4. — B oindin, du Theatre des Anciens, in 
Hist, de VAcad. des Liscr. fyc. vol. i. p. 136, with plate. — Groddeck, De theatri Grreci partibus, 
&c. in Wolfs Liter. Analekten, vol. n. p. 99. — For notices of remains of particular theatres, 
consult Clarke's Travels, GelPs Itinerary, DodicelVs Class. Tour, &c. Cf. § 243.— Respecting 
the Odea, see Martini, cited § 65. — See also P. V. § 107 ss. § 58 ss. 

§ 236. The Gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercises, first intro- 
duced at Lacedaemon, became afterwards common in the Greek cit- 
ies, and were adopted among the Romans. They consisted of sev- 
eral buildings, or particular parts, which were united together, and 
thus formed often very spacious structures capable of holding many 
thousand persons. The principal Gymnasia of Athens were three ; 
that of the Lyceum, that of the Cynosarges, and that of the Acad- 
emy. (Cf. §74.) 

The following description notices the principal parts of the ancient Gym- 
nasium or Paloestra; it is adapted to the plan, which is given, after Vitruvius, 
in Plate XIII. fig. 4. — The upper portion of the figure represents the eastern 
end, on which was the principal entrance. The shaded square, with the ar- 
row in it pointing to the left side, is the P ' eristylium , which was also called 
the Palcestra, the place for wrestling; including the Sphceristerium, or place 
for playing ball {aipaiolarr^iov). Around this were the Porticos (aroai), with 
seats (fcedoui). Around these were various rooms; Halls, where philoso- 
phers and others might enjoy intellectual entertainment, a, a ; the Ephebeum 
(t(prj§eiov), b, where the youth attended to preparatory exercises ; the Cory- 
ceum (y.o)orxeiov), c, so called, it is said, from its having a sack of sand sus- 
pended from the roof for some gymnastic purpose ; this is by some considered 
as the same room with the Apodyterium (ccTtoSvr^qiov), or room for undressing; 
the Elceothesium (ilaio&icjiov, cdtiTCTtiQiov),/, the room for anointing the wrest- 
ters, or such as had bathed; the Conisterium (xoviOTtJQ'iov), where the dust 
was kept for sprinkling those that had been anointed. There were also rooms 
for bathing, in cold or hot water, as, c, g, k, i, called by the Romans Frigida- 
rium, Tepidarium, Laconicum ; also a room, h, for the stove. The Stadium 
(oxudiov), o, is here placed on the north side of the structure. On the south 

12 



134 ARCHAEOLOGY OP ART. 

and west were the Xvoroi, covered places designed for exercise in bad weath- 
er ; and the Xvara, which were walks open at top, and designed for exercise 
in pleasant weather. This structure is about one stadium square. 

See Barllielcmy , s Anacharsis, ch. viii. — Potter's Archaeol. Greec. bk. viii. Boyd's edition, 
p. 42; where is a plan of the remains of the Gymnasium at Ephesus. — Stieglitz Archaeologie der 
Baukunst. Weimar, 1801. — The details are derived from Vitruvius, on Architecture, 5th bk. 
Cf. P. II. § 498. 

§ 237. Porticos (oroai^ porticus) were very common and important 
works of Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed either 
alone by themselves, or in connection with other buildings, temples, 
theatres, baths, market-places, and the like. They served at the 
same time for protection against the sun and rain, for secure and con- 
venient public promenades, for common places of resort where friends 
might meet, and where philosophers, especially the Peripatetics, im- 
parted instruction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with greater 
or less spaces between them (inter columnia) , where statues were often 
fixed, while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not 
always covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There 
was one at Rome a thousand paces in length, and thence termed Porti- 
cus Miliaria. One of the principal at Athens was that styled PcBcile. 

On the paintings in the Pcecile, cf. Harris, Miscellanies, vol. iv. p. 264. — See § 74. 

§ 238. There were three forms of pillars (o-np.ai, onttot) in use 
among the Greeks, commonly called the three orders of architecture ; 
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric exhibits the greatest 
simplicity and solidity ; the Ionic has proportions more agreeable and 
beautiful ; the Corinthian is most highly ornamented, and was less 
frequently employed in large and public buildings. The Tuscan 
and Composite orders are not of Grecian origin ; the former was, as 
its name imports, from Etruria; the latter was of Roman invention. 

1. Although a particular description of the distinguishing marks of the dif- 
ferent orders may belong more properly to the theory of architecture than to 
its archaeology, yet the classical scholar should have some information on the 
subject. On this account the Plate VI a. is inserted ; and the following re- 
marks and explanations of terms are given. They are necessarily brief; but 
it is hoped that they may serve to excite, in the minds of such as may use this 
Manual, more interest than classical scholars of our country have usually felt 
in cultivating the taste in reference to an art so noble and elevating. 

The front of any edifice, claiming notice as a production of the architectural art, is called its 
facade (fas-sade). This, when viewed perpendicularly, presents three parts, which are readily 
distinguished ; the columns, which usually first strike the eye of the observer, and which form 
the middle part ; the pedestal, which forms the lower part, and supports the columns ; and the 
entablature, which is the upper part, and rests upon the columns. These three parts may be 
noticed and discriminated in an instant by glancing at fig. 17, or fig.18, in Plate VII. ; or at fig. 1, 
or fig. 3, in Plate XVI. Two of these parts, the column and the entablature, are seen in the 

figures /, g, h, i, j, and It, in Plate VI a. In some ancient edifices, constructed after the 

art began to decline, a portion of the pedestal directly under each column, and also a portion 
of the entablature directly above it, Were made more prominent than the remaining portions ex- 
tending between the columns ; thus forming an appearance which is exhibited in fig. I, of Plate 
VI a. ; in which the proper column and those more prominent portions of the pedestal and 
entablature, taken together, seem to form merely a column or pillar ; a peculiarity which in 
part has occasioned, in modern times, the absurd mistake of making the squared prominence 
of the entablature a part of the column itself, and then placing another entablature above it. 
— Each of the parts already named is subdivided again into three other parts. The pedestal, 
also called the stylobate, is divided, as may be seen in fig. I, into the plinth, p, at the very bot- 
tom ; the die, d, in the middle ; and the cornice, or surbase, co, at the top. The column con- 
sists, as may be seen in fig. k, of the base, b, resting on the cornice of the pedestal ; the shaft, s, 
the middle and longest part ; and the capital, c, the ornamented portion at the top. The 
entablature includes the architrave or epistylium, ar, the lower portion ; the frieze, f, in the 
middle 5 and the cornice, co, at the top. To the different parts above named various moldings 
may be attached, which need not be described. — The pediment of a building is the triangular 
face above the entablature ; formed by the cornice of the entablature and the projecting ex- 
tremities of the two sloping sides that make up the roof (see Plate XVI. fig. 1.) ; these projec- 
tions are sometimes called the cornice of the pediment, and the flat triangular portion between 
them is called the tympanum. This part of the edifice was often richly adorned with statues 
and bas-reliefs. 



PLATE VII. 




136 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART, 



The architectural orders are discriminated by certain peculiarities in the column and the en- 
tablature ; there are three respects in which these peculiarities may appear : 1. the proportions 
of the column ; 2. the form of the capital ; 3. the ornaments of the entablature. — The Doric 
is the earliest and most massive of the Grecian orders. Tts proportions vary in different ancient 
edifices ; in those at Athens, the height of the column is about six times the width at the base, 
which is always called the diameter ; in older buildings, as at Psestum, the column is but four 
or five diameters in height. Its capital is formed, as may be seen in fig. p, by a few annulets 
or rings at the extremity of the shaft, a molding above them of the kind called echinus, and 
above this a flat portion called the abacus. The pure Doric column had no base, and had twenty 
superficial flutings, as in fig. g, which is a specimen of the time of Pericles, when it is thought 
to have been in its greatest perfection ; as employed by the Romans it usually had a base, as it 
appears in fig. h, a specimen of the Roman Doric ; in which the height is increased to eight 
diameters, and the capital is more complicated. The entablature of the Doric, as may be noticed 
in fig. g, and in fig. h, presents an architrave, usually perfectly plain ; a frieze, marked by per- 
pendicular oblong prominences, called triglyphs, which are divided each into three parts by 
vertical furrows and ornamented beneath by guttcs or drops ; with a cornice composed of a few 
large moldings having on their under side a series of square sloping projections called mutules y 
which resemble the ends of rafters and are also ornamented beneath by guttce. The spaces 
of the frieze between the triglyphs were called metopes, and commonly contained sculptures in 
bas-relief. The Elgin sculptures, representing the Centaurs and Lapithse, were metopes of the 

Parthenon. The Ionic is a lighter order than the Doric in its proportions ; the column is 

usually eight or nine diameters in height ; having a base called Attic, composed of several mold- 
ings. Its capital is instantly known by the spiral volutes on its opposite sides, as is seen in fig. 
i, and in fig. s ; on the shaft between these volutes are moldings which may vary with the 
pleasure of the artist ; but above the volutes is always an abacus molded at the edges. The 
regular Ionic capital has two pairs of parallel volutes ; the Romans gave it a different form, in 
which it had four pairs of diagonal volutes. The Ionic entablature presents an architrave plain 
or merely lined by a molding horizontally attached as in fig. i ; & frieze perfectly plain and un- 
broken ; a cornice composed of various moldings, and usually marked by a row of small square 

ornaments somewhat resembling teeth and called dentels. The Corinthian order is still 

lighter than the Ionic. Its proportions allowed a column often ten diameters in height. The 
base of the column was like the Ionic, but more complicated. Its capital presents the shape of 
an inverted bell ; and is richly ornamented, as in fig. j, and fig. q, having around it two rows 
of acanthus leaves, and above them eight pairs of small volutes, and upon these the abacus, 
which was marked by truncated angles and by concave sides, each adorned with a flower in 
the centre. — This capital, according to Vitruvius, had its origin in accident. By the tomb of a 
Corinthian virgin, an affectionate nurse had left a basket containing various articles precious 
in the estimation of the virgin while alive ; on the basket was a tile to protect the contents ; an 
acanthus plant, on which the basket chanced to rest, had pushed its shoots and foliage around 
the basket up to the tile, in a beautiful manner, as in fig. u ; in this state it was seen by the 
sculptor Callimachu.?, and suggested to him an idea of architectural ornament, to which he 
soon gave reality in the Corinthian capital. Notwithstanding this delightful little story, it is 
most probable that the capital in question was a mere improvement upon some Egyptian model, 
such e. g. as is given in fig. c. The entablature of the Corinthian order resembles that of the 
Ionic, differing from it chiefly by having more complicated moldings, and by having on the 
cornice a row of projections which correspond to the Doric mutules, but are ornamented each 

with a volute or a leaf, and are called modillions. The Tuscan order was quite similar to 

the Doric ; it is given in fig./. Its proportions are lighter, as the column was seven diameters 
in height. The column has a base which is very simple. Its capital is generally as simple as 
the Doric. Its entablature is somewhat like the Ionic, but more plain. This order is the one 

most entirely stripped of ornament. The Composite order is exhibited in fig. k, formed 

out of the Corinthian by merely combining together the Corinthian capital and the Roman Ionic 
capital with diagonal volutes. The frieze has a convex surface instead of a plane one. 

In reference to the columns in all the orders, it may be remarked, that they are fluted or not 
according to the choice of the builder. Sections of fluted or reeded columns are seen in fig. w, 
x, and y, of Plate VI a. Pilasters are a sort of square column attached to the wall of a build- 
ing, and projecting from it sometimes only a sixth of their diameter, and sometimes as much 
as a third. They are often constructed with the peculiar ornaments of the several orders, 
although this was not originally the practice. 

2. The best specimens of the Doric order are found in the Parthenon, the 
Propylsea, and the Temple of Theseus, at Athens ; of the Ionic, in the edifice 
called Erectheum, at Athens (cf. P. V. §107), consisting of two, and according- 
to some of three temples ; of the Corinthian, in the choragic monument of Lysi- 
crates, the small but elegant structure, at Athens, sometimes called the Lamp 
of Demosthenes. — Of the Tuscan there are no remains (§ 241). The best ex- 
ample of the Composite is presented in the Arch of Titus. The Corinthian 
appears to have been the favorite order with the Romans. — The monumental 
columns of Trajan and Antonine, already mentioned on account of their sculp- 
tured ornaments (cf. §188), are Doric. — The column at Alexandria, celebrated 
as Pompey's Pillar, is represented as having " a fine shaft surmounted by a 
Corinthian capital executed in the worst manner." 

3. Our Plate VI a. is enriched by cuts of a great variety of columns ; those belonging to the 
regular orders have been sufficiently explained ; the specimens of Saracenic, Gothic, and Chi- 
nese, will be mentioned below (§ 245) ; the Egyptian, Persepolitan, and Hindoo, we will no- 
tice here. In fig. d, we have a' very singular column, from the famous Cave at Elephanta, 
near Bombay, a remarkable subterranean structure, excavated by the ancient Hindoos out of 
the solid rock. In fig. e, a column from the ruins of Persepolis is represented ; the capital is 
very peculiar, seeming to combine several in one, and being, it is said, beautiful in appearance. 



ARCHITECTURE. THE ORDERS. ORNAMENTS. 137 

The columns of Egyptian buildings vary greatly in their proportions and style. Nothing 

like any regular distinction of orders any where appears. The relative height is usually below 
that of the common Doric, being in general not more than four and a half diameters. Tn ap- 
pearance the columns sometimes resemble the plain trunk of a tree ; sometimes bundles of reeds 
or of the plant papyrus, bound together at different distances, as in fig. c. The capitals present, 
it is said, nearly all the flowers peculiar to the country, the capsules, petals, pistils, and most 
minute parts being exhibited. In fig. c, is shown a capital, which resembles those found in the 
temple of Hermontis, and in the temple of Apollinopolis at Edfow, bearing parts of the lotus 
flower. Elegant capitals were formed by combining the branches, leaves, and fruit of the palm 
tree ; by weaving together the stems, leaves, buds, and flowers of the lotus ; and by inter- 
mingling these or other flowers and plants with the vine and the papyrus. " On beholding," 
says Denon, " so many varieties of form, and such richness in the ornaments, united with so 
much grace in the contour, one is astonished that the invention of architecture should have 
been ascribed to the Greeks on their own testimony, and that the three orders should have been 
considered the only truths of that art." The head of the goddess Isis was sometimes wrought 
into the capitals, adorned with the various symbols of her imaginary attributes, as in fig. &, 
which is a specimen from the celebrated temple of Denderah. — Cf. Denon, as cited just below, 

plates xxix, xxxiv, xliv, xlv, xlvi. On the Cave of Elephanta, Ooldingham, Memoir in the 

Asiat. Researches, vol. iv. — On Hindoo architecture, Langlcs, cited § 243. 3. 

For a view of Pompey's Pillar, see plate 3d of the Atlas accompanying Denon's Travels &c. 
Lond. 1804. 2 vols. 4. cf. vol. i. p. 17. — For a view of the Parthenon and temple of Theseus, 
see our Plate XVI. 1. 3. — of the Monument of Lysicrates, Plate VI. A. — of Trajan's column, 
Plate VII. 12. — For a brief account of the five orders, see Bigelow's Technology. Bost. 1829. 8. 
containing views of several Greek and Roman edifices reduced to the same scale : also Ameri- 
can Family Magazine, 1837, vol. 5. p. 65, 140, &x. — For explanation of terms, illustrated by 
plates, Stuart's Dictionary. — Cf. § 243. 4. 

§ 239. Various ornaments, exterior and interior, were used in an- 
cient architecture. In the best periods of the art they were introduced 
with propriety, taste, and in moderate number ; but in later times too 
abundantly, and so as to destroy both beauty and convenience. Among 
the exterior ornaments, for example, were the following : statues upon 
the ends of the buildings ; bas-reliefs on the architrave ; imitations of 
human forms combined with the pillars, like the Caryatides and At- 
lantes ; with various embellishments in the capital and entablature, 
and about the doors, vaults, and other openings. In the interior, the 
ceiling and walls were ornamented with stucco-work, gilding, paint- 
ing, and mosaic. The ordinary decoration of an apartment consisted 
in coloring the walls and attaching to them small pictures of diversi- 
fied character. Ceilings adorned with fretwork were called by the 
Greeks (pamhuuTa ; by the Romans, tecta laqueata or lacunaria. 

See notices of ornaments in the buildings at Pompeii, in Pompeii (cited § 226.), p. 449, 156, 
163, 166, &c. — L. Vulliamy, Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture, drawn from 
the originals in Greece, &c. engraved by A. Moses. Lond. 1828. fol. 40 plates. — C. H. Tatham, 
Grecian and Roman Ornaments. Lond. 1825. fol. 96 plates. 

§ 240. The most celebrated Greek architects were the following : 
Dcedalus, to whom are attributed many of the most ancient and ex- 
tensive structures of Greece, with much exaggeration and mere fable 
however (§174) ; CtesipJwn or Chersipkron, celebrated as builder of 
the Temple of Diana at Ephesus; Callimachus (not the poet), who 
was also a sculptor, and said to be the inventor of the Corinthian Or- 
der ; Dinocrates, who lived in the time of Alexander, and was em- 
ployed by him in building Alexandria in Egypt; Sostratus, a favorite 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who erected the celebrated tower of Pharos ; 
Epimachus, an Athenian, known by a stupendous war-tower con- 
structed by him for Demetrius Poliorcetes in the siege of Rhodes. 

Franc. Milizia, Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni. Parm. 1781. 2 vols. 8. A cata- 
logue of Greek and Roman architects may be found in Junius, de Pictura Veterum, as cited 
§ 226. 2. — also in Stuart's Dictionary (Appendix No. 1), with a notice of their works and the 
time when they flourished. 

§ 241. In Italy, almost as early as in Greece, architecture was cul- 
tivated, especially in Etruria. The Tuscan order is among the proofs 
of this. In the early times of Rome, also, many temples and other 

12* 



138 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

buildings were erected there by native art. But their architecture 
was greatly improved afterwards, when the Romans imitated Grecian 
models, and many Greek architects of celebrity resided in Rome. As 
the power, refinement, and luxury of Rome advanced, splendid archi- 
tectural works were multiplied, and thus arose in rapid succession 
temples, amphitheatres, markets, baths, bridges, aqueducts, palaces, 
manors, &x. These buildings were magnificent not only from their 
architecture, but in their various embellishments, for which the other 
arts, especially sculpture and painting, were brought into requisition. 
The most distinguished Roman architects were chiefly Greeks by birth, 
or scholars and imitators of Grecian masters ; the following may be 
named; Cossutius, Hermodorus, Vitruvius, Rabirius, Frontinus. 

Time has not spared a single edifice of the Etruscans ; the Tuscan order is therefore known 
only from the description of Vitruvius. Yet some sepulchres exist in Italy whose architec- 
ture agrees with the character ascribed to the Tuscan buildings.— Mueller, Die Etrusken. Cf. 
$ 109, 173. 

1. "According to the account given by Vitruvius, the public buildings of the 
Romans in the regal and consular times were rude enough, exhibiting a state 
of the science as already described among the early nations of the East — ver- 
tical supports of stone, with wooden bearers. This continued to be their 
style of design and practice, till extending empire brought the Romans ac- 
quainted with the arts of the Dorian settlements on the eastern and southern 
shores of Italy. Down to the conquest of Asia and the termination of the 
republic, Rome continued a " city of wood and brick." Only with the es- 
tablishment of the empire and the reign of Augustus, with the wealth of the 
world at command, and the skill of Greece to direct the application, com- 
mences the valuable history of architecture among the Romans. — Of all the 
fine arts, poetry not excepted, architecture is the only one into which the Ro- 
man mind entered with the real enthusiasm of natural and national feeling. 
Success corresponded with the exalted sentiment whence it arose ; here have 
been left, for the admiration of future ages, the most magnificent proofs of 
original genius. This originality, however, depends not upon invention so 
much as upon application of modes. To the architectonic system, indeed, the 
Romans claim to have added two novel elements in their own Doric, or Tus- 
can, and Composite orders. But in the restless spirit of innovation which 
these betray, the alleged invention discovers a total want of the true feeling 
and understanding of the science of Grecian design. As far as concerns the 
invention of forms, and the just conception of the elemental modes of Greece, 
the Romans failed. Their architecture was imperfect, both as a system of 
symmetry, and as a science founded upon truth and taste." 

2. "But when their labors are viewed as regards the practice of the art, their 
merits are presented under a far different aspect. Whether the magnitude, 
the utility, the varied combinations, or the novel and important evidences of 
their knowledge, be considered, the Romans, in their practical works, are yet 
unrivalled. They here created their own models, while they have remained 
examples to their successors. Though not the inventors of the arch, they, 
of all the nations of antiquity, first discovered and boldly applied its powers; 
nor is there one dignified principle in its use which they have not elicited. 
Rivers are spanned, the sea itself, as at Ancona, is thus enclosed within the 
cinture of masonry ; nay, streams were heaved into air, and, borne aloft 
through entire provinces, poured into the capital their floods of freshness and 
health. The self-balanced dome, extending a marble firmament over head, 
the proudest boast of modern skill, has yet its prototype and its superior in 
the Pantheon. 

The same stupendous and enduring character pervaded all the efforts of 
Roman art, even in those instances where more ancient principles only were 
brought into action. Where the Greeks were forced to call the operations of 
nature in aid of the weakness of art, availing themselves of some hollow 
mountain side for the erection of places of public resort, the imperial masters 
of Rome caused such mountains to be reared of masonry r within their capital. 



ARCHITECTURE. ROMAN EDIFICES. BATHS. 139 

for the Theatre, Amphitheatre, and Circus. Palaces — Temples — Baths — 
Porticos — Arches of Triumph — Commemorative Pillars — Basilica, or Halls 
of Justice — Fora, or Squares — Bridges — without mentioning the astonish- 
ing highways, extending to the extremities of the empire — all were construct- 
ed on the same grand and magnificent plan." Memes, p. 270. 

Cf. on the Grandeur of Grecian works, Chateaubriand (cited § 233), p. 146.— On Roman Ar- 
chitecture, see also Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 191. — Ant. Mongez, Sur les travaux pub- 
liques des Romains, Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 492. 

3. The edifices designed for public baths, although differing in magnitude and splendor and in 
the details of arrangement, were all constructed on the same common plan. " They stood 
among extensive gardens and walks, and often were surrounded by a portico. The main build- 
ing contained spacious halls for swimming and bathing ; others for conversation ; others for 
various athletic exercises ; others for the declamation of poets, and the lectures of philosophers ; 
in a word, for every species of polite and manly amusement." Those erected by the emperors 
especially had these appendages, and were of a great magnificence. "Architecture, sculpture,, 
and painting, exhausted their refinements on these establishments, which for their extent were 
compared to cities; incrustations, metals, and marble, were all employed in adorning them. 
The baths of Caracalla were ornamented with two hundred pillars, and furnished with sixteen 
hundred seats of marble : three thousand persons could be seated on them at one time. Those 
of Diocletian surpassed all the others in size and sumptuousness of decoration ; and were, be- 
sides, enriched with the precious collection of the Ulpian library. We can entertain some idea 
of the extent of this edifice, when we are told that one of its halls forms at present the church 
of the Carthusians, which is among the largest and at the same time most magnificent temples 
of Rome. Here we are furnished with one of the many monuments of the triumphs of Chris- 
tianity, in despite of the most persevering and cruel persecutions of the then sovereigns of the 
world". On this very spot, where the organ and the choral strain of devotion are now daily 
heard, Diocletian is said to have employed in the construction of his baths forty thousand Chris- 
tian soldiers, whom, after degrading with all the insignia of ignominy, he caused to be massa- 
cred when the edifice was completed. — It may be added that the private baths, at some of the 
villas of the rich, vied in splendor with the public therms. According to Seneca, the walls 
were of Alexandrian marble, the veins of which were so disposed as to resemble a regular pic- 
ture ; the basins were set round with a most valuable kind of stone imported from the Grecian 
islands ; the water was conveyed through silver pipes, and fell by several descents in beautiful 
cascades ; the floors were inlaid with precious gems ; and an intermixture of statues and co- 
lonnades contributed to throw an air of elegance and grandeur over the whoie." (Bell on Baths, 
Philad. 1831. 12.) 

The following description is drawn principally from the public baths discovered at PompeiL 

It will apply substantially to the Greek baths (P. IV. §170.) as well as the Rolnan " The 

building, which contained them, was oblong, and had two divisions ; the one for males, and 
the other for females. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The warm baths, in both 
divisions, were adjacent to each other, for the sake of being easily heated In the midst of the 
building, on the ground-floor, w as the heating-room, hypocaustum, by which not only the water 
for bathing, but sometimes also the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Above the 
heating-room was an apartment in which three copper kettles were walled, in, one above an- 
other, so that the lowest (caldarium) was immediately over the fire, the second {tepidarium) 
over the first, and the third (frigidarium) over the second. In this way, either boiling, luke- 
warm, or cold water could be obtained. A constant communication was maintained between 
these vessels, so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the caldarium, the void was sup- 
plied from the tepidarium, which, being already considerably heated, did but slightly reduce 
the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium, in its turn, was supplied from the piscina 
or frigidarium, and that from the aqueduct ; so that the heat, which was not taken up by the 
first boiler, passed onto the second, and instead of being wasted, did its office in preparing the 
contents of the second for the higher temperature which it was to obtain in the first. The cop- 
pers and reservoir were elevated considerably above the baths, to cause the water to flew more 
rapidly into them. The terms frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium, are applied to the apart- 
ments in which the cold, tepid, and hot baths are placed, as well as to those vessels in which 
the operation of heating the water is carried on. 

The bathing-rooms had, in the floor, a basin of mason-work, in which there were seats, and! 
round it a gallery, where the bathers remained before they descended into the bath, and where 
all the attendants were. In the division of the Pompeian baths supposed to belong to the men, 
the principal public entrance led directly into the vestibule, a sort of court, along three sides of 
which there ran a portico or walk (ambulacrum). Seats were ranged round the walls, perhaps 
for the slaves, who accompanied their masters to the bath. In this place was the box for the 
quadrans (fourth of an as, less than a farthing), the piece of money given as a fee for bathing 
by each visiter. A corridor or small passage, in which were found above 500 lamps, conducted 
from the court into the room for undressing, apodyterium. This room had three seats, made of 
lava, with a step to place the feet on. The room was stuccoed from the cornice to the ground, 
highly finished and colored yellow. In the vaulted roof was a window with a single large pane 
of glass (cf. P. IV. § 325). Various ornaments were carved in the cornice. The floor was 
paved with white marble in mosaic. Several doors communicated with the room. One of these 
led to the cold bath, frigidarium. This was a round chamber, encrusted with yellow stucco, 
having its ceiling in the form of a truncated cone, apparently once painted blue. It was lighted 
by a window near the top. In it were four niches, equi-distant from each other, with seats > 
scholcB, in them for the bathers. There was also a basin, nearly 13 feet in diameter and 2 feet 
9 inches deep, entirely lined with white marble, with two marble steps to aid the descent into it, 
and a sort of cushion, pulvinus, also of marble, at the bottom, for the bathers to sit upon. An- 
other door of the undressing-room opened into a passage leading to the tepidarium, or warm 
chamber, so called from its warm but soft and mild temperature, which prepared the body of 
the bather for the more intense heat of the vapor and hot baths, and also softened the transition 



140 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

from the hot bath to the external air. This room was divided into a number of niches or com- 
partments, was lighted by a window with a bronze frame of four panes of glass, and had many 
ornaments in stucco. A door-way led from it into the caldarium or sudatorium. This apartment 
exactly corresponded to the directions laid down by Kitruvius, for constructing the vapor-bath. 
Its length was twice as great as its breadth, exclusive of the laconicum at one end, and the lava- 
crum at the other. It was stuccoed like the other rooms, painted yellow and decorated with va- 
rious ornaments. The floor and walls of the sudatorium were made hollow, that the heated air 
might pass freely around : the design was to furnish a sudatory of dry air ; " it corresponds 
precisely with a hot stove room of the present day, except that the stove proper was beneath 
and outside the sudatorium." The laconicum was a large semi-circular niche, seven feet wide 
and three feet six inches deep, in the middle of which was placed a vase for washing the hands' 
and face, called labrum ; this was a large basin of white marble, elevated three feet six inches 
above the pavement and about five feet in diameter, into which the hot water bubbled up 
through a pipe in the centre : an inscription on this labium states that it cost 750 sesterces. 
There is in the Vatican a magnificent Porphyry labrum, found in one of the imperial baths at 
Rome. The lavacrum, or hot-bath, at the other end of the room, was twelve feet long, four feet 
four inches wide, and one foot four inches deep ; entirely of marble, into which the hot water 
was conveyed by a pipe ; it was elevated two steps above the floor ; the descent into it was by 
a single step, which formed a continuous bench around it for the convenience of the bathers. 
Besides the rooms thus described, there was also a room called the unctuarium or elmothesium j 
in which the bathers anointed their bodies with oil before taking their exercise, or with perfumes 
after bathing. This room was usually stored with pots containing numerous varieties of ungu- 
ents appropriated to different parts of the body (P. IV. § 170). There was likewise another room, 
in which various exercises were performed before taking the bath ; this room was sometimes 
called ephebium, more frequently sphmristcrium, because the favorite exercise was the ball. The 
conisterium was an apartment where was kept the powder which was sprinkled over the body 
after the exercises just mentioned. In the more splendid imperial baths there were various 
other rooms and halls. 

Those who went to bathe, first proceeded to the apodyterium, where they took off their clothes 
and committed them to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer, 
bulneator. Thence they proceeded to the unctuarium, where they were anointed by other slaves, 
aliptm. Thence they proceeded to the sphceristerium, to engage in some of the exercises of that 
apartment. From this room they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot-bath in the latter 
room, they sat upon the step or bench already described, which was below the surface of the 
water. Here they scraped themselves with instruments called strigiles, usually of bronze, 
sometimes of iron ; or this operation was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on 
a vase found at Canino, it is inferred that the bathers, after the use of the strigilis, rubbed them- 
selves with their hands, and then were washed from head to foot by having pails or vases of 
water poured over them. They were then dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and 
covered with a light shaggy mantle, called gausape. On quitting the caldarium, they went in- 
to the tepidarium, aiid, after some delay, thence into the frigidarium j but are supposed not 
generally to have bathed in these rooms at the public thermag, but to have used them chiefly to 
soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to the open air. The bathing was 
usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed oils of the eleeothesium, after 
which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed. 

For fuller details, with notices of some of the imperial baths, see Pompeii, p. 153. — The most 
copious work on the Roman Baths and their remains is that of Cameron, entitled The Baths of 
the Romans explained and illustrated. Lond.1772. fol. with the illustrations of Palladio, 75 plates. 

— Cf. Les Thermes des Romains, dessinees par Andre Palladio &x. Vicenza, 1785. fol. — 
See also G. A. Blouet, Restauration des Thermes d'Ant. Caracalla. Par. 1828. fol. fine plates. 

— J. B. Piranesi, vol. 2d, as cited § 243. 2. 

§ 242. The strength and solidity of Greek and Roman edifices 
were such as to have easily preserved them to distant ages, had it not 
been for earthquakes, conflagrations, and the desolations of war. The 
remains of ancient, architecture yet standing are highly interesting ; 
especially those in Greece and Italy. 

1 u. Only some of the principal can here be named. (Cf. P. V. § 52, 106.) 

— Magnificent ruins of cities remain on the sites of Palmyra, Heliopolis, Per- 
sepolis. In Egypt, monuments of earlier and later architecture are present- 
ed in pyramids, obelisks, and temples. — At Athens we see still the ruins of 
the celebrated temple of Minerva, and traces of other beautiful temples at 
JEgina, Eleusis, Corinth, Thessalonica, Ephesus, Priene, Antioch, &c. ; ruins 
of theatres are found at Athens, Smyrna, Mylasa, Hierapolis ; of palaces and 
royal mansions, at Alabanda, Ephesus, Magnesia. — Still more numerous and 
in better preservation are the remains of Roman architecture; e.g. at Rome, 
the Pantheon, the temple of Vesta, several porticos, the Coliseum or Amphi- 
theatre of Vespasian, ruins of the theatres of Pompey and Marcellus, and of 
splendid aqueducts, the baths of the Emperors, the pillars and triumphal 
arches already named (§ 188), gates, bridges, tombs, mausolea, &c. 

2. France exhibits some monuments of Roman architecture, particularly at 
Nismes. Some remains also, principally of military structures, have been 
found in England. 

§ 243 u. Besides the numerous accounts of these various remains given by 



REMAINS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 141 

modern travelers, there are works prepared expressly to make them known 7 
with engravings and explanations : such are the following. 

1. Remains in Greece, or Grecian architecture. Le Roy (or Leroi), Les Ruines des plus 
beaux monumens de la Grece. 1758. 2d ed. 1770. 2 vols. fol. The first picturesque tour of 
Greece ; the drawings not always accurate. — Robert Sayer, Ruins of Athens. Lond. 1759. fol. 
Stuart and Revett, The Antiquities of Athens. Lond. 1762-1816. 4 vols, fol.— The same, ed- 
ited by W. Kinnard, with many valuable additions. 1825-30. 4 vols. fol. 200 plates. — Chand- 
ler, Revett, and Pars, Ionian Antiquities. Lond. 1769-97. 2 vols. fol. — The same, 1817. 2 vols, 
imp. fol. with fine plates. — Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque de la Grece. Par. 1782. fol. — 
P. O. Brcensted, Voyages dans la Grece, accompagnes de Recherches Archeologiques. Par. 1826. 
Wilkins, Atheniensia^or Remarks on the Topography and Buildings of Athens. 1816. 8. — The 
unedited Antiquities of Attica. By the Society of Dilettanti, and edited by Wilkins, Deermg, 
and Bedford. 1817. imp. fol. 79 plates. — By the same, Dilettanti Society, The Antiquities of 
Ionia. Lond. 1817-21. 2 vols. fol. — J. S. Stanhope, Olympia, or Topography illustrative of the 
ancient state of the plain of Olympia. 1824. imp. fol. with fine plates. — R. C. Cockerell, Grand 
Restoration of Athens, its Temples, Sculpture, &c. Engraved by J. Coney. 1829. large fol. 
— By the same, Elucidation of the Temple of JEgina. — F. Gartner, Architectural Monuments 
of Greece and Sicily. Munster, 1819. fol. in German, with lithographic plates.— Wm. Wilk- 
ins, The Antiquities of Magna Grascia. Cambridge, 1807. fol. — Delagardettc, Les Ruines de 
Ptestum, ou Posidonia. Par. 1799. fol.— J. Hittorfs, Architecture Antique de la Sicil'e. Par. 
1825-30. 6 livraisons, with plates. — J. G. Legrand, Monumens de la Grece, ou Collection des 
Chefsd'oeuvres d'Architecture, de Sculpture, et de Peinture antiques, &c. Par. (first volume 
published) 1808. fol. In Kruse's Hellas is a notice of works on the subject. 

In a Memoir prefixed to Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece (cited § 233) is found a brief notice 
of the state of Athens and her monuments since the Christian era, and of the travelers who 
have visited and described the remains of Greece. He closes with the following remark : " It 
is a melancholy reflection, that the civilized nations of Europe have done more injury to the 
monuments of Athens in the space of one hundred and fifty years than all the barbarians to- 
gether for a long series of ages ; it is cruel to think that Alaric and Mahomet II respected the 
Parthenon, and that it was demolished by Morosini and lord Elgin." — Several travelers must 
be added to Chateaubriand's list. — An incomplete notice of modern travelers in Greece is also 
given in the anomjmous work entitled History of Modem Greece, with a view of the Geography, 
Antiquities, and present condition, (from the Engl, edit.) Bost. 1827. 8. 

2. Remains in Italy. — G. Vasi, Magnificenze di Roma Antica e Moderna. Rom. 
1747. 3 vols. 4. two hundred views with descriptions. — Pronti (incisore), Nuova Rac- 
colta di cente Vedutine Antiche della citta di Roma &c. Rom. 1795. 4. containing 100 views. — 
Giamb. Piranesi, Le antichita Romane. Rom. 1756. 4 vols. fol. — R. Venuti, Descrizione topo- 
grafica ed isiorica di Roma antica e moderna. Rom. 1763, 66. 2 vols 4.—Barbault, Le plus beaux 
monumens de Rome ancienne. Rom. 1761. fol. — R. Venuti, Veteris Latii antiquitatum am- 
plissima collectio. Rom. 1769—80. 7 vols. fol. — Ant. Deso-odetz, Les edifices antiques de Rome 
dessines&c. Par. 1682. it. 1697. it. 1779. fol. Engl, transl. by G. Marshall, 1771. 2 vols. fol. — 
Fr. Piranesi, Raccolta de' tempi antichi. Rom. 1780. fol. — The complete works of Giov. B. 
(John Baptist) Piranesi, published after his death by his son Fra7icis Piranesi, in 29 vols. fol. 
containing nearly 2000 plates. For contents of these vols, see Stuart's Dictionary (cited $ 238. 
2.), Appendix II.— G. L. Taylor and E. Cresy, Architectural Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1821 ss. 
2 vols. imp. fol. — G. Valadier, Raccolta delle piu insigni Fabbriche di Roma Anticha e sue Ad- 
jacenze. Rom. 1810—26. imp. fol. 63 plates.— Sir W. Gell, Topography of Rome. — G. Valadier, 

Arco di Tito. Rom. 1822. 4. 8 plates. int. JVibby, Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra &c. 

Rom. 1819. 8. — Robert Adam, Architectural remains in Rome &c. from drawings by Clerisseau. 
—Rossini, Veduta di Roma; 101 large folio Views of the most remarkable antiquities and build- 
ings in Rome and its neighborhood. Rom. 1823. 4. — Montfaucon's Antiquite expliquee, as cited 
P. III. $12. 2. {A).— Le Antichi d'Ercolano, &c. Napol. 1765—92. 9 vols. fol. with a great number 
of engravings of buildings, and also of busts, statues, paintings, bas-reliefs, &c. discovered 
among the ruins of Herculaneum. — Sir W. Hamilton, Discoveries at Pompeii (with plates) in the 
ArcluBoloo-ia, as below cited, vol. iv. p. 160. — Sir W. Gell and J. P. G. Dcering, Pompeiana, or 
Topography &c. of Pompeii. Lond. 1824. 2 vols. 8. imp. — Bibent, Plan of Pompeii. Par. 1826. 
— Cooke's Delineations. Lond. 1827. 2 vols. fol. 90 plates. — F. Mazois, Ruines de Pompeii. 

Par. 1830. — Pompeii, as cited §226. The splendid work entitled Viaggio Pittorico della Tus- 

cana (Firenze, 1803. 3 vols, fol.) contains some views of ancient Remains. 

3. Remains in other countries. — R. Adam, Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro in 
Dalmatia. Lond. 1764. Cf. Gibbon, Hist. Rom. Emp. ch. xii.— L. Langles, Monumens Anciens 
et Modernes, de l'Hindoustan. Par. 1818. 2 vols. fol. — Morier, Journey through Persia. Cf. 
Lond. Quart. Rev. ix. 57.— R. Kerr Porter, Travels in Persia.— Alex. deLabordc, Vovage Pitto- 
resque de l'Espagne. Par. 1812. 2 vols, fol.— Cassas, Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie,'de la Phe- 
nicie, de la Palestine et de la Basse Egypte. 2 vols. fol. with many plates. — R. Wood, Ruins of 
Palmyra. Lond. 1753. fol.— By same, Ruins of Balbec. Lond. 1757. fol. — J 1 . C. Gau, Antiqui- 
tes de la Nubia. Par. 1824. fol. — Denon, Voyages dans La Basse et la Haute Egypte. — The 
ancient and royal Palace of Persepolis, destroyed by Alexander the Great. Lond. 1739. 21 plates. 
— Seynes, Monumens Romains de Nismes. Par. 1818. fol. 16 plates.— Various notices of Roman 
Remains in England are found in the work styled Archmologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts pertain- 
ing to Antiquity, published by the society of Antiquaries. Lond. 1770 ss. 26 vols. 4. (the 26th 
vol. in 1836). Also in the work, published by the same society, entitled Vetusta Monumenta. 
6 vols. fol. — Also Gordon's Itinerary. — Hutton's Roman Wall. Lond. 1802.— See Catalogue, in 
Stuart, below mentioned. 

4. It will be proper to add in this place some of the principal works pertaining to the history 
and theory of Architecture.— C. le Roy, Observations sur les edifices des anciens peuples. Par. 
1768. 4. — C. L. Stieglitz, Geschichte der Baukunst der Alten. Leipz. 1792. 8. — By same, Arch'a- 
ologie der Baukunst der Griechen und RSmer. Weimar, 1801. 8. — A. Hirt, die Baukunst nach 

den Grundsatzen der Alten. Berl. 1809. fol. 50 plates By same, Geschichte der Baukunst bei 

den Alten. Berl. 1821. 2 vols. 4.— By same, Geschichte der Baukunst (from the earliest time to 
the present.). Nurnb. 1827. — The two following are said to be valuable, in reference to arcbi- 



142 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

lecture as well as the other arts : Rumohr's Kunstgeschichtliche Italianische Forschungen.1827; 
A. Wendt, Ueber die Hauptperioden der schbnen Kunst. 1833. L. Le Brun, Theorie de 1' Ar- 
chitecture Grecque et Romaine, <fcc. Par. 1807. fol. 26 plates. — W. WUkins, The Civil Archi- 
tecture of Vitruvius ; containing the Earl of Aberdeen's Inquiry into the Beauty of Grecian 
Architecture. Lond. 1812—17. 2 vols. 4. 41 plates. — Pugin, New Parallel of the Orders of Ar- 
chitecture, according to the Greeks and Romans and modern Architects, transl. from the French 
of C. Normand. Lond. 1829. fol. 62 plates. — Jos. Owilt, Rudiments of Architecture, practical and 
theoretical. F. S. A. Lond. 1826. 8. with plates and vignettes. — I. Rondelet, Traite Theorique 
et Pratique de l'Art de Batir Par. 1829, 30. 6 vols. 4. with plates. — Jlsher Benjamin, Practice of 
Architecture, &c. Bost. 1836. 4. with 60 plates ; a work much used by common practical archi- 
tects. See Stuart's Dictionary, (cited § 238. 2.) Append. II, where is a catalogue of works 

relating to Architecture, arranged in 13 classes. 

§ 244. Although, strictly speaking, it is only classical art that belongs to 
our subject, it may not be out of place to allude here to a style of architecture 
which grew up after the dismemberment of the Roman Empire. " The arts 
degenerated so far, that a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings 
with the fragments of old ones, which were dilapidated and torn down for the 
purpose. This gave rise to an irregular style of building, which continued to 
be imitated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian 
and Roman details, combined under new forms, and piled up into structures 
wholly unlike the antique originals. Hence the names Greco- Gothic and Ro- 
manesque architecture have been given to it. It frequently contained arches 
upon columns, forming successive arcades, which were accumulated above 
each other to a great height. The eifect was sometimes imposing." 

The Cathedral and Leaning Tower at Pisa (see Plate VII. 16), and the Church of St, Mark 
at Venice, are named as the best specimens of the Greco-Gothic style. The ancient Saxon ar- 
chitecture in England was in some respects similar ; as e. g. in the Cathedral at Ely, which 
exhibits arches upon columns; a specimen of which is given in Plate VI a. fig. n. The same 
peculiarity is seen in some remains of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. Of these we have a speci- 
men in fig. m of Plate VI a; in which arches appear between the columns and the entablature. 

§ 245. Besides the different styles which have been named, Egyptian, Gre- 
cian, Roman, and Greco- Gothic, there are three others which we ought just to 
mention ; viz. the Saracenic, Gothic, and Chinese. 

" The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architec- 
ture ; and of tLeir style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures 
which are depicted upon common China ware. The Chinese towers and pago- 
das have concave roofs, like awnings, projecting over their several stories. 
The lightness of the style used by the Chinese (a) leads them to build with wood, 
sometimes with brick, seldom with stone." 

The Saracenic style is distinguished by a peculiar form of the arch, which 
is a curve constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. It is exhibited in 
the buildings of the Moors and Saracens in Spain, Egypt, and Turkey. A 
flowery ornament called Arabesque is common in the Moorish buildings. The 
Alhambra at Grenada furnishes a specimen (b) of this style. — The Minaret, a. 
tall, slender tower, appears in the Turkish mosques. 

The Gothic style is not so called in order to designate a mode of building 
derived from the Goths. The name was first applied as a term of reproach to 
the edifices in the middle ages, which were at variance with antique models. 
It is now chiefly employed to designate a style of building religious edifices, 
introduced in England six or eight centuries ago and adopted nearly at the 
same time in France, Germany, and other parts of Europe. " Its principle 
seems to have originated in the imitation of groves, and bowers, under which 
the Druids performed their sacred rites. Its characteristics, at sight, are its 
pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, 
vaulted roofs, profusion of ornaments, and the general predominance of the 
perpendicular (c) over the horizontal." 

(a) A specimen of this style is given in Plate VII. 9.— A Chinese column is given in Plate VI a. 
fig. t, from the viceroy's palace, at Canton. 

(b) In Plate VI a, fig. o, we have a specimen, from the Alhambra, of Moorish double columns, 
supporting arches which are adorned with arabesque. 

(c) Specimens of the Gothic style appear in Plate VII. 2, 5, 6, 7.— A specimen of clustered pil- 
lars forming one, and supporting an arch, is given Plate VI a, fig. r, from Salisbury Cathedral.. 
A twisted pillar, from a cloister belonging to St. Paul's church at Rome, is seen in fig. v. The 

figures z, 1, and 2, are sections of different Gothic columns. See Bigelow's Technology, 

ch. vii. as cited § 238. 3.— On the early use of the pointed arch, in oriental countries, see E. D K 
Clarke, Travels in Various Countries, &c. p. 4. vol. in. ed. N. Yk. 1815. — On Gothic Architec- 
ture, J. Gwilt, Origin and Progress of Goth. Arch, transl. from the German of O. Moller. Lond. 
1826. 8.—J1. Pug-in, Specimens of Gothic Architecture. Lond.1823.2 vols. 4.— O. D. Whittington, 
Survey of Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France. Lond. 1816. 8. Cf. Lond, Quart, n. 126. vi. 62, 






PART II 



BRIEF HISTORY 



OF 



CLASSICAL LITERATURE, 

OR 

GENERAL VIEW 

OF THE 

GREEK AND ROMAN AUTHORS. 



PLATE VIII. 




U C LI D . 



HIPPOCRATES 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. The Greeks, beyond any other nation of antiquity, enjoyed 
a happy union of important advantages for the promotion of civili- 
zation and literature. 

1 1. The nature of their country, washed on every side by the sea, with 
its coasts formed into numerous gulfs and peninsulas, afforded the people 
peculiar facilities for mutual intercourse. The singular mildness of their cli- 
mate was such as to favor the happiest development of the physical and in- 
tellectual powers, uniting a vigorous constitution with a lively imagination 
and profound sensibility. 

O. Hermann, De Mythologia Gnecorum antiquissima. Lpz. 1817. — Wackier, Geschichte der 
Litteratur, vol. l. p. 106, as cited P. I. § 34. 2. 

2 1. Their free forms of government afforded powerful motives to stimulate 
exertion. The commerce with foreign countries furnished a source of favor- 
able influence. Equally favorable were the high honors and substantial re- 
wards bestowed on knowledge and merit. Some have supposed that the ex- 
istence of slavery contributed to the literary advancement of the Greeks, as 
it left the citizens more leisure for public life and study. But a more fortu- 
nate circumstance was, that oriental "influence never established among the 
Greeks any thing like the system of casts, which prevailed in Egypt and 
some of the Asiatic states, and which confined the arts and sciences by a sort 
of hereditary right to the priests. 

SicMcr's Kadmos, &c. 1818.— G. Hermann, De Hist. Gr. Primordiis. 1818.— Cf. P. I. § 34,40. 

3 u. The plan and scope of Grecian education deserves also to be men- 
tioned here. It was in general more adapted to the common purposes of the 
whole community than in modern times, and was less modified by the indi- 
vidual and private aim of the pupil. The apparent good of the state was the 
object constantly in view. This gave to all their ideas and efforts not only a 
definite direction, but also a liberal and diffusive character. In this circum- 
stance we find one obvious source of the permanent excellence and utility of 
the Greek writers and their works. Here was a foundation for their preemi- 
nent and lasting renown. 

On education among the Greeks ; cf. P. I. $ 63, 64 ,75. To the references there given, we 
add the following ; C. F. A. Hothheimer, Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der Griechen. 
Dess. 1785. 2 vols. 8.— G. F. Goess, Die Erziehungswissenschaft nach den Grundsatzen der 
Griechen und Rbmer, &c. Ansb. 1808. 8. — 4. H. Niemcyer, Originalstellen der Gr. und Rom. 
Classiker iiber die Theorie der Erziehung. Halle, 1813. 8. — F. R. Jacobs, Ueber die Erziehung 
der Griechen zur Sittlichkeit ; in his Vermischte Schrifien, vol. in. — Good's remarks on Greek 
and Roman education ; in his Book of Nature. Lect. XI. — F. Cramer, Geschichte der Erzie- 
hung in Alterthume. Elberf. 1822-36. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 2. No nation in the history of letters is so celebrated as the 
Greeks. And the imperious obligation is laid upon every one, who 
makes any pretensions to literature, to acquaint himself with the lan^- 
guage and the most valuable productions of the ancient Greeks. 
This knowledge is alike essential to the statesman, the orator, the 
physician, the theologian, philosopher, historian, and antiquarian ; 
to the polite scholar and the philologian, to the connoisseur and the 
artist, it is absolutely indispensable. 
13 



146 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

See an elegant and masterly discussion on the Study of Greek Literature^ 
by Rev. Mr. Cheever, in the American Quarterly Register, vol. iv. p. 273; v„ 
p. 33, 218. The writer aims " to prove that Greek literature ought to be pro- 
foundly studied. — First, for the native excellence of the Greek classics > 
Second, for the invigorating discipline which this study affords the mind; 
Third, for the practical knowledge and mastery of our own native language ; 
Fourth, and most important, as a preparation for the study of theology." 

For references on the value and importance of classical studies, see P. I. § 29. To those 
there given we add the following ; F. F. Friedemann, Par'-inesen fur studirende jiinglinge auf 
Gymnasien unci Universit'iten. Brunsw. 1827. " A collection from the greatest scholars, on 
the importance, methods, &c. of classical study ; with valuable notes." A second improved 
edition, 1838. 8.— Fr. Thiersch, Ueber gelehrte r?chulen, &c. 1828. 8. — T. C. Jahn, Jahrbiicher 
fur Philologie und P'idagogik. Lpz. 1826. Vol. n. p. 181 : where is a valuable article with 
references to recent works. This philological and classical journal has a very high reputation ; 
it was commenced in 1826, and is still continued, in numbers, forming 3 volumes a year. 

§ 3. But, independent of these considerations, the language itself 
presents sufficient inducements to the study ; such is its own intrin- 
sic beauty ; the high degree of perfection it exhibits, above all other 
languages ; its unequaled richness in the most significant words and 
combinations ; its symmetrical structure and syntax; its elegance in 
turns of expression ; the singular skill in the arrangement of its par- 
ticles, clauses and members ; and its wonderful harmony in prose as 
well as poetry. These are excellences which impart to the best 
works of the Greeks a charm in outward dress fully corresponding to 
the value of their contents. 

Cf. P. I. § 39. — T. G. Trevdclenb erg's Vergleichung der Vorziige der deutschen Sprache mil 
den Vorz. der lat. und griech. im Vferten Bande der Schriften der deutschen Gesellsch. zw 
Mannheim. Frank f. 1788. 8. — Aug. Scheh, Versuch iiber den Werth der alten Sprachen und 
das stud, der Lit. der Griech. fur Jurist. Frankf. a. d. O, 1810. 8. — Coleridge, Study of Greek 
Poets, p. 34, as cited § 21.— Class. Jour. vi. 242 ; xi. 144; xm. 168. 

§ 4:t. Respecting the origin of the Greek language and the causes 
of its perfection we have already remarked (P. 1. § 35-39). Here 
we may further remark, that in the different provinces and settle- 
ments of the Greeks arose those differences in their language which 
are named dialects. The principal, which are found in written com- 
position, are four ; the JEolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. 

The Jieolic prevailed in the northern parts of Greece, in some northern 
islands of the iEgean sea, and especially in the JEoYic colonies in the north- 
western part of Asia Minor. It was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets in 
Lesbos, as Alcseus and Sappho, and in Boeotia by Corinna. It retained the 
most numerous traces of the ancient Greek. The Latin coincides with this 
more than with any other of the Greek dialects. 

The Doric was spoken chiefly in the Peloponnesus, with a few places north 
of the Isthmus, in the Doric colonies in the southern part of Italy, and in Sic- 
ily. It was particularly distinguished by the use of what was termed the 
broad sound of the vowels (n?MTiiaoi!oc). The most eminent writers in this 
dialect were Theocritus and Pindar. Bion, Moschus, Stesichorus, and Bac- 
chylides also used it. 

The Ionic was the softest of the dialects, in consequence of its numerous 
vowels, and its rejection of aspirated letters. It was spoken chiefly in the 
colonies in the southwestern part of Asia Minor, and in the neighboring islands. 
The principal writers in this were Homer, Hesiod, Anacreon, Herodotus, and 
Hippocrates. 

The Attic was considered the most refined and perfect of the dialects, free 
from the extremes of harshness and softness. It had its seat at Athens, and 
prevailed in the most flourishing period of Grecian literature. It is the dia- 
lect used by many of the best writers of Greece ; JEschylus, Sophocles, Eu- 
ripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Isocrates, Demosthenes, 
and others. 

These dialects passed through different changes, and included under them 



INTRODUCTION. DIALECTS. PRONUNCIATION. 147 

several varieties. They may be traced to Uoo primary dialects, as the Ionic 
and Attic were originally nearly or quite the same, and the Doric and iEolie 
were at first the same, or had a common basis. Their first distinct and defi- 
nite separation from two into four, may be referred to the time when the JEoli- 
anand Ionian colonies were planted in Asia Minor, between 1030 and 1100 B. C. 

On the colonies referred to, see Mitford's Greece, ch. v. § 2. — On the dialects, J. F. Facii 
Compendium Dial. Grarc. Norimb. 1782. — Mieh. Mattaire,' Grasc. Ling. Dialecti. Lips. 1807. 
E. W. Stun, de Dial. Macedon. et Alexand. Lips. 1807. — Hermann, Progr. de Diaiectis. Lips. 
1807. — By same, de Dialecto Pindari. Lips. 1809. — Also see Matthias Greek Grammar ; Robhtr- 
son's Buttman, § I. ; and Stuart's Grammar of New Testament. — On the Doric peculiarities, 
see Mueller's Dorians, vol*, n. App. viii. — On the reasons for the use of particular dialects by 
particular poets, Class. Journ. xvn. 82. 

The following remarks are from Ms. notes of Lectures by Hermann, 1834. " We need a work 
on Dialects ; for the written language and also for the spoken. The dialects of the written lan- 
guage should be divided into the Epic, the Lyric, and the Tragic. On the two first, we have 
scarcely any thing. I have done something ; very little. On the Tragic, Kuldstadt (?) is toler- 
ably good ; also the notes of Porson and Elmsly. On the popular dialect, Stephunus (in hia 
Thesaurus) is the best. — Gregory on the dialects, and the notes to it, are poor. Mattaire is 
imperfect. On the dialect of Herodotus, Struve is pretty fair. On the Dork an4 iEolic, there 
is nothing very good ; Bopp's Comparative Grammar is the best." 

§ 5. The true pronunciation of Greek, since it must be viewed as 
a dead language, cannot be determined with certainty. 

Tu. The principal difference in the actual pronunciation of modern scholars on 
the European continent is in the enunciation of r h at, oj, si, ov and ev, which 
are sounded in two different ways. Erasmus and Reuchlin, in the 16th cen- 
tury, were the distinguished original advocates of the two modes respectively ; 
and from this circumstance one is termed the Erasmian and the other the 
Reuchlinian method. Very probably there was a different utterance of these 
vowels in the different provinces among the Greeks. 

2. Those who adopt the Reuchlinian method sound r h oi, and n, like the 
continental i (as in machine) ; ai like e in there ; and v in uv and si like/ or v. 
Those who follow Erasmus sound /; like a in hate ; at like ai in aisle; n like 
ei in height; oi like oi in Boiotia ; dv and ev like au and eu in Glaucus and Eurus 
(Rebinsoris Buttman, § 2. 6). The former are often called Iotistce and the lat- 
ter Elista?, from their respective modes of sounding the vowel »; ; these terms 
instantly suggest to a continental scholar the ground of their application ; but 
to an English or American eye and ear, they would hest convey the meaning 
by being written and spoken eotistee, or etista, and atistce (etists and otists). 
In England and in this country, especially in the northern schools and semi- 
naries, it has been the common practice to sound the Greek vowels according 
to the prevailing analogy of the vernacular tongue. The controversy between 
Reuchlinians and Erasmians has therefore excited little interest among us. 

For references to authors who have discussed the subject, consult Harles, Introductio in His- 
torian! Linguae Gracre (Prol. § 7, and Supplement). Harles expresses the opinion hinted above 

in this section, that the vowels had not always and in all places a uniform sound Cf. Messrs. 

de Port-Royal, Gk. Gram. Pref. ix.—Lond. Quart. Rev. xi. 471. 

3m. The chief difficulty in pronouncing Greek is found in the expression of 
what is called the accent. The tone in Greek is placed upon short syllables 
as well as long; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables. 
The consequence is, that in reading Greek with the accent always placed 
where the Greek tone is marked, a German naturally violates quantity, and in 
verse destroys all poetical measure. Yet attention and practice will enable 
one to give the accent to the syllable marked by it, and at the same time re- 
gard and exhibit the quantity in his pronunciation. 

4. The mode of expressing what is called the accent, is viewed as a subject 
of greater importance than the sound of the vowels. In giving an accent to a 
syllable in an English word we thereby render it a long syllable, whatever 
may be the sound given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may 
be composed ; so that as above stated in relation to the German, an English 
accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies only a long syllable. The con- 
sequence is that, if we in pronouncing Greek put our accent wherever 
the Greek tone (r-yroc) occurs, we shall in many cases grossly violate the laws 
of quantity ; because the Greek tone is placed on short syllables as well as 
long ones. " Let one take, for example, the word urQfJomug, and attempt to 
place the stress on the first syllable, and yet make the second seem as long iu 



148 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

quantity. He will certainly find some difficulty. It is of no consequence in 
the matter, which sound he gives to a in the first, the open or contracted ; the 
quantity, to an English ear, is the same whether he says dn'thropos, or arithro- 
pos. Nor does it make any difference, as to the point in question, whether he 
gives to to in the second the contracted sound or the open; in either case, the 
quantity will be the same to English ears, whether he says an'throp os, or an' - 
thro pos, and must be the same in English verse, just as in the two words 
big'ot ed and temp' 6 rat. Now in this difficulty what shall the student do ? " 

Three different methods have been followed by different persons. One is to persevere in the 
effort to separate stress and quantity, and give stress in all cases to the syllable which has the 
Greek tone, and at the same time to pronounce that syllable and the others with a prolongation 
or curtailment of sound according to their prosodial quantity. Many distinguished scholars 
recommend this effort, as Matthite, Michaslis, Foster, Buttman, and others, with the assurance 
that perseverance will attain the object. But it is believed that very few, if any, ever succeed 
in the effort. Backh is said always to follow both accent and quantity ; and Hermann to do it 
in prose, while he confesses his want of success in poetry. It is indeed not very difficult to 
give a mere elevation to the syllable that has the tone, and still pronounce it in half the time em- 
ployed in uttering either of the other syllables. Such enunciation, however, must to our ears 
seem like singing rather than accented pronunciation. Nor is elevation by any means synony- 
mous with our accent ; for the syllable which has the stress, in our language, is not always 
elevated above the others in enunciation, but is very often depressed below them. — A second 
method is to place the stress always on the syllable which has the Greek tone, and make no 
effort to exhibit the relative quantity of the syllables. This is done by the modern Greeks, and 
is perfectly easy for us. But it is a method, which inevitably violates all the prosodial meas- 
ures, and utterly destroys Greek versification. On this account, chiefly, scholars in this country, 
although often urged, have been reluctant to adopt it. — The third mode is to place the stress 
on the syllable (whether the Greek tone be on that syllable or not) on which it would fall by 
Latin analogy; i. e. on the penult, if the penult be long, or the antepenult, if the penult be short. 
This method, of course, is very easy for us, and it also accords with the Greek prosodial quan- 
tity far better than the second, although it does not by any means perfectly harmonize there- 
with. It however makes distinctly perceptible the quantity of the penult in all words of three or 
more syllables; and this is nearly all that can be accomplished by modern utterance, even accord- 
ing to Buttman's statement, although he advocates a regard to the Greek tone in pronunciation. 

On the second method above named ; J. Pickering's Memoir on the Pronunciation of Ancient 
Greek. Camb. 1818. 4. — Liscovius, Ueber die Aussprache des Griechischen. — Bloch, Revision 

der Lehre von Ausprache des Altgriechischen. 1826. For the cited statement of Buttmann ; 

Robinson's Buttmann, $ 7, note 7. — Cf. Rules for Pronouncing Latin and Greek, and a Method of 

Logical Analysis applied to Greek Composition. Amherst, Mass. 1834. 32 pp. 12mo. On this 

subject, also, the following works may be mentioned. John Foster, An essay ou the Differ- 
ent Nature of Accent and Quantity, with their Use in the English, Latin, and Greek Lan- 
guages, &c. Third edition, containing Dr. H. Gallifs Two Dissertations against pronouncing 
the Greek according to Accents. Lond. 1820. 8.— William Primatt, Accentus Redivivi, or a De- 
fence of an accented pronunciation of Greek prose. Camb. 1764 8. — Mctronariston, or a new 
pleasure recommended in a Dissertation upon a part of Greek and Latin Prosody. Lond. 
1797. 8. — J. Walker's Key to the classical pronunciation &c. with observations on Greek and 
Latin Accent and Quantity. Lond. 1798. 8. Boston, 1818. 24. — William Mitford, An Inquiry 
into the Principles of Harmony in Language, &c. Lond. 1804. 8. — Wagner, cited P.I. $51. 
— See also Harles, Introductio &c. Prol. § 6, and Supplement. 

§ 6. It is important to begin the acquisition of this language at an 
early period of life. But a tedious, unfruitful mode of study must 
be avoided, lest a language'so beautiful and excellent should become 
disgusting to youth. The pupil must first be well grounded in the 
principles of the Grammar, the understanding of which and the fix- 
ing of them in the memory may be aided by exercises in the trans- 
lation of easy passages from suitable text-books. 

The best mode of studying and teaching the languages has been a fruitful 
theme for discussion. In this place a few general remarks only will be offered. 

1. Perhaps no one method of teaching can be devised, which shall, by its 
essential peculiarities as a method, be the best in all circumstances. It is es- 
sential to great success, that the teacher's own mind should be roused to 
wakeful activity and interest ; and also that the student should be put upon a 
kind and degree of exertion which really tasks him, and which yet is fully 
within his present ability. It must be obvious to every observer, that the 
method, which might secure these objects in some cases, would utterly fail in 
others. The teacher, therefore, who relies upon any plan, as possessing in 
itself certain efficacy, and on that account promising infallible success, will 
inevitably be disappointed. The efficacy of any method will depend very 
much on his own spirit and feelings ; and if he trusts to a favorite method 
merely or chiefly as such, however successful it may be when executed with 



Introduction, methods of studying greek. 149 

"lis own mind glowing with enthusiasm, he will soon discover, that his meth- 
od will not work by magic ; as a machine or instrument employed with wake- 
ful ardor by him it accomplishes much; but it can do little or nothing of itself 
alone. The judicious and skillful teacher will be regularly guided by certain 
general principles, but will ever be on the alert to watch among his pupils 
'the first flagging of interest in his present methods, and put himself to devise 
•new expedients to forward his ultimate object. 

2. The analytical and synthetical methods, as they have been termed, have 
often been brought into comparison. The former is less adapted for the study 
of a dead language than for almost any other branch of learning to which it 
can be applied. Much has been urged in its favor in this study, but only 
doubtful evidence can be adduced from experience. Where there is time suf- 
ficient and constant oral instructions can be afforded, such a method is no doubt 
adequate. But no abiding foundation is laid until the student is well ground- 
ed in the principles of grammar, as hinted in the section above. The princi- 
ples of grammar are nothing but classifications or synthetic statements of those 
facts respecting the language, which by the analytic process the pupil learns 
by induction from a series of particular cases ; i. e. if he learns them by the 
analytic process in reality ; but in point of fact, he usually learns them, if he 
learns them at all, because his teacher orally states the general facts to him 
again and again, as successive particular instances occur; and thus when one 
of these facts has been stated so often that he cannot help remembering it, he 
has learned simply what he learns when he commits to memory from hia 
grammar the rule or principle, in declension or syntax, which presents that 
one general fact ; and the former process is as truly synthetic as the latter, 
with only this difference, that the pupil commits the thing to memory from 
hearing it said over and over again by the master, instead of committing it in 
.a vastly shorter time and in a more accurate form from his grammar at the 
outset. 

The remark of the author above, that the fixing of the principles of gram- 
mar in the memory may be aided by suitable accompanying exercises, is just 
and important Much of the prejudice against the method, which has been 
called synthetic, has arisen from the practice of forcing the beginner to spend 
many weeks in merely committing the grammar to memory. It is far better 
that he should be put upon the application of what he learns as he learns it, 
and that he should be furnished with exercises adapted for the purpose. This 
is the method most generally practiced in the schools of our country. Most 
of the elementary books now in use, in the study of both Greek and Latin, 
contain portions designed for such exercises. 

A very good help for acquiring and fixing in this way the principles of Greek Grammar ia 
the following; Lessons in Greek Parshig, or Outlines of the Greek Grammar, illustrated by 
appropriate exercises in Parsing ; by Chauucy A. Goodrich. New Haven, 1829. 

Attempts have recently been made in England to introduce (in the language of the advo- 
cates of the system, to restore) the method of Interlinear Translation, A series of text-books 
has been published adapted to this design. The Greek course commences with Selections from 
Lucian's Dialogues. The beginner is freed from the toil and delay of studying a grammar or 
turning to a lexicon. The translation is given word for word, the English directly under the 
Greek, and the learner is expected to be able, on examination by the master, to render the 
Greek into English word for word, and also without the book to give the English for each 
Greek word, and the Greek for each English word. The second volume in the course consists 
of the odes of Anacreon, and is to be studied in the same way, but accompanied with the 

study of a grammar adapted to the plan. For an account of this system, see An Essay on a 

system of Classical Instruction, combining the methods of Locke, Milton, Ascham, and Colet^ 
the whole series being designed to exhibit a Restoration of the primitive mode of Scholastic 
Tuition in England. LondT 1829. Cf. Load. Quart. Rev. No. lxxvii. 

3. It is sometimes asked whether a youth should begin with Greek or with 
Latin. The question is not perhaps of so much importance as some have 
supposed. But it may be observed, that some of the most distinguished schol- 
ars, both in this country and others, as Pickering, Wyttenbach, &c. have 
thought that the classical course should commence with Greek. The chief 
remark we wish to urge here is, that it is of the utmost consequence that both 
languages should be commenced in early life ; although very high attain- 
ments have been made by persons who began classical study at a compara- 
tively advanced age. 

4. Whatever methods are employed in the first stages, it is obvious that as 

13* 



150 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

the student advances his attention should be turned to various points by suit-* 
able exercises. The habit of thoroughly analysing sentences upon grammat- 
ical principles must be formed and never lost. It is a profitable exercise to 
the most advanced scholar occasionally in his readings to select a sentence 
and go over it in a perfectly minute examination of every word and make a 
formal statement, even a written one, of all that is true respecting it in its 
place in that sentence. 

On the importance of thorough study, see Hints on the study of the Greek Language by Prof. 
Stuart, in the Bibl. Repository, No. vi. vol. n. p. 200. 

Another exercise, which will be found of much utility, is that of analyzing 
upon logical principles. This analysis extends of course, beyond the parts of 
a single sentence, and examines not only the mutual relations of those parts, 
but also the nature and ground of the connection between the sentences. It 
may be united with a tracing out of the train and order of thought in the 
mind of the author through successive paragraphs or a whole piece. 

The nature of this exercise is partially exhibited in A Method of Logical Analysis applied to 
Greek Composition, cited above $ 5. 3. — Cf. A. J. Sylvestre de Sacy, Principles of General Gram- 
mar, adapted to the capacity of youth, and proper to serve as an Introduction to the study of 
Languages. Part iii. as transl. by D. Fosdick. Andov. 1834. 12. 

Exercises in oral or written translation from the original into the vernacular 
are of indispensable importance. It is advantageous to vary the mode of trans- 
lating. The scholar may sometimes be required to give the vernacular for the 
original, word for word, taken in grammatical order, a mode absolutely essen- 
tial with beginners ; sometimes he may proceed exactly in the order of the 
original, a method which will be found very useful in gaining familiarity with 
an author's mode of thinking and with the idioms of the language. Some- 
times he may, either before or after reading the original, translate a sentence 
or passage as a whole, giving as far as possible the exact meaning of the au- 
thor's words, in the best words of the vernacular, and using only vernacular 
idioms ; a method of peculiar advantage in cultivating accuracy and prompt- 
ness in the use of the vernacular. Loose and paraphrastic translations cannot 
be safely indulged even in advanced scholars. 

Various other exercises, connected with inquiries on the facts and allusions, 
the sentiments, figures, and general scope of the original, and with topics of 
history, chronology, geography, arts, and antiquities, will be suggested to ev- 
ery competent teacher. In all cases it is to be kept in mind, that repeated 

reviewing cannot be too much recommended. 

On the last point and on this whole subject, see Dissertations on the importance and best 
method of studying the Original Languages of the Bible, by Jahn, with notes by M. Stuart. 
Andov. 1821. Also, Observations on the importance of Greek Literature and the best method 
of studying the classics, translated from the Latin of Prof. Wijttcnbach. Boston, 1820. — Cf. 
Prof. A. S. Packard, On the best method of studying the ancient Languages ; in the Lectures 
before the American Institute of Instruction. Boston, 1834. 8. — H. Felton, Dissertation on read- 
ing the Classics. Lond. 1718. 12. 1730. 8. 

Translating from the vernacular into the language, which the student wishes 
to learn, is eminently useful. In the study of Greek this exercise has been 
practiced among us much less than in the study of Latin ; owing chiefly to 
the want of suitable helps to enable the learner to begin it in the outset of his 
course. The student should commence the writing of Greek as soon as he 
enters upon his Chrestomathy or Reading-Book. 

5. How far Reading-Books, comprising mere extracts and selections, should 
be used, has been a subject of inquiry. In this country for many years, until 
recently, the course of study has been chiefly confined to such books in the 
Colleges as well as other schools. Lately, objections have been urged which 
have awakened some prejudice against them. No friend of learning can ob- 
ject to the reading of " whole authors," which has been demanded. But the 
time allowed to Greek, in the present systems of study at our Colleges, is 
not sufficient for reading the whole of more than one or two important authors. 
Yet that the student, who would derive full advantage or pleasure from the 
study, must go beyond his Collectanea or Excerpta, needs not to be stated. In 
what order it is best to read the Greek authors is less obvious. The Odyssey 
of Homer and Anabasis of Xenophon are adapted for an early place in the 
course. 

Cf. Prof. Stowe's Remarks in the Bibl. Repository, vol. n. p. 740.— J. G. Schilling, Leber den 



INTRODUCTION. INSTRUCTION IN GREEK. 151 

Zweck und die Methode beym Lesen derGr. u. Rom. Class. Hamb. & Kiel, 1795, '97. 2. 
Abth. 8.—Fr. Creuier, Das acad. Stud, des Alterthums. Heidelb. 1807. 8.— K. 6. Schelle, 
Welche alte class. Autoren, wie, in vvelcher Folge und Verbindung mit andern Studien soli 
man sie aut'Schulen lesen ? Lpz. H-21. 2 Bde 8. — H. Sidzer, Gedanken iiber d. beste Art d. 
class. Schriftst. zu lesen. Beri. 1765. 8. — Thiersch, Ueber Schulen, &c. 3te Abth. as cited 
above § 2.— Cf. Fuhrmann, as cited P. I. $ 29. 4. 

6. The following extract, from the Calendar of the London University for 1832, may not be 
wholly without interest ; since it gives a view of the method of instruction proposed to be 
followed in that Institution, as presented in outline by the two Professors of the classical de- 
partment. 

" The instruction in the Latin and Greek classes is communicated by daily examination of 
the students in certain portions of a Latin or Greek author (for which they are required to 
prepare at home); by questions on the subject-matter and the words of the author; by re- 
marks on the peculiarities of the language and on important facts ; by reference to books, or 
parts of books ; by the aid of maps, plans, views, models, coins, medals, &c. ,• and fiually, by 
requiring from the students translations from these two languages into English, and from Eng- 
lish into Latin or Greek, with other exercises of various kinds. — There are, in all the classes, 
regular examinations at Christmas, Easter, and the close of the Session, conducted chiefly af- 
ter the Cambridge plan, by written answers to questions privately printed ; by these it is de- 
termined to whom Certificates of Proficiency shall be granted and the prizes awarded." 

Outline of Course in Latin Language and Literature. — " The instruction in this department 
will, from the commencement of the Session 1831-2, be divided into three courses, as follows. 
— The Junior Class will begin with two or three books of Ciesar's Gallic War. A certain por- 
tion of this will be daily translated by the student himself, in the lecture room. But to make 
him accurately acquainted with the language, he will be called upon, both orally in the Lec- 
ture room, and in writing out of it, to translate a number of short sentences from English into 
Latin. All of these will be selected from Cassar's own writings, so as to illustrate the differ- 
ent idioms, as they from time to time occur. Those for immediate translation will, of course, 
be very simple ; while such as are to be translated out of the lecture-room will be of a diffi- 
culty somewhat greater, but still simple. These exercises are already prepared, and will be 
printed before the autumn of the next year. No English-Latin Dictionary will be required by 
the student ; all those words for which he might want to consult such a book will be supplied 
with the exercises. After he has thus overcome the difficulties occurring in narrative, he will 
read Terence's Andria where the idioms peculiar to dialogue will present themselves. These 
also will be fully explained to him, and impressed upon his memory in the same way, viz. by 
easy passages, carefully selected for translation from the other plays of Terence, and those of 
Plautus. — The Manilian Oration will close the Session. — In this class by far the largest share of 
the student's attention will be directed to the idioms and structure of the language. At the 
same time it will not be forgotten, that an acquaintance with certain portions of history, ge- 
ography, and antiquities is necessary to the full understanding of every Latin author. The 
translations from English into Latin will be required four times a week, and once a week a 

written translation from the text of the author. The Seiiior Class will commence with the 

21st and 22d books of Livy, and the 9th book of the iEneid ; they will afterwards read part of 
Cicero's Letters and the Satires or Epistles of Horace. In connection with the two prose writ- 
ers, there will be regular exercises adapted to each author, as in the Junior class ; but they 
will be of a more difficult character. In this class also, a weekly translation from some por- 
tion of the text will be required. In the Higher Class the instruction will be of a different 

character. The Professor will himself translate and explain some portion of a more difficult 
Latin author, or read a lecture connected with the history, antiquities, or language of Rome, 
— Thus in the Session 1831-2, it is proposed, that the subject should be,-lst. A play of Plautus ; 
fragments of Ennius and the earlier writers, with some of the oldest inscriptions ; and a 
Course of Lectures on the etymological structure of the Latin language. — 2d. History of Cice- 
ro's times, illustrated by his Orations and Epistles." 

Outline of Course in Oreeh Language and Literature. — " There are two regular academical 
classes, Junior and Senior, besides a class for more advanced students. In the Junior and 
Senior classes instruction is given daily, except Saturday ; in the Higher class, twice a week, 
< — Junior Class. This class is intended for those young students who enter the University at,,,, 
the earliest period that is recommended ; and also for students of a more advanced age, who 
have learned Greek only a short time, and wish to avail themselves of the more elementary 
kind of instruction. The Anabasis of Xenophon is the text-book, of which small portions are 
read daily, except Saturday. At the commencement of the Session, the etymological structure 
of the language is developed by explaining the particular forms that occur in each lesson, and 
by exhibiting on the black board other examples of the classes to which they belong- Each 
lesson is twice read on successive days, and the more difficult parts are also translated and 
explained by the Professor. Written translations of certain portions are required once a week, 
and they are corrected with reference both to the meaning and the mode of expression. One 
student's exercise is also selected to be read aloud in the lecture-room by the Professor, who 
makes such remarks as he may judge proper, and calls on other students to read aloud parts 
of their exercises, and to explain any thing in them that is imperfect or obscure. When this 
exercise has been corrected, each student is expected to be able to give orally, and with closed 
book, the Greek text corresponding to the English, which the Professor reads out in short por- 
tions, and whenever it is practicable, in distinct propositions. To aid the student still further 
in acquiring the language by written exercises, short English sentences are given him to be 
turned into Greek, the model or example to be imitated being always contained in some part 
that he has read, and to which he is referred. — During the Session the Professor explains the 
geography of Greece, and the Greek islands of the Mediterranean, and gives also such in- 
struction on the geography of Asia as is necessary to understand the narrative of Xenophon. 
Every well ascertained fact of physical or modern political geography that can elucidate an- 
cient geography comes within the plan. These explanations are always followed by examina- 
tion. The student is recommended to use the maps of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge, and is referred to others on a larger scale in the Lecture room and the Library. — 



152 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



The subject matter of the Anabasis is explained to the student, as well as the language ; it 
being the Professor's design to connect, as far as he is able, all kinds of useful information 
With the accurate study of the Greek text. — For the Session 183J-31, the first four books of the 

Anabasis are read. In the Session 1831-32, the last three will be read. The Senior Class. 

This class is intended for those who have passed through the Junior Class, and for others who 
have come prepared to enter it. The general plan for the Junior Class applies to this also, with 
such modifications as the higher acquirements of the pupils may render necessary. In the 
Session 1830-31, the class reads Herodotus, Book iii. ; ths Orestes of Euripides ; and two books 
of the Iliad. In the Session 1831-32, the Senior Class will read Herodotus, Book viii. ; the 

Persae of ^Eschylus ; and two books of the Odyssey. Higher Class. The object of this 

class is to assist those students of more advanced age or acquirements, who are privately pros- 
ecuting their Greek studies. For this purpose the Professor explains some portion of a Greek 
author, by translating the Greek text, making the necessary remarks on the subject matter and 
the words, and by referring the students to books, maps, coins, &c. for further illustration. It 
is his intention to choose for explanation such books as will be most instructive to older pu- 
pils ; Thucydides, the Attic orators, Homer, Aristophanes, &c. During part of each Spring 
Course, Greek inscriptious will be explained to the class, from Backh's Corpus Inscriptionum, 
and from the marbles of the British Museum. 
On the studies of the University of Cambridge in England, cf. NortkAmer. Rev. for Jan. 1837. 

For a notice, by Prof. B. Sears, of the mode of instruction in the celebrated Orphan-house 

Gymnasium at Halle, see the Annals of Education for the year 1834. — There is a late work on 
the state of education in the west of Europe ; Fr. Thiersch, Ueber den gegenw'artigen Zustand 
des oflentlicher Unterrichts in Deutchland, Holland, Frankreich, und Belgium. 1838. 3 Parts. 

It. Here it will be in place to mention some of the numerous and 
various helps which the student in Greek may bring to his aid. 



1. Chrestomathies and Reading Books. There 
are many which are valuable. 

Jo. Math. Ges/ieriChrestomathia Graeca. Lips. 

1731. Several later editions. 

Christ. Fiid. Matthice, Chrestomathia Graeca. 
Mosc.1773. 

Frid. Andr. Stroth, Eclogae, sive Chrestom. 
Graec. Quedl. 1776. 

Jo. Frid. Facius, Griechische Blumenlese. 
Nurnb.1783. 

Jo. Heinr. Martin Ernesti, Erstes Vorberei- 
tungsbuch der griechischen Sprache. Altenb. 
1784. 

F. Gedike's griechische Lesebuch. (edited by 
Buttmann) Berlin, 1821. 8. 

J. C. F. Heinzellmann' 's griech. Lesebuch. 
Halle,1316. 8. 

F. Jacobs, Elementarbuch der Griech. Sprach. 
Jena, 1824. 4. Th. 8. This has been a very 
common text-book in Germany. It consists of 
four parts or Courses. The first is designed for 
beginners, and is the part published in this 
country under the title of The Greek Reader. 
The second part, styled Attika, consists of ex- 
tracts illustrating the history of Athens, from 
the historians and orators. The third, styled 
Socrates, is composed of philosophical extracts. 
The fourth is styled Poetische Blumenlese, and 
consists of poetical pieces. The Boston Stere- 
otype Edition of the Reader contains some of 
the extracts of the second and of the fourth parts 
of the original work : this is the best American 
edition, entitled The Greek Reader by Frederic 
Jacobs, Professor of the Gymnasium at Gotha, 
&c. 4th American from the 9th German edit. ; 
adapted to the Grammars of Buttmann & Fisk. 

A. Dahel, Aru/.sy.ru r E/./.tjity.u ~Haaovu, 
sive Collectanea Graeca Minora ad usum Tiro- 
numaccommodata. 2d edit. Edinb. 1791. Sev- 
eral editions have been published in this coun- 
try. It was the common text-book for begin- 
ners until the publication of the Greek Reader, 
and is still used in some of the schools. The 
following is considered as the best edition : 
Collectanea Grceca Minora, with explanatory 
notes collected or written by A. Daliel, Prof, 
of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. 
Sixth Cambridge edit on : in which the Notes 
and Lexicon are translated into English. 

Wyttenbach^'Ey.s.oyai c Iotuuixui ; or Se- 
lecta Principum Historicorum. 2d ed. Amst.1808. 
It has been pronounced an admirable selection. 

A. Dahel, Aru?.sxra c E?.?.r t riy.a iUsttoiu, 
eive Collectanea Graeca Majora, ad usum Acad- 



emicae Juventius &c. 1st edit. Edinb. 1789. 97. 
2 vols. 8. Many editions have been published ; 
as e. g. the 8th "edit, of 1st vol. and 4th edit, of 
2d vol. under the care of G. Dunbar, Edinb. 
1816,17; and the 1st Lond. edit, under the care 
of C. J. Bloomfield, Lond. 1821; and the 3d edit, 
in 1830 ; and several American editions ; par- 
ticularly under the care of J. S. Popkin, Camb. 
1824 ; the notes of Prof. Popkin, very briefly 
and modestly expressed, are very valuable, 
and this edition is considered as altogether the 
best extant. — A third volume was added by 
Prof.Dunbar, Edinb. 1819, comprising a greater 
quantity of Greek than the first or second ; it 
has not been re -published in this country. — 
The Graca Majora has been until recently, for 
many years, the principal text-book in our 
colleges. Cf. $ 6. 5. — A few editions of par- 
ticular authors have been published in our 
country, designed for the use of schools and 
colleges ; e. g. Robinson's Portion of Homer ; 
Felton's Iliad" of Homer ; Woolseifs Alcestis of 
Euripides, and other tragedies ; Stuart's CEdi- 
pus Tyrannus of Sophocles ; Cleveland's Ana- 
basis of Xenophon. — Publications of this class 
are now increasing in England; as among 
them may be mentioned the Valpy Greek Clas- 
sics, and the editions of Prof. Lmg. — Highly 
commended is the following collection : Fr.. 
Jacobs & V. C. F. Rost, Bibl iot h eca 
Grae ca, viror. doct. recognita et commentari- 
is in usum Scholarum instructa. Gothae, (com- 
menced) 1826. 8. It was to comprise 18 vols, 
for prose writers and 20 vols, for poets ; is not 
yet completed. 

2. Grammars. It would be almost endless to 
name all the meritorious. The following are 
among the noted. 

Jacobi Weilcri, Grammatical Graeca. (edit. 
Fischer.) Lips. 1781. 8. 

J.F.Fischeri Animadversiones, quibus J. Wel^ 
leri Gram. Graeca emendate &c. (ed. Kuinoel) 
Lips. 1798— 1801. 3 vols.. 8.. 

Trendelenburg's AnfangsgriVnde der griech.. 
Sprache. Leipz. 1805^8».~ 
Buttmann' s griech. Schul-grammatik. Berl.. 
1824. 1831. — Same, trans!, bv Edward Everett. 
Bost. 1822. Abridged (G. Bancroft). 
Buttmann' s Ausfuhrliche griech. Sprachlehre. 
Berl. 1819. 1827. 2 vols. 8. The want of the 
syntax in this work is supplied by G. Bern- 
hardy's large volume on Greek Syntax, pub- 
lished 1829' (8vo. with the title, Wissenschaft- 
liche Syntax der Griechischen Sprache), ana, 
much commended by Tholuckv 



INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THE STUDY OF GREEK. 



153 



A. Matthice, Ausfiihrliche gr. Grammatik. 
Leipz. 1807. 8. 2d edit. 1827. — Same, transl. by 
Ed. V. Bloomfield (ed. J. Kenrick). Lond. 1832. 
A 3d edit, was nearly prepared before the death 
of Matthia? ; since published. 
Fr. Thiersch, Grammatik des gemeinen und 
Homerischen Dialekts. Lpz.1819. 8. 3ded.l836. 
V. Ch. Fr. Rost, griech. Grammatik. 3d edit. 
Gotting. 1826. Rost's Greek grammar, trans- 
lated from the German. Lond. 1827. 8. A 5th 
edit, of the original, 1836. 
Kukner has published a School Grammar ; 
called the best by Tholuck. 
We add the following : Bell's Compendious 

Grammar. Tones's Philosophical Grammar. 

Cf. Class. Journ. xu. 23. — The Port Royal 
Greek Grammar ; A new method &c. Transl. 
from the French of the Messrs. de Port Royal 
by T. Nugent, (latest ed.) Lond.1817.— Smith's 
Greek Grammar. Bost. 1809. 

The following are the Grammars more com- 
monly used in our schools : the Gloucester ; 
Moore's ,- Valpy's ; Hachenberg's, or rather 
Goodrich's ; Buttmann's by Everett ; Fish's, 
and Anthon's. — It may be remarked that one 
chief difference between these Grammars re- 
spects the plan of classing the nouns and verbs ; 
some reducing the declensions to three, and the 
conjugations to three or two ; others retaining 
the larger numbers of the old systems. Some 
excellent thoughts on this subject are found in 
a pamphlet styled Remarks on Greek Grammars. 
(printed, not published. Bost. 1825.) — A brief 
history of Greek grammars may be found also 
in J. C. Bloomfield's Preface to the Translation 
of Matthias above cited. To the more ad- 
vanced student, Buttmann's Larger Greek 
Grammar, translated by Edward Robinson (An- 
doverl833.), will be most satisfactory. — For 
the theological student we mention in addition, 
G. B. Winer's Grammar of the New Testament, 
transl. by Stuart and Robinson. Andover, 1825. 
A 3d ed. of Winer, Lpz.1830. 8. much improved 
and highly valued ; a 4th edit. Lpz. 1836. — A 
Grammar of the N. Testament by Prof. Stuart. 
Ando.1834. — In speakingcf grammatical helps, 
it is proper to refer to the treatises of the Greek 
refugees, as those learned men have sometimes 
been termed, who on the capture of Constanti- 
nople by the Turks fled into Italy. These trea- 
tises were published by Aldus. (See Hodius and 
Bmrnerus, as cited P. I. §85. 1.) — Concerning 
the Aldine Collection of their grammatical trea- 
tises, cf. § 133 below. — The ancient gramma- 
rians may also be mentioned ; as the writers 
just named doubtless drew from these sources. 
See notice of the Grammarians on a subsequent 
page ; §129 ss. — The Scholiasts likewise may 
be named, or those who wrote Greek commen- 
taries on ancient authors. These, whatever 
there may be in their comments that is puerile, 
dull, or false, nevertheless furnish some valu- 
able assistance. Among the most important 
works of the kind, are the commentaries of til- 
pian on Demosthenes, and Eustathius on Ho- 
mer. — On the value of the scholiasts, see Chla- 
denius, as cited below, § 133. 
3. Lexicons. A number are now offered to the 
choice of the student. 

Hearici Stephani Thesaurus Graec. Ling. Ge- 
nev. 1572. 4 vols. fol. This is the most exten- 
sive. A Supplement was published by Daniel 
Scott : Appendix ad Stephani Thesaurum. 
Lond. 1745. 2 vols. fol. An improved edition 
of the Thesaurus was commenced, Lond. 1815 ; 
completed, 1825. (Valpy ed.) Cf. Lond. Quart. 
Rev. No. xliv. — A third edition was begun, 
Par. 1831, superintended by M. Hase, see Lond. 
Quart. Reo. No. ci. ; Bibl. Repos. No. xv. 7 he 
work i? in progress (under Hase and the two 
Dindorfi), 12 or 14 Nos. having been issued ; 
''it is an improvement upon the Engl, edition, 



and embodies nearly all the Greek learning of 
the age." 
Joan. Scapula, Lexicon Graeco-Latinum, &c. 
Basil, 1579. fol. Oth. ed. Bazil, 1665 ; Lugden, 
1663 ; Glasg. 1816. 2 vols. 4. Still ranked next 
to Stephanus. The principal words are ar- 
ranged alphabetically, and under them are the 
derivatives and compound words : there is be- 
sides a complete alphabetical index. 
Hedericus, Gragcum Lex. Manuale, cura J. A. 
Ernesti. Lips. 1796 ; Edinb. 1827. 8. 
Jo. Dan. a Lennep, Etymologicum Ling. Graec. 
(Ed. Scheid.) Traject. ad Rhen. 1790. 2 vols. 8. 
J. G. Schneider's griechisch-deutsches WSr- 
terbuch. Lpz. 1819. Supplement, 1821. 
F. Passow, Handworterbuch der Griechisch. 
Sprache. Lpz. 1831. 2 vols. 8. This fyh was 
the last ed. by Passow. His plan was in each 
successive edition to make the Lexicon com- 
plete for the interpretation of some additional 
author or authors until it should become a full 
Thesaurus of the Greek language. The work 
has been committed to Rost, who is expected 
to carry out the plan. — Rost has published a 
School Lexicon, said to be very good in the de- 
velopment and arrangement of significations. 
John Jones, The Tyro's Greek and English 
Lexicon. 2d ed. Lond. 1825. 

Cornelii Schrevelii Lexicon Graeco-Latinum. 
13th ed. Lond. 1781.— Translation of Schreve- 
lius's Greek Lexicon into English, for the use 
of Schools. Lond. 1826. 8.— The Greek Lexi- 
con of Schrevelius, translated into English, 
with many additions, by John Pickering and 
Daniel Oliver. Boston, 1826. 
J. Groves, A Greek and English Dictionary, 
&c. Lond. 1826. 8. 

James Donnegan, A new Greek and English 
Lexicon. 2d ed. Lond. 1831. Revised and en- 
larged by R. B. Patton. Boston, 1832. 8. 

W. Pape, Etymologisches Wbrterbuch der 
Griech. Sprache, &c. Bed. 1835. 8. 

E. Robinson, Lexicon of the New Testament. 
Boston, 1836. 8. This is indispensable to the 
critical study of the New Testament. 
There are Lexicons illustrating particular au- 
thors ; they will be mentioned in speaking of 
the authors. — Respecting the various Lexicons 
and Glossaries composed by ancient authors ; 
see the notice of Grammarians below, $ 129- 
147. 

4. There are various subjects on which the 

student may desire more full investigations 

than can be given in a Grammar or Lexicon. 

(«) Idioms and Synonyms. 

Gul. Budwi Commentarii Ling. Graec. Par. 

1548. (4th ed.) Basil, 1556. fol. 

Franc. Vigerus, de praecipuis graec. diet, id- 
iotismis. Cum animadversionibus Hoogeveeni, 
Zeunii,et Hermanni. (impr. ed.) Lips. 1822. 8. 
The work of Vigerus is compiled from that of 
Budasus. — New ed. by Hermann, 1834. 
J. Seaq-er, Viger's Greek Idioms abridged and 
translated into Enelish, with original notes. 
Lond. 1828. 8. 

Lockhart's Idioms of the Greek Language, 
accurately arranged and translated. 12. 
Nelson's Greek Idioms. 8. 
Mart. Rylandus, Synonymia Latino-Graaca. 
(opera Hacseh.elii.) Gen. 1646. 12. The Latin 
terms and phrases are arranged alphabetically, 
and under them the corresponding Greek. 
A. Pillon, Traite des Synonymes et Homo- 
nymes Grecs. Traduit du Grec d'Ammonius. 
Par. 1824. 8. Cf. § 141. 
(b) Ellipsis and Pleonasm. 
Lamb. Bos, Ellipses Graecas, etc. Norimberg, 
1763 ; Lpz. 1808 ; Glasg. 1813. 8. 
J. Seagcr, The Gr. Ellipses of Bos, abridged 
and translated into English. Lond. 1830. 8. 
Furgault, Les idiotismes de la langue grecque 
avec = les ellipses, &c. Par. 1784. 8. 



154 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



Bj. Weiske, Pleonasmi Graeci. Lpz. 1807. 8. 

G. Hermann, Dissert, de Ellip. et Pleon. in 
Graeca Lingua, in the Museum Antiquitatis Stu- 
diorum, (vol. i.) Berl. 1808. 8. 

We will mention here, Raster on the Middle 
Voice. Cf. Class. Jour. xv. 304 ; xvm. 157. 

(c) Derivation and Composition. 

L. C. Valknmri, Observationes academ. qui- 
bus via munitur ad origines grsec. investigan- 
das. (Ed. Seheid.) Traject. ad. Rhen. 1790. 

Jo. Dan. a Lennep, de Analogia linguas Gra- 
ces. (Ed. Schtid.) Traject. ad Rhen. 1790. 

Jo. Christ. Struchtmeyeri, Rudimenta Ling. 
Graec. (Ed. Seheid.) Zuthphen. 1797. 
, T. Nugent, The Primitives of the Gr. tongue, 
with Ihs most considerable Derivatives and a 
collection of English words derived from the 
Greek. Lond. 1801. 8. 

J. JV. Gibb?, Table of Greek Correlatives ; in 
Silfanan's Amer. Journal of Science, &c. vol. 
xxxiv. p. 337. 

(d) Particles. 

Devarius, Graecae Linguae particulis. (Ed. 
J. Gottf. Reusmann.) Lpz. 1785. 8. 

R. Klotz, Devarii Liber de Graec. L. Particu- 
lis. Lpz. 1835. 8. This vol. contains an ex- 
act reprint of Devarius. A second volume is 
promised ; to contain notes expected to prove 
highly valuable. 

J. A. Hartung, Lehre von den Partikeln der 
Griech. Sprache. Erlang. 1833. 2 vols. 8. Said 
by Tholuck to be the best work on the subject. 

Prof. Stuart, on the use of iva, Bibl. Repos. 
and Quart. Observ. No. xvn. Jan. 1835. 

Hem. Hoogeveen, Doctrina particularum ling, 
graec. Delphis. 1769. 2 vols. 4. There is an 
abridgment by Schuett. Lpz. 1806 ; Glasg. 1813. 

J. Seager, Hoogeveen on the Greek Parti- 
cles, abridged and translated into English. 
Lond. 1830. 8. 

(e) Preposition and Article. 

C. F. Hachenberg, De signification praeposi- 
tionum graec. in compositis. Ultraj. 1771. 8. 

Moor & Tate, on the Prepositions. Cf. Class. 
Jour. i. 896; in. 24, 470. 

Middleton's Doctrine of the Greek Article ap- 
plied to the criticism of the Greek Testament. 
Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. u. 187. 

Granville Sharpe, Remarks on the uses of the 
definite article in the Greek of the New Tes- 
tament. (Amer. ed.) Philad. 1807. 

Prof. Stuart, in Bibl. Reposit. No. xiv. April, 
1834. 

(/) Dialects. 

Mattairc's Greek Dialects abridged and trans- 
lated by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1831. 8. 

C. L. Struve, Gluasstionum de dialecto Herod- 
oti Specimen. Konigsb. 1829. 4. 

JEmilii Porti, Lexicon lonicum. Francof. 
1603. — By same, Lexicon Doricum. Francof. 
1603.— See § 4 and § 146. 
{g) Accents. 

K. Gattling, Lehre von den griech. Accent- 
en. Rudolst. 1820. 8. English Translation. 
Lond. 1830. 8. 

M. Stuart, Practical Rules for Greek Accents 
and Quantity. Andover, 1826. — See § 5, and 
P. I. § 51. 

{h) Prosody, Metre, and Quantity. 

T. Morell, Lexic. Graeco-Prosodiacum. (Ed. 
Edv. Maltby.) Cantab. 1815. 

./. B. Seale, Analysis of Greek Metres. Camb. 
1804. 

Benj. Heath, Notae sive Lectiones ad Tragic. 
Graec. &c. Oxon. 1762. 

A. Apcl's Metrik. Lpz. 1814. 

Godof. Hermanni, De metris poet, graec. et 
j;om. Lips. 1796. 

G. Hermann, Elementa doctrinae metricae. 
Lips. 1816 ; Glasg. 1817. 
J» Seager, Hermann's Elements of the 



Doctrine of Metres, abridged and translated 
into English. Lond. 1830. 8. 

Tate's Introduction to the principal Greek 
Tragic and Comic Metres. 

Dunbar's Prosodia Graeca, or Exposition of 
the Greek Metres. 8. 

Maccaul's Metres of the Greek Tragedians 
explained. 8. 

./. Brasse, Greek Gradus ; or Greek, Latin, 
and English Prosodial Lexicon. Lond. 1830. 8. 

Ed. Maltby, D. D., A new and complete Gr. 
Gradus, &c. Lond. 1830. 8. 

Graffe's Prosodiacal Lexicon of the Greek 
Language, collected from the Heroic Poets. 12. 

C. Anthon, System of Greek Prosody and 
Metre. N. York, 1838. 

5. In writing Greek, the beginner needs the 
help of some Book of Exercises. The follow- 
ing may be named. 

Hunting ford's Greek Exercises. — Neilson's. — 

Valvy's, by Cairns. N. York, 1831 Dunbar's. 

— Fisk's. John Kenrick, An Introduction to 

Greek Prose Composition, from the German of 
V. C F. Rost &c E. F. Wuestemann. 

6. In order to a thorough and successful pur- 
suit of classical literature, it is indispensable 
to attend considerably to the subjects of An- 
tiquities, Mythology, and Archaeology in gen- 
eral. On topics pertaining to the Archaeology 
of Literature and Art, we refer to the sections 
in Part First of this Manual ; on other topics 
of Antiquities and Mythology, to the sections 
of Parts Third and Fourth. 

7. An important class of helps is composed of 
such a« illustrate the subjects of Chronology, 
Geography, History, and Biography. 

(a) Classical Dictionaries. This phrase de- 
signates works which include more or less 
fully all the subjects just named ; with an al- 
phabetical arrangement. 

Dictionnaire (de Sabbathier de Chalons) pour 
l'intelligence des auteurs classiques grecs et 
latins, tant sacres que profanes, contenant la 
Geographie, l'Histoire, la Fable et les Antiqui- 
tes. Par. 1766-90. 37 vols. 

L'Abbe Sabatier de Castres, Siecles Payens. 
Par. 1784. 8 vols. 

Furgault, Dictionnaire Geographique, Histor- 
ique, et Mythologique. Par. 1776. 

Dictionnaire Historique. Lyon. 1804. 13 
vols. 12. 

Math. Christophe, Diet, pour servir a l'intelli- 
gence des Auteurs Classiques, &c. Par. 1805. 
2 vols. 8. 

Bouillet, Dictionnaire Classique. Par. 1832. 
2 vols. 8. 

Lempriere's Classical Dictionary. (1st ed.) 
Oxf. 1688. Many more recent editions. The 
best, by C. Anthon. N. York, 1833. 2 vols. 8. 

A. Pauly, Real Encyclop'Adie der classischen 
Alterthumswissenschaft. Commenced, Stuttg. 
1838. 8. issued in Numbers. 

(b) Geography. The Epitome of Classical 
Geography given 'in this Manual (P. V.), being 
studied with Butler's Atlas, will be found suf- 
ficient for all elementary purposes. 

Christ. Cellarii Notitia Orbis Antiqua. Lips. 
1701-06. 2 vols. 4. Also 1771, 1773. 

R. Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und 
Rbmer. Ndrnb. 1787 sqq. 10 vols. 8. 

F. Aug. Ukert, Geographie der Griech. und 
Rom. von der friihesten Zeiten bis auf Ptole- 
maeus. Weimar, 1816. With maps. " The 
best classical geographer." 

Cramer, Geographical and Historical Descrip- 
tion of Anc. Greece. Lond. 1828. 3 vols. 8. 

Kruse, Hellas. Lpz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. "Good." 

J. Rennell, The Geographical System of He- 
rodotus explained, &c. (2d ed.) Lond. 1836. 
2 vols. 8. 

D'Anville's Ancient Geography. 2 vols. 8. 



INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THE STUDY OF GREEK. 



155 



There are many smaller works, as Mayo's 
Epitome of Ancient Geography ; Pye's Dic- 
tionary of Ancient Geography ; Laurent's In- 
troduction ; Long's, &c. 

S. Butler, Geographia Classica, with an At- 
las. Phil. 1831. 

The works of modern travelers will be use- 
ful. Dodwell's Classical and Topographical 
Tour through Greece. Loud. 1819. 2 vols. 4.— 
De Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage Pittoresque de la 
Grece. Par. 1782. With valuable plates. Cf. 
P. V. $ 116. 

On the history of Geography, cf. P. I. § 27. 

Some Atlas the student should have constant- 
ly at hand. 

D'Anville's Atlas Orbis Antiqui. 12 sheets fol. 

Wilkinson's Atlas Classica. 

Oxford Atlas of Ancient Geography, contain- 
ing nearly 100 Maps, Plans, &c. 4. 

The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and 
Modern Geography upon a new plan, giving 
two distinct Maps, one ancient and the other 
modern, of the same country. 50 plates. 4. 

Bean's Classical Atlas, remodeled from the 
ancient Maps of Cellarius. 

(c) Chronology. An Introduction to Classi- 
cal Chronology is given in this Manual, P. V. 

J. C. Gatterer, Abriss der. Chronologie. Gott. 
1777. 

D. H. Hegewisch, Einleitung in die histor- 
ische Chronologie. Hamb. 1811. Translated 
into English, by J. Marsh. Burlingt. 1837. 12. 

Hale's Analysis of Chronology and Geogra- 
phy, History and Prophecy. Lond. 1830. 4 
vols. 8. 

T. Plaijfair, System of Chronology. Edinb. 
1784. fol. 

J. Blair, Chronology, Sec. from the Creation 
to the year 1802. Lond. 1803. fol. 57 tables ; 
with 14 maps. 

Lavoisne's Atlas Genealogical, &c. 

J. Picot, Tablettes Chronologiques de l'His- 
toire Universelle. Geneva. 1808. 3 vols. 8. 

Buret de Longchamps, Les Fastes Universels, 
ou Tableaux Historiques, Chronologiques, &c. 
Par. 1821. 

Ludw. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen 
und technischen Chronologie. Aus den Q,uel- 
len bearbeitet. Bed. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Highly 
commended. 

Pricstleij's System of Biography. Phil. 1803. 
8. with a chart. Not without value. 

Goodrich's Blair's Outlines of Chronology is 
a useful compend. 

(d) History and Biography. 

Chaudon et Delandine, Dictionnaire Histor- 
ique. 20 vols. 

Adam's Classical Biography. 

Mitford's History of Greece. Boston, 1823. 
8 vols. 8. 

Gillie's History of Ancient Greece. 4 vols. 8. 

Mueller's History and Antiquites of the Do- 
ric Race. Translated from the German by 
Tvffnell & Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

C Thirlwall, History of Greece, in Lardner's 
Cabinet Cyclopaedia. 

Schlosser's Weltgeschichte. Lpz. 1817-24. 5 
vols. 8. 

P. A. de Golberg, Histoire Universelle de 
l'Antiquite. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. Translat- 
ed from the German of F. C. Schlosser. Cf. 
Westminster Rev. Jan. 1834. 

Cf. P. IV. $ 8, 9. 

8. Benefit as well as pleasure may be deriv- 
ed from works giving philosophical refiec 
tions, or elegant and popular views, on subjects 
embraced in classical study. We put here the 
following. 

F. Heeren's Reflections on the Politics of 
Ancient Greece. By G. Bancroft. 1824. 8. 



jF. Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Lit- 
erature. Phil. 1818. 2 vols. 8. 

A. W. Schlegel's Lectures on Dramatic Liter- 
ature. By J. Black, Lond. 1815. 2 vols. 8. 

Campbell's Letters on the Greek Historians, 
We may name here also, 

JV*. F. Moore, Lectures on Greek Literature. 
New York, 1835. 8. 

9. Among the very important aids in this 
study, are those which may be called Histories 
of Greek Literature, or Introductions to the 
History of Greek Literature, giving compre- 
hensive notices of the Greek authors, their 
different works, and the various editions,, 
translations, commentaries, &c. The design 
cf the sketch of Greek Literature given in the 
present work, is to furnish the scholar With a 
help of this kind. But he will wish to be re- 
ferred to others. 

J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca Graeca. Hamb. 
1790-1809. (Ed. by Thcoph. Christ. Harles.) 12' 
vols. 4to. The most complete, although very 
deficient in method. 

Theoph. Ch. Harles, Introductio in historian! 
Linguae Gnucae.Altenb. 1792-95. with Supplem, 
Jen. 1804-1806. 5 vols. 8. 

By the. same, Notitia brevior literatures grasc. 
Lips. 1812. 8. 

Jo. Ernest, human. Walch, Introductio in 
linguam Grascam. Jen. 1772. 

M. D. Fuhrmann, Handbuch der klassischen 
Literatur. Rudolst. 1804-1810. 4 vols. 8. 

By the same, Kleineres Handbuch, &c. Ru- 
dolst. 1823. 8. 

T. A. Riencecker, Handbuch der Geschichte 
der Griech. Lit. Berl. 1802. 

God. Em. Groddek, Historiae Graecorum lit- 
erariae Elementa. Viln. 1811. A new ed. 
commenced, 1821. 

G. C. F. Mohnike, Geschichte der Literatur 
der Griechen und Romer. Greifsw. 1813. 8. 
Considered an excellent abridgement. 

L. Schaaff, Encyklop'Adie der klassischen Al- 
terthumskunde. Magd. 1820. 2 Th. 8.— a 3d ed. 
in 1826— a 4th in 1837. 

F. Passow, Grudziige der Griech. und Rom. 
Literaturgeschichte. Berl. 1816.4.— 2d ed. 1829. 

L. fVachler, Handbuch der Gesch. der altera? 
Literatur. Frankf. 1822. 8. 

G. Bernhardi, Grundriss der Griech. Literatur, 
mit einem vergleichende Ueberblick der Ro- 
mischen. Halle. 1836. 8. pp. 530. 

J. C» O. Schincke, Handbuch der Geschichte 
der Griech. Literatur fur Schul-unterricht.1837, 

F. Schacll, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, 
&c. (2d ed.) Paris, 1823. 8 vols. 8. Prof; 
Anthon has made much use of it in his last 
edition of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary 
(1833), which the student may consult on the 
Greek and Latin authors with great advantage, 
There is a German translation : F. J. Schwarze 
&. Mor.Pinder,Geschichte der Griech. Literatur 
von F. Sch'dll, — mit Berichtungen und Zusaet- 
zen &.c. Berl. 1828—31. 3 vols. 8. This is 
much more valuable than the original, being 
made under the supervision of Schcell, at Ber- 
lin, and containing additions by himself and 
the translators. It is the most satisfactory work 
of the kind. 

Biographica Classica, or the Lives and Charac- 
ters of all the Classic Authors. Lond. 1740. 1759. 
»8. — Edio. Manwaring, Historical and Critical 
Account of the most eminent classic authors in 
Poetry and History. Lond. 1837. 8. 

10. Works purely bibliographical, treating of 
translations and editions, are also useful. 

Degen, Literatur der deutsch.Uebersetzungen 
der Griechen. Altenb.l797.2vol3. 8. Supplem, 
Erlang.1801.— F. A. Ebert, Allgemeines biblio- 
graphisches Lexicon. Lpz. 1821.— Brueggemann 3 



156 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



View of the English editions, translations, and 
illustrations of the ancient Greek and Latin 
authors with remarks. Stett.1797. 8. Supplem. 
1801. 8. — Renouard, Catalogue delaBibliothe- 
que d'un Amateur. Par. 1819. 4 vols. 8.— C. F. 
Debute, Bibliographie Instructive, ou Traite de 
la connoissance des livres, &c. Par. 1763 — 82. 

10 vols. 8 Brunet, Manuel du Libraire et de 

1' Amateur de Livres. Par. 1820. 4 vols. 8. — 
GUV.f??-e/im,Bibliograph. Handbuch der Griech. 
und Rom. Literatur. Leipz. 1800. 2 vols. 8. — 
The Bibliographical Dictionary. Lond. 1802 — 4. 
6 vols. 12. with Supplement. 1806. 2 vols. 12. 



du choix des livres. Dijon. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — 
J. W. Moss, Manual of Classical Bibliography. 
Lond. 1827. 2 vols. &.—Dibdin>s Introduction to 
the knowledge of rare and valuable editions of 
the Greek and Latin Classics. (4th ed.) Lond. 
1827. 2 vols. 8.—F. W. Hoffmann's Bibliograph- 
isches Lexicon der Lit. der Griech. und d. Rom. 
Lpz. 1830. 8. By the same, Handbuch zur Bu- 
cherkunde fiir Lehre und Studium der beiden 
alten Classichen und Deutsche Sprache. Lpz. 
1838. — T. L. A, Schweiger, Handbuch der 
Classischen Bibliographie. Lpz. 1832. 3 vols. 8. 
very valuable.— Van Tract, Catalogue des livres 



G. Peignot, Manuel du Bibliophile, ou traite imprimes sur Velin. Par. 1824. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 8. We shall now proceed to the history of Greek literature. 
The method pursued will be, to treat of the principal authors, classing 
them under the departments in which they were chiefly eminent, and 
ranging them in chronological order. Before noticing the authors, 
in any department individually, a general view of the character and 
progress of that department will be given. In order to secure greater 
distinctness of conception, the whole extent of time included will first 
be divided into a few periods, which will be regarded in the general 
view of each department. 

It will be most convenient to adopt the division of Schb'll, in his History of Greek Literature, 
which has been already repeatedly quoted, and is the principal source from which the transla- 
tor has drawn in the additions made to Eschenburg in this part of the work. 

§ 9. The history of Greek literature embraces more than twenty-seven hun- 
dred years. In this long space of time many changes must have occurred in 
the circumstances of the people which affected the character of their literature. 
The more obvious and remarkable of these changes may be selected to aid us in 
dividing the history into several periods. Some division of this kind is neces- 
sary to avoid confusion. Six periods may thus be readily distinguished. 

The first is the period preceding and terminating with the capture of Troy, 
B.C. 1184. The proper history of Greece does not extend further back than to 
this event, so much is every thing previous darkened by the fictions of my- 
thology. 

The second period extends from the capture of Troy to the establishment of 
the Athenian Constitution by Solon, B.C. about 600. In this, Greek literature 
may be said to have had its rise, commencing in poetry ; although there are a 
few names of poets assigned to the previous ages. Prose composition does not 
belong to the period. 

The third period is from the time of Solon to that of Alexander, B. C. 336. 
During this period Grecian literature reached its highest perfection. But the 
liberty of Greece expired at the battle of Chaeronea, and from that time her 
literature declined. 

The fourth period, beginning with the subjection of Greece to the Macedo- 
nians, ends with her subjection to the Romans, by the capture of Corinth, 
B C. 146. In this period genius and fancy ceased to be the peculiarity of the 
literature, and gave place to erudition and science. 

The fifth period reaches from the fall of Corinth to the establishment of Con- 
stantinople as the seat of the Roman government, A. D. 325. During this pe- 
riod, Greece was but a comparatively unimportant province of a vast empire. 
Her literature also was thrown wholly into the shade by the lustre of the Ro- 
man, which enjoyed now its greatest brilliancy. 

The sixth period terminates with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 
A. D. 1453. The Greek language was still in quite extensive and honorable 
use, but neither the people nor their literature ever rose from their depression. 
After a succession of adverse events, Greek letters were at length driven from 
their last refuge in the east to a few seats of learning in Italy. 

These periods may be designated by characteristic names : the Fabulous, 
the Poetic, the Athenian, the Alexandrian, the Roman, and the Byzantine. 

§10. In noticing the most important authors and prominent circumstances 
in the literary history presented in this vast field, the following order will be 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 157 

adopted. The Poets will take the first place ; next we put the Orators; then 
successively, the Sophists and Rhetoricians, the Grammarians, the Writers of 
Epistles and Romances, the Philosophers, the Mathematicians and Geographers, 
the writers styled Mythographcrs, the Historians, and finally the Authors on 
Medicine and Natural History. A glance at the writings of the early Christians 
in the Greek language will be subjoined. 



/. — Poetry and Poets. 

§llw. Among the Greeks poetry appeared much earlier than prose ; indeed, 
the literature of all ancient nations commenced with poetical composition. 
Moral and religious maxims, principles of social and political action, physical 
phenomena, wonderful events, and the praise of eminent men, formed the 
chief subjects of the earlier Greek poetry. Probably addresses to the Deity, 
practical rules of conduct, proverbial sentiments and oracles, were first clothed 
in verse. This was not originally committed to writing, but sung by the poets 
themselves, who often wandered as minstrels from place to place, and by liv- 
ing rehearsals extended the knowledge and influence of their own verse and 
that of others. It was not until eminent poets had sung, that the rules of po- 
etry, in its several branches, could be formed ; as they are necessarily drawn 
from observation and experience. 

§ 12. The Greeks received much of* their civilization from Egypt and Phoe- 
nicia (cf. P. I. § 33, 40) ; something perhaps was derived from India; but it 
was in Thrace that the Greek muses first appeared. Here, in Thrace, the 
traditions of the most remote antiquity centre and lose themselves, ascribing 
to this country the origin of religion, of the mysteries, and of sacred poetry. 
The mountains of Thessaly and the vicinity, Olympus, Helicon, Parnassus 
and Pindus, became the sanctuaries of this poetry. Here the lyre and harp 
were invented. In Thessaly and Boeotia, provinces in later times destitute 
of men of genius and letters, there was scarcely a fountain, river, or forest, not 
invested with some interesting association. In a word, the poetry with which 
the civilization and literature of Greece commenced, came from the northern 
portions of the land. Tradition has preserved the names of several poets, 
who lived, or originated, in those regions as early as about 1250 or 1300 years 
before Christ. Among these were Linus, Eumolpus, Melampus, and Tha- 
myris. 

North Jlmer. .Rev. vol. xxi. — BecWs Allg. Welt und Vcelker Geschichte. I. 319. — Heyne, de 
Musarum religione ejusque orig. et caus. (in the Comment. Soc. O'dtt. vm.) 

§ 13. The first Poets of Greece were at the same time musicians. Music 
and poetry were at first always united, or it may perhaps be more correctly 
said, that music, song, and dance together constituted poetry, among the 
Greeks. It is not easy to form an idea of their various melodies, but they 
must have been of a simple kind, and each sort of music seems to have had 
a particular sort of poetry attached to it. Music purely instrumental the ear- 
ly Greeks appear to have valued very little. The constituent branches of 
poetry, just mentioned, were important parts of education. The dance was 
soon separated, and became a distinct object of attention, which at length re- 
sulted in the practice of the various exercises comprehended under the broad 
name of the Gymnastic art. At length song also began to be distinguished 
from music, and poetry assumed shapes and forms less adapted for instrumen- 
tal accompaniment. 

On the origin and progress of Greek poetry, see Sckeell, vol. i. ch. ii. — Suher's Allg. Theorie 
der schonen Kunste, art. Dichtkunst and the references. — Dr. Brown, Dissertation on the rise, 
union and power, the progressions, separations and corruptions of Poetry and Music. Lond. 
1763. 4.—C.E.L.Hirschfeld, Plan der Gesch. der Poesie, Bereds. IVius. Malil. fee. unter d. Griech. 
Kiel, 1770. 8.— Creuzer\s histor. Kunst. d. Griechen.— F. ScMegeVs Hist, of Lit. Lect. l. — lle 
ren's Reflections, &c. ch. xv. — O. J. Vossius, de Vet. Poet. Graec. et Lat. temporibus. Amst. 
1654. 4. — Fr. Jacobs, (brief history cf Gk. Poetry,) in the Charakt. d. vornehmst. Dichter. vol. i. 
as cited § 47. — Hartmann, Versuch einer allg. Geschichte d. Dichtkunst. Lpz. 1797. — Fr.Schle- 
gel, Gesch. d. Poesie d. Griech. und Romer. Berl. 1798. 

14 



158 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

§ 14. Poetry and music were, from the earliest periods, favorite pursuits OT 
amusements of the Greeks; and their poetry assumed, in the course of its his- 
tory, almost every possible form. 

The first poetry was adapted to some instrumental accompaniment, and 
might be therefore properly enough included under the term lyrical used in a- 
general sense. But as it consisted chiefly of hymns to the gods, or songs re- 
ferring more or less to religious subjects, it may more properly be considered 
as a distinct variety under the name of sacred. 

Three of the most important forms of Grecian poetry were the lyric, the epic? 
and the dramatic, in each of which there were authors of the highest celebrity. 

Other kinds, which are well worthy of notice, were the elegiac, the bucolic^ 
and the didactic. The epigram and the scoiion were distinct and peculiar forms. 
There were other varieties or names, which may be explained in connection 
with those already mentioned or separately, as the gnomic, cyclic, erotic, and 
sillic. 

On the division of poetry into different kinds, cf. J. J. EscJienhinr's Entwurf einer Theorie 
und Literatur der schonen Redekiinste. (4th ed.) Berl. 1817. 8. (Poetik § 7.) — W. SchlcgeVs 
Dramat. Lit. vol. i. p. 38. Lond. 1815. — Blair's Lectures. 

§ 15. (a) Sacred Poetry. Under this may be included all that was produced 
antecedently to Homer, or what is often called ante-Homeric poetry. It is 
sometimes designated by the name of Orphic poetry, from the circumstance 
that Orpheus was one of the most eminent poets of the period and class hero 
referred to. It has also been called the poetry of the Thracian school, as hav- 
ing its origin and seat chiefly in the region of Thrace and the vicinity. 

The general nature and subject of this poetry, consisting, as has been men- 
tioned, of hymns and religious songs (v/nvoi, sometimes also called rouoi), are 
such as suggest the name of sacred here applied to it. The poets probably 
united in their persons the triple character of bard (aoldoc), priest (UQsvg) f 
and prophet (uavng). The principal names which escaped oblivion were Li- 
nus, Olen, Melampus, Eumolpus, Thamyris, Tiresias, Orpheus, and Musseus- 
There are pieces extant ascribed to some of these, particularly to Orpheus and 
Mussbus ; but nothing probably that is genuine, except a few imperfect frag- 
ments. 

Although, when we speak of the sacred poetry of the Greeks, we usually 
mean only the pieces ascribed to ante- Homeric writers, yet it should be re- 
marked that the hymn (vuvoq) in praise of the gods was not peculiar to that 
age. Hymns were composed by subsequent poets, but did not hold a specially 
prominent place, and are commonly included in the class of lyric productions. 
Several hymns are ascribed to Homer. Callimachus, after the time of Alex- 
ander, wrote a number. 

On the Thracian school, &c. cf* North Jlmer. Rev. vol. xxi. p. 393. — On the Hymns of the 
Greeks, Fr d. Sneedorf, de Hymnis veterum Grascorum. Hafn. 1786. 8. — Souchay, Dissertations 
sur les Hymnes des anciens, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Tnscr. xii. 1. xvi. 93. — Suher's Allg, 
Theor. Art. Hymne. Cf. Lou-til's Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Lect. xxix. — 
Schmll (vol. i. 262. in. 336.) has a division of hymns into four classes : Mystic, Homeric, Lyric, 
and Philosophic. 

§16. Among the productions comprehended in the sacred poetry, it is proper 
to notice the oracles (x(f. r i a P 0l % which were ascribed to the Sibyls. The name 
SlfivZla is commonly derived from 2loe (for J log) and Bovli], and was synony- 
mous with prophetess. What the ancients have said of the Sibyls is obscure 
and perplexing. As many as ten are enumerated on the authority of Varro, 
A very high antiquity was assigned to some of them. A few fragments of the 
oracles ascribed to these are preserved. The eight books now extant, called 
the Sibylline oracles, are spurious, evidently fabricated since the Christian era. 

Dionysius Halicarnasseus (iv. 62) is the chief authority for the story of the Sibyl, who is said 
to have offered nine hooks of oracles for sale to Tarquin II* He states, that the three books, 
which Tarquin finally purchased (after she had destroyed six, and for the sum first demanded for 
the whole), were carefully kept in a stone chest in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and were de- 
stroyed when the capitol was burnt ; and that subsequently to this, those extant in his time were 
collected. He speaks of them as acrostics, ay.Qonri/Big. They are said to have been partly in ver- 
ses and partly in symbolical hieroglyphics (Servius on JEm iii.444. and vi. 74.), written on palm- 
leaves. They appear evidently to have been of Grecian origin and in the Greek language* 
The phrase libri fatales was applied to them in common with other supposed prophecies pre- 
served with them in the capitol". {Lactam. Div. Inst. i. 6. 12.-) — The work now extant is, in the 
language of Paley, " nothing else than the Gospel history woven into verse ;" and "perhaps 
was at first rather a fiction than a forgery ; an exercise of ingenuity, more than an attempt to 



POETRY. SACRED. EPIC. 159 

deceive." The early fathers frequently cited the Sibylline oracles in favor of Christianity. 
They are also cited by Josephus. Bishop Horseley has ably contended , that the original Sibyl- 
iine oracles included records of actual predictions somehow communicated to families and na- 
tions not belonging to the Jewish race. — A manuscript, which contained 334 verses, called a 
14th book of the Sibylline oracles, was discovered by the Abbe Mai in the Ambrosian Library at 
Milan, and published by him in 1817. 

See Sckxll, Hist. Litt. Gr. i. 51. — Fabricius, Bibliothec. Graec. vol. i. p. 248. in ed. of Harles. — 
Oreupftirws de Sibyllis, in the work entitled Sibyll. Orac. a J. Opsopoeo, cum latinainterpreta- 
tioneS. Castalionis. Par.1607 . 8. — J. Vossius,De Sibyllinis aiiisque quae Christi natum process. Ora- 
culis. Oxf. 1680. — Lud. Prateus, in his Juvenal ; not. Sat. 3. — D. Blondell, Des Sibylles celebrees 
tant par l'antiq. payenne que les SS. peres. Charent.1652. 4. Engl. Transl. by J.Davies. Lond. 
1660.* fol. — Freret, Recueil des predictions de Sibylle &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 187. — 
Clavier, Memoire sur les oracles des Anciens. Par. 1818. 8. pp. 176. The most complete edi- 
tion of the Oracles is that of S. Gallants (Gale?) Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1689. 4.— J. Floyer, The Si- 
bylline oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, &c. Lond. 1713. 8. — Cf. Jortin, Remarks 
on Eccles. History, vol.i. p.183 of ed. Lond.1751. 

The productions belonging to what is here called sacred poetry, constituted the whole litera- 
ture of the Greeks antecedently to the Trojan war. There are indeed some other works now 
extant, which are ascribed to personages said to have lived before that time ; snch e. g. as the 
Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Horus Apollo, or Horapollon, and the Persian Zoroaster. 
But the time when they lived is matter of dispute ; especially the time of Zoroaster, some plac- 
ing him less than 600 years before Christ. And, however early they may have lived, the writ- 
ings in Greek, under their names, are either fabrications, or translations made at a much later 
period. 

Sctell, i. 59, 297. v. 110. vi. 321. — Cf. Harles, Brevior Notitia Literat. Graec. p. 12, as cited 
$ 7. 9. — Anquetil &. Foucher, On Zoroaster, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xxvn, xxx, xxxi, 
xxxiv, xxxvu, xxxix, xl. — C. P. Meiners, De Zoroastris vita in the Nov. Comment. Soc. Scient. 
GStting. vol. viii. ix. — Cf. below §183. 3. 

§17. (b) Epic Poetry. As the poet gradually lost the sacred and mystie 
character with which he had been invested, poetry assumed more of the epic 
form. It aimed more to interest and amuse the multitude, who gathered around 
the wandering minstrel, especially at festivals and shows, to hear his song and 
tale. The minstrels bore the name of Rhapsodists ( r Paycodoi). Their songs 
partook more of the nature of narratives than those of trie religious bards. 
They freely indulged in fiction ; a new term was soon introduced, expressive 
of this ; they were said to make their pieces (tcouiv, noirjT^g) ; while the for- 
mer were only said to sing (ufeiv, aoldog). They were not restricted in the 
choice of subjects. They clothed in new and exaggerated forms the oldest 
recollections and traditions ; they rehearsed the genealogy of the gods, the 
origin of the world, the wars of the Titans and the Giants, the exploits of the 
demigods and heroes. 

The poets were numerous after the time of the Trojan war. They brought 
to its perfection hexameter verse, which had been employed by preceding bards • 
and from this time it was restricted chiefly to epic poetry. 

§ 18. All the poets of this class were wholly eclipsed by Homer, who is 
justly styled the father of epic poetry, and who remains to this day acknowl- 
edged prince of epic poets. It is a remarkable fact, that tbe Homeric poems 
were the principal foundation of the whole literature of the Greeks. Yet it 
has been supposed by many, that they were not committed to writing (cf. § 
50. 4) until the time of Solon and Pisistratus, at the close of the second or 
beginning of the third period before mentioned (§9). They were then col- 
lected into a body, and constituted the first production that circulated among 
the Greeks in a written form. It was a splendid model, and received with 
high and lasting admiration by every class of the people. The influence of 
these poems in Greece is beyond calculation. " From Homer," says Pope, 
" the poets drew their inspiration, the critics their rules, and the philosophers 
a defence of their opinions ; every author was fond to use his name, and ev- 
ery profession writ books upon him till they swelled to libraries. The war- 
riors formed themselves upon his heroes, and the oracles delivered his verses 

for answers." The history of Grecian epics ends as it begins, essentially, 

with Homer. The only poet near his time who has enjoyed much celebrity 
is Hesiod, who wrote in hexameter, and is usually ranked among the epic 
poets, although his principal work belongs rather to the didactic class. There 
is a story of a poetical contest between Hesiod and Homer, in which the for- 
mer bore away the prize ; but it is a fabrication, and the tradition on which 
the story was founded, probably grew out of a conjectural comment on the 
passage of Hesiod, where he alludes to a prize gained by him at Chalcis, but 
gays nothing of Homer. Cf. P. I. § 65. 



160 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 19. During the whole of the third period into which we have divided the 
history of Greek literature, from Solon to Alexander, we do not find a single 
epic poem. The Perseid of Choerilus of Samos is lost, and if extant would 
not secure its author a rank above his contemporaries in the class of later Cyc- 
lic poets. The Thebaid of Antimachus of Colophon, which is also lost, was 
much commended by some of the ancient critics ; but it seems to have been 
of a mythological cast rather than properly epic. In other departments poe- 
try flourished in the highest degree ; but in this Homer had closed the path 
to glory. 

Cf. Schmll, ii. 122-127 A. F. JVceke, Choeiili Samii quae supersunt. Lips. 1817. 8.— C. A. G. 

Schellenburg, Antimachi Colophonii fragmenta, nunc primum conquisita. Hal. 1786. 8. 

§ 20. In the next period, the Alexandrian age, we meet with but one name 
of any celebrity, Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautics, who flour- 
ished about 200 years B. C. Three other epic poets are mentioned, belong- 
ing to the same age ; Euphorion of Chalcis ; Rhianus of Bene in Crete, orig- 
inally a slave ; and Musseus of Ephesus, who lived at Pergamos. Each is said 
to have written several poems ; which are wholly lost. (Scholl, Hist. livr. iv. 
ch. 30.) 

In the fifth period, from the supremacy of the Romans, B. C. 146, to the 
time of Constantine, A. D. 325, there were several didactic poems in hexam- 
eter, but not an epic appeared that has secured remembrance. 

In the last period, after the seat of empire was removed to Constantinople, 
there was a crowd of inferior poets, or verse makers, hanging about the court. 
Many performances were composed in hexameter. The principal, that can 
be called epic, are the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipomena of Quin- 
tus Calaber, which, although some critics have highly praised them, will be 
read but very seldom. The Destruction of Troy by Tryphiodorus may also 
deserve to be named. 

On epic poetry in general ; Eschenburg's Entwurf, p. 196. — P. le Bossu, Traite du Poeme 
Epique. 5th ed. Haye, 1744. 2 vols. 12. English Transl. Lond. 1719. 8.—R. Blackmore, On 
Epick Poetry, in his Essays, &c. Lond. 1716. 8. — H. Pemberton, Observations on Epic Poe- 
try. Lond. 1738. 8. — Karnes, Elements of Criticism, ch. xxii. — Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric, 
lect. xlii. — V.ztry, and De la Barre, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. ix. 228, 239. 

On the epic poetry of the Greeks ; Schaell, i. 97, u. 122. — Fr. Schlegtl, Geschichte der Poesie 
der Griechen und Romer. Berl. 1798. 8.— Herder, Von dem Ursprung des Epos ; in his Adra- 

stea.— Spitzner, De versu Grasco heroico. Lips. 1816. 8. See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie j 

Under Heldengedicht. — Encycl. Amer. under Epic. 

§ 21. (c) The Cyclic poets and the Homeridce. Although there was no great 
epic poet after Homer, there were many who imitated his manner and sung 
of the same or similar subjects. Some of these, perhaps most of them, were 
Rhapsodists, who publicly rehearsed portions of Homer and other poets, as 
well as their own verses. This led to the "composition of the pieces called 
sometimes hymns (i-uvoi), being addressed to some deity ; and also proems 
(TToooiuia), because they were a sort of introduction to the rehearsal which 
followed. The Rhapsodists, who chiefly rehearsed or imitated Homer, have 
been called the Homeridce. (Scholl, Hist. liv. ii. ch. iv.) But to all these po- 
ets, as a class, the term Cyclic was applied by the ancient grammarians. The 
name is derived from y.vy.'/.oc, a circle, and was given because their poetry was 
confined to a certain round or cycle of subjects and incidents. Their per- 
formances were of the epic character, but are almost totally lost. The cycle 
of subjects treated by them included the whole extent of Grecian story, 
real and fabulous, from the origin of the world down to the sack of Troy. 
They are sometimes called the poets of the epic cycle ; and have been divid- 
ed into two classes; such as treated of the mythology and legends anterior to 
the Trojan war, termed poets of the Mythic Cycle; and those who treated of 
the various incidents connected with that war from the decision of Paris to 
the death of Ulysses, termed poets of the Trojan Cycle. It is easy to perceive 
how the term cycle should obtain its metaphorical sense of a monotonous and 
spiritless author. 

The Cyclic poets are interesting to us chiefly from the fact, that they fur- 
nished the sources whence subsequent poets drew their materials. Virgil 
and Ovid are said to have borrowed largely from those authors. 

There were several poets in the period between Solon and Alexander, who 
treated of subjects belonging to the epic cycle, and are sometimes called the 



POETRY. EPIC. LYRIC. 161 

later Cyclic poets. (Schdll. liv. iii. ch. xv.) In the last period also of Gre- 
cian literature the poets, who are called epic, are rather mere imitators and 
copiers of the Cyclic tribe, and might be classed with the same ; as e.g. Quin- 
tus Calaber, Tryphiodorus, and Tzetzes. 

On the Rhapsodists, cf. Sidzcr's Allg. Theorie, vol. ir. p. 561. — Coleridge, Introduction to 
Study of Greek Poets, (p. 45, Philad. 1831.)— Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum. — Chartere der 
vornehmsten Dichter, vol. n. p. 5. liber die Dichtkunst der Griechen im heroischen Zeitalter, 
nach dem Horner. 

On the Cyclic poets, see especially Fr. Wnllner, De Cyclo Epico Poetisque Cyclicis. Mo- 
nasterii (Monster), 1825. 8. A work (according to Jahn's Jahrbucher for 1828) of solid learn- 
ing and sound judgment. Wvllner mentions, by their Greek titles, twenty-seven poems as be- 
longing to the EpicCycle. — See Heyne's Excurs. 1 ad JEn. ii. — Fabricii Bib. Graec. i. — SchozU, 
liv. ii. ch. iv. — Schwartz, Dissertationes selectae (ed. Harless.) Erlang. 1778. — Bouchaud, An- 
tiquites Poetiques, ou Dissert, sur 1. Poetes cycliques. Par. 1799. 8. — Dodwell, de Cyclis, cited 
P. V. $ 193.— The chief original source of information is a passage taken from Proclus ; see 
Bibliothek d. Alt. Lit. und KunsL i. 66. — Photii Bib. ed. Schott. p. 980.— Heinrichsen, De Carmin- 
ibus Cypriis, Havniae. (Copenhagen), 1828. — TV. Muller, De Cyclo Graecorum Epico. Lpz. 
1829.— G. Lange, Ueber die Kyklischen Dichter, &c. Mainz, 1837. 8.—Ja}m , s Jahrbucher, for 
1830, vol. n. p. 240. — Osann, in the Hermes, vol. xxxi. p. 185. 

The names and works of some of these poets are given on the Iliac Table. This is a tablet 
of marble on which the capture of Troy and events connected with it are represented by little 
figures in bas-relief, with names added. It was found among the ruins of an ancient temple 
on the Via Appia, and is preserved in the Museum of the capitol at Rome. Its date is not 
known ; probably not before the time of Virgil. See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. tome it. 

§ 22. (d) Lyric Poetry. It has already been remarked, that in the earliest 
poetry of Greece, music and song were united. The hymns and other mythio 
pieces of the sacred poetry were adapted to some instrumental accompani- 
ment. The rehearsals of the Rhapsodists and epic minstrels were not with- 
out the music of the harp or lyre, employed at least in proems and interludes. 

But the poetry distinctively called lyric originated later. It commenced 
probably in odes sung in praise of particular gods ; partly addressed to them 
like hymns, and partly recounting their deeds. Of these there were many 
varieties; as the LTctiav, an ode to Apollo originally, afterwards to any god; 
c Y7v6Qx r i, ua ! a song accompanied with dancing as well as music ; JiQvqaugoc, 
an ode in honor of Bacchus. There was also a class of songs, called IIyoa6- 
<?««, used on festivals and in processions ; as the JaqvmpoQiy.u, sung by virgins 
bearing laurel branches in honor of Appollo ; TQiTvoS^cpoQixa, sung when the 
sacred tripods were carried in procession ; 5 Oaxoipoqiyu, sung by youth carry- 
ing branches and clusters of the vine in honor of Minerva. There were odes 
giving thanks for deliverances, especially from epidemics, ^E7ri?.oiiua; and 
others supplicating help and relief, ^Evy.riy.a. Diana was celebrated in the 
songs called "OvTiiyyoi ; Ceres, in the " lov'J.oi', Bacchus, in the 3 lw%l<y.xoi ' T 
Apollo, in the ^i/.^Aiudai. 

§ 23. But lyric song was not confined to the praises of the gods and to 
religious festivals. The enthusiasm awakened by the revolutions in favor of 
liberty burst forth in effusions of lyric poetry. The tumult and excitement 
of republican contests and hazards seem to have been congenial to its spirit. 
It admitted a free license and variety of metres, and was suited to every im- 
aginable topic that could awaken lively interest. It was shortly extended to 
almost every concern of life, and the weaver at the loom, the drawer of water 
at the well, the sailor at his oars, and even the beggar in his wanderings, had 
each his appropriate song, and, so generally was music cultivated, they could 
usually accompany it with the lyre. 

Accordingly we find numerous species of songs spoken of in the classics. 
Odes to heroes were of three varieties ; the ^Eyy.t'juior, proclaiming the deeds 
of the person celebrated ; 3 Erranbg, his virtues ; and 3 EtiivLxiov z his victories. 
There were different forms of nuptial odes ; the c vfievodoi and yaiu-P.ia, sung 
at the wedding; u^uuTsia, in conducting the bride home; i.Ti£a?.u t uia, at the 
door of the bed-chamber. The l'uu§oc was a sort of bantering satirical song ; 
the nalyvia were of a similar but more sportive and loose cast. The rr.uiSiy.it 
and TiancivLa were sung by choirs or companies of boys and virgins. The 
iwtaiMvui, x*?.i$6via, and xoQtoviaiiara were songs of mendicants. Finally, 
without enumerating any more, it may be remarked, that Ilgen has pointed 
out about thirty different kinds, in a treatise on the convivial songs of the 
Greeks. (Cf. §*27.) 

14* 



162 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

C. D. Ilgen, SxoXi'a h. e. Carmina conviv. Grasc. Jen. 1798. 8. — Burette, Sur la Musiqtfer 
Ancienne, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. as cited P. I. § 63. — Souchay, Sur l'epithalame, Mem, 
Acad. Inscr. ix. 305. — Cf. Fuhrmann, Klein. Handbuch zur Kentniss griech. und rom. class. 
Schriftsteller. Rudoldst. 1823. p. 113. 

§ 24. It has been observed that lyric poetry allowed a great variety of metres. 
Many of these were afterwards distinguished by the names of the lyric poets 
supposed to have invented them. A great license was also indulged in the form 
of the stanzas or strophes in which the lyric pieces were composed, both as to 
the number of verses or lines included in them, and the order or succession of 
lines of different metres. The earliest and simplest form of strophe consisted 
of two lines or verses of different metre. The second form seems to have in- 
cluded four verses, consisting of at least two metres, used by Alceeus, Sappho, 
and Anacreon. But strophes of a more artificial composition were employed 
by Alcman and Stesichorus. Those of Pindar; and such as are used in the 
choral parts of tragedy, exhibit the greatest art in their construction. 

On the metres and strophes consult Hermann and Seager, as cited § 7. 4. (ft) 

§ 25. Lyric poetry began to flourish at the close of the second period we 
have pointed out, from the Trojan war to Solon, and after epic had reached its 
height. The most ancient of the lyric poets (as distinguished from the mythic, 
epic, and cyclic poets), whose name is recorded, was Thaletas of Crete, in- 
duced by Lycurgus to remove to Sparta. (Cf. Plutarch on Lycurgus.) Archi- 
lochus, Alcman, Alcseus, and Sappho, flourished just before Solon, or about 
the same time, and were all celebrated among the ancients, particularly the 
first and last of them ; but we have nothing of their writings except a few 
fragments. 

In the next period, between Solon and Alexander, lyric poetry was culti- 
vated with increased ardor and splendid success. Simonides, Stesichorus, and 
Bacchylides, are mentioned with praise. Many other names of less note are 
also preserved ; as Lasus, Hipponax, Ibycus, Pratinas, Asclepiades, Glycon and 
I*halaecus, Melanippides, Timotheus, Telestes, and Philoxenes. Several po- 
etesses also adorned the circle of lyric authors in this age; as Erinna, Myrtis, 
Corinna, Telesille, and Praxilla. But it is not from any of the writers we have 
named, that the lyric poetry of the Greeks derives its high reputation among 
modern scholars ; for of all their works almost every thing has perished ; a loss 
which some of the mutilated portions remaining cause us much to regret. 

Time has been more sparing in reference to the performances of two other 
poets, to whom the judgment of all has ascribed the palm of pre-eminent excel- 
lence in lyric verse, Anacreon and Pindar. Each of these excels, yet their 
characteristics are totally opposite. Anacreon sings of women and roses and 
wine; Pindar of heroes, of public contests, of victories and laurels. The one 
melts away in amatory softness; the other is ever like the foaming steed of 
the race, vaulting in the pride of conscious strength, or the furious war-horse, 
dashing fearlessly on, over every obstacle. Under these masters, Grecian ly- 
rics were advanced to their greatest perfection. 

§ 26. The ancients speak of nine as the principal lyric poets, viz. Alcman, 
Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, and Bac- 
chylides. It will be observed that all these have been already mentioned. 
The age of Pindar completes essentially the history of lyric poetry in Greece, 
as that of Homer does the history of epic. No eminent genius appears after 
him. 

In the next period after the time of Alexander, we hear of two or three 
poetesses, as Anyta, Nossis, and Maero ; and some of the poets at Alexandria 
wrote lyrical pieces, as Philetas, Lycophron, and Callimachus. But after the 
Roman supremacy we shall scarcely find a strictly lyrical production noticed 
in the fullest detail of Grecian poetry. 

On the subjects and varieties of Lyric Poetry, see Eschenburg's Entwurf einer Theorie &c. 

as before cited Encyc. Amer. under Lyric. — On the general character and history of Greek 

Lyric Poetry, see Preface to Dacier's Transl. of Horace. — M. de la Nauze, Sur les chansons de 
l'ancienne Grece, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. ix. 320. — Burhey's Gen. Hist. Music. Lond.1776. 4. 
— Meusnier de Qucrlon, Mem. Histor. sur la chanson en gen. et en part. Francoise. Par. 1765. 
3 vols. 8. — Historical Essay on the Orig. and Prog, of National Song, pref., to Select coll. Engl. 
Songs. Lond. 1783. 3 vols. 8. — Suiter's Allg. Theorie. Artie. Ode, Lied, &.c. 

§ 27. (e) The Scolion (axoUov aoiia). This was a species of poetry, which 



POETRY. LYRIC. ELEGIAC. 163 

appeared before the time of Solon, and flourished especially in the period be- 
tween him and Alexander. It was nearly allied to lyric poetry; or, more 
properly speaking, was only a peculiar form of it, consisting of little songs, 
designed for social purposes, and particularly used at banquets and festive en- 
tertainments. 

The word oy.o7.iov, employed to designate the kind of song here described, has troubled 
the grammarians. It properly signifies something crooked or distorted (detourne), and evidently 
indicates something irregular in the poetry to which it is applied. The question has arisen, 

wherein consisted the irregularity ? According to Suidas, the Greeks had three modes of 

singing at the table. First, all the guests forming a joint chorus chanted a paean accompanied 
by the harp, in honor of some god. Then, the harp was passed from guest to guest, beginning 
with the one occupying the chief place, and each was requested to sing some morceau or sonnet 
from Simonides, Stesichorus, Anacreon, or other favorite author. If any one declined playing, 
he might sing without the harp, holding in his hand a bi-anch of myrtle. There was a third 
manner, which required absolutely the accompaniment of the harp, and something of the skill 
of an artist. Hence the harp did not pass in order from guest to guest, but when one performer 
had finished some couplets, he presented the myrtle-branch to another qualified to continue the 
song and music. This one, having completed his part in turn, gave the branch to a third, and 
so on. Along with the myrtle was presented also to the singer the cup or vase, which from this 
practice gained the name of 'woo 5. From this mode of passing the harp, in an irregular man- 
ner, the poem thus recited was termed Oy.o7.i6v. — Plutarch, on the other hand, states that the 
scolia were accompanied with the sound of the lyre ; that this instrument was presented to 
each guest, and those who were unable to sing and play could refuse to take it ; he adds that the 
oy.o7.tuv was so called because it was neither common nor easy. But he gives also another 
explanation, according to which the myrtle branch is represented as passing from couch to 
couch in the following way : the first guest on the first couch passed it to the first on the second 
couch, and he to the first on the third ; it was then returned to the first couch, and the guest 
occupying the second place there, having sung and played, passed it to the second on the sec- 
ond couch, and thus it went through the whole company. From this crooked manoeuvring the 

songs of the table were called oxo7.ia. These explanations are too subtle to be perfectly 

satisfactory. It seems much more simple to suppose the name to have referred originally to the 
irregularity of metre, in which respect the scolion seems to have had unlimited license. The 
subjects of these songs were not always the pleasures of the table and the cup. They often 
treated of more serious matters, including sometimes the praise of the gods. Songs for popular 
use, and those designed to enliven manual labor and domestic care, as those of shepherds, 
reapers, weavers, nurses, &c. went under the common name of or.o'Ua. The earliest known 
author of scolia, or according to Plutarch the inventor of music adapted to them, is Terpander, 
of Antissa in Lesbos, who lived about 670 B. C. Other authors of such pieces are recorded ; as 
Clitagorus the Lacedaemonian, Hybrias of Crete, Timocreon of Rhodes. Archilochus, and 
otherlyric poets, composed pieces which belong to the class here described. 

See M. dc la Nauze, Burette, and Ilgen, cited § 23, 26, especially the latter, — H. H. Cludius, 
von den Skolion der Griechen, in the Bibl d. alt. Litter, u. Kunst.No. 1. — Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. 
livre ii. ch. 5. 

§ 28. (b) Elegiac Poetry. The origin of elegiac poetry was an ancient theme 
of dispute if we may credit Horace: Quis tamen exiguos elegos emiserit auctor, 
Grammatici certant, et adhuc subjudice lis est. "It appears," says Scholl, "that 
the grammarians of Alexandria (for to these Horace doubtless alludes) raised 
this question from their confounding times and terms. The matter becomes 
clear when we give to terms their proper meaning. It is necessary to distin- 
guish between the ancient iltysluof Callinus, and the later t7.tyog,ihe inven- 
tion of which has been attributed to Simonides. The first was merely a lyric 
piece, particularly a war-song, composed of distichs with hexameter and pen- 
tameter alternating, the original form of Ionian lyrics. The word iJ.eyog (from 
b, alas ! and iiyto) signifies a lamentation ; and any lyric poem on a mournful , 
subject was so termed. The Attic poets, when they sung on a mournful theme, 
employed the distich of alternate hexameter and pentameter, which had been 
previously used in the war-song. It was now that this distich received the 
name i/.eyeia, from the new class of subjects to which it was applied; for it 
was not originally so called, but went by the general name of snog, afterwards 
restricted to heroic verse. The term was therefore the name of a kind of metre 
or strophe, rather than a kind of poetry. The grammarians, overlooking this, 
called the two kinds by the name of elegy, because the metre was the same in 
both.' : 

Callinus of Ephesus is regarded as the author of the first poem composed in 
elegiac metre. He is commonly supposed to have lived about 684 B.C. Oth- 
ers place him much earlier. The fragment ascribed to him is part of a song 
stimulating his compatriots to fight valiantly against their enemies the Mag- 
nesians. TyrtaBus is next in time, immortalized by his songs composed for the 
purpose of rousing and encouraging the Spartans in a war with Messenia. 



164 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 29. The first example of the new application of the elegiac metre (i. e. to 
mournful themes) is said to have been given by Mimnermus of Colophon in Ion- 
ia,about 590 B.C. The few verses remaining of him breathe a sweet melancholy, 
deploring the rapid flight of youthful days, and the brevity and ills of human 
life. 

But Simonides is considered as the inventor of the proper elegy, although 
he neither devised the metre, nor first applied it to topics of a saddening cast; 
but it was after Simonides that the name 7?.i-yog was given to a poem of con- 
siderable size in distichs of hexameter and pentameter. Most of his pieces 
which are preserved are, however, epigrams rather than elegies. Antimachus 
a lyric poet, Euripides the tragic writer, and Hermesianax, are mentioned 
among the authors of elegies in the period now before us, between Solon and 
Alexander. 

In the next period, the only elegiac writer of any importance was Callima- 
chus ; although Alexander the iEtolian and Philetas of Cos are named. Cal- 
limachus was much admired and imitated by the Romans. After him elegiac 
verse does not appear to have been cultivated at all among the Greeks. 

In conclusion, very little of the Greek elegiac poetry remains to us, but 
some of the fragments we have are in strains peculiarly soft and sweet. 

On the origin of Greek Elegiac Poetry, see J. V. Francke, Callinus sive Queestiones de orig- 
carm. elegiaci. Alton. 1816. 8. — C. A. Bottiger, Abh. ueber d. Fabel vom Marsyas, in Wi e- 
land's Attisch. Museum, B. i. St. 2. — Schmll, Hist. Gk. Litt. livre ii. ch. 5 — On Greek elegiac 
poetry generally, Fraguier, Sur l'elegie Gr. & Lat. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. (tome vm. 
ed. d'Amst.) Par. ed. vol. vi. p. 277. — Souchay, Discours. sur les Elegiaques grecs, in the Menu 
de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. vn. 333, 352. — Eschenburg's Entwurf (cited $ 14.) p. 165. 

§ 30. (g) Bucolic or Pastoral Poetry. This species of poetry is supposed to 
have taken its rise from the rustic songs of Sicilian shepherds. Its invention 
is ascribed to a certain Daphnis, who lived in the early fabulous ages, and en- 
joyed the reputation of a divine descent, while he pastured his flocks at the 
foot of mount iEtna. 

But Theocritus, belonging to the Alexandrine age of Grecian literature, 
may be considered as the father of bucolic song. The Idyl had not been culti- 
vated by any writer before him. This term, from hSv?.?.tov, signifies a little 
picture, a representation in miniature, a delicate piece of poetical drawing. 
The Greek Idyl does not seem to have been confined to any one topic exclu- 
sively, yet was chiefly employed in representing the scenes of pastoral life. 
Its external form was marked by the use of the Hexameter verse and the Do- 
ric dialect. Theocritus carried it to a high degree of perfection ; and in pasto- 
ral poetry, no poet, ancient or modern, has surpassed him. 

In fact, Greek bucolic poetry begins and ends with Theocritus. Two other 
poets belonging to the same age, viz. Bion and Moschus, are commonly ranked 
in the class of bucolic or pastoral writers. But neither of them is considered 
as equal to Theocritus ; and the subjects and scenes of their poetry have more 
of the lyrical or mythological than of the pastoral character. 

On Pastoral Poetry in general ; Bern, de Fontcnelle, Disc, sur la nat. de 1'eclogue. P. 1688. 8. 
— Ch. CI. Oenest, Diss, sur la Poes. pastor. &c. Par. 1707. 12. — Florian, Ess. sur la Pastorale, 
in Pref. to his Estelle. Par. 1788. 12. — Fraguier, Sur 1'eclogue, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. ii. 
121. — Pope, Disc, on Pastoral Poetry, in Tomson's Miscell. Lond. 1707. 8. — The Ouardian, 
No. 28, 30, 32. — Nciobcrry, Poetry on a new Plan. Lond. 1762. 8. — Blair's Lectures. 

On Greek Pastoral Poetry 5 Al.Ooully de Bois Robert, Disc, sur les anc. Poet, bucol. de Sicile, 
in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. v. p. 85. — Jacq. Hardion, Hist, du Berger Daphnis, in the 
same Mem. &c. vol. vi. p. 459. — Warton, de poesi bucolica Grsec. preface to his edit, of Theo- 
critus. Oxon. 1770. — Arethusa, oder die bukolisch. Dichter des Alterthums. Berl. 1806 — 10. 
2 Bde. 4. — Schaill, Hist. Gr. Litt. livre iv. ch. 33.— Midler's Dorians, bk. iv. ch.6. §10.— Class. 
Journ. xx. 124. xvn. 74. 

§ 31. (h) Didactic Poetry. In this form of poetry, the literature of the Greeks 
was not peculiarly rich. The objects which didactic poetry has in view, may 
be included under two heads ; it aims to give instruction, either in what per- 
tains to morals, or in what pertains to science or art. In the earliest specimen 
of didactic poetry among the Greeks — the Works and Days of Hesiod — there 
is a combination of both ; the first book chiefly consisting of moral precepts, 
and the second of rules of husbandry, concluding however with a repetition of 
precepts on the conduct of life. This production belongs to the period before 
Solon. 

The next productions, which we meet in the account of Grecian didactic 



POETRY. BUCOLIC. DIDACTIC. 165 

poetry, consist wholly of moral precepts or sentences (yvwuai). From this 
circumstance, the writers have been called Gnomic poets. The poetry consists 
of pithy maxims, expressed with brevity and force. The metrical form may 
have been chosen principally for the sake of memory. Pythagoras, Solon, 
Theognis, Phocylides and Xenophanes, are the chief among the Gnomic poets. 
Fragments remain ascribed to each of these ; not all, however, considered gen- 
uine, especially the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, and the Exhortation of Pho- 
cylides. 

There was a peculiar species of composition, to which it may be proper here 
to allude, as another form of didactic poetry; viz. the fable or apologue (ano- 
Zoyog and Aoyoc). The most ancient Greek fables are two or three ascribed to 
Archilochus and Stesichorus, and one found in Hesiod. The most celebrated 
fables are those of iEsop, who lived in the age of Solon. They were probably 
composed in prose. Socrates translated some of them into verse. They were 
collected in a body by Demetrius Phalereus, and a translation of them is said to 
have been made about the same time into elegiac verse. In the age of Augus- 
tus they were translated into the verse called Choliambics, by Babrius. This 
metrical version is supposed to have been the basis of the modern copies, which 
are in prose, and belong perhaps more properly to the subject of philosophy. 

On the Greek Gnomic Poetry ; Meiner's Gesch. d. Wissenchaften in Griechenland u. Rom. 

Lemgo 1781. 8. — Heyne's Pref. to Sentent. vetustiss. Onom. poetarum Op. Lips. 1776. 2 vols 

J. Frobenius, Scriptores Gnomici&c. Bas. 1521. 8. containing fragments of about seventy poets. 
— Brunck, Gnomici Poet. Graci, cited below § Alt. — U. H. Rohde, De veter. poetar. sapientia 
gnomica, &c. Harn. 1800. 8. 

On the Apologue or Fable generally ; Eschenburg, Entwurf, p. 94. — Gellert, Diss, de Poesi 
Apolog. eorumque scriptoribus. Lips. 1744. 4. — Sulier's Allg. Theor. Art. Fabel. — Lessing's 
Abhandlungen, in his Vier Buechern asopisch. Fabeln. Berl. 1777. 8. — On the Greek Fable ; J. 
M. Heusinger, Dissert, de gr. iEs. Fabulis. Ger. 1741. 8. — Eschenburg, Entwurf, &.c. p. 102. — 
Schall, Hist. Lit. Gr. livre iii. ch. 9. 

§ 32. The Alexandrine age presents several didactic poets. The first in 
chronological order were two Sicilians, Dicaearchus and Archestratus. The 
former wrote, in iambic verse, a geographical description of Greece. He was 
a disciple of Aristotle, and left also some philosophical pieces. The latter 
traversed many lands examining the subject of human food and nourishment, 
and gave the result of his experience and research in a poem entitled Gas- 
trology. At the very close of the period was Nicander, of Colophon, or of JEto- 
lia according to others. His two poems (called Qijoiazu, relating to venomous 
bites; and y A).s%npuQuay.a, relating to other poisons) have more of poetic ele- 
gance than of scientific merit. His Georgics and Metamorphoses ('Etsqoiov- 
/t£i«), both lost, are said to have furnished hints to Virgil and Ovid. 

But the first place in point of excellence belongs to Aratus, who flourished 
at the Macedonian Court, about 270 B. C. His astronomical poem is highly 
commended by the ancients. Cicero translated it into Latin verse. Aratus is 
the poet quoted by Paul before the Areopagus. (Acts xvii. 28.) 

In the next period, after the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, there were also 
several writers belonging to the class now under notice ; but none of them of 
much celebrity. Among the principal were Babrius or Babrias and Oppian. 
The former has been already mentioned as author of a metrical version of the 
apologues of iEsop. The latter wrote on fishing and hunting ; a third poem, 
not extant, on fowling, is also ascribed to him. The following are likewise 
mentioned : Apollodorus of Athens, who wrote a poetical chronology (Xoovixlx), 
and a description of the earth (T"ifg Tvtqiodog) ; Scymnus of Chios, and Dionysius 
of Charax, authors each of a Voyage of the World (77sm) ; 'y);0"<s oty.ovuivijc) ; He- 
liodorus, author of a poem entitled 5 Atio1vtl-/cu ; and Marcellus of Sida, in the 
time of the Antonines, who wrote a poem of forty-two books on medicine (pip- 
).i.a iaTQixa). 

After the seat of the Roman government was changed, there were, as has 
been mentioned, numerous inferior poets. Several of them would fall into 
the class of didactic poets, but they scarcely deserve to be named. Among 
them were Naumachius, author of a poem on astrology; Dorotheus, author of 
a poetical treatise on triangles, and another on the places of the stars; and 
Manual Philes, who wrote on the peculiarities of animals (IIsqI Iojojv iSt6- 

TtjTOg). 

On Didactic Poetry in general ; Eschenburg, Entwurf &c, Y,-~Marmontel, Poetique T. II, 



166 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ch. 22.— Racine, Reflex, sur la poesie. ch. 7. — Warton's Diss, on Did. Poetry (pref. to Trans, of 
Virgil). — Essay pref. to Dryden's Trans, of Virg. Georg. — Sulzer's Allg. Theor. art. Lehrge- 

dicht. On the Greek Didactic Poets, Manso's Abh. in the Nachtr. zu Sulzer, B. iii. 49. and 

vi. 359.— Schcell, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iii. ch. 8, 9. L. iv. 32. 52. L. vi. ch. 74. 

§ 33. (i) Erotic Poetry. Under this denomination are included such poetic- 
al performances as refer particularly to the subject of love. It is some- 
times applied to a class of lyrical pieces, which were of an amatory char- 
acter (fQtarixa fiiXtj). Alcman, or Alcmaeon, who lived at Sparta, B. C. 
about 470, is regarded as the father of erotic poety in this sense of the 
phrase. Most of his poems were of a class called nauQivia, or praises of 
virgins. His songs were very popular with the ancients, and were sung 
by the Spartans at table with those of Terpander. Alcaeus, Sappho, and 
Anacreon wrote pieces of the same description. 

But the term erotic is generally applied by critics to another class of 
writings ; viz. several productions of a later period, chiefly in prose, which 
had something of the nature of novels, or modern works of fiction. They 
were truly a species of romance, and properly therefore may be noticed as 
a distinct branch, of literature. In this place we shall speak only of such 
authors as wrote in verse. There were three writers in the period after 
Constantine the Great, who composed poems, which may be justly ranked 
among the performances here described. The most eminent of them was 
Theodoras Prodromus a learned philosopher and theologian, in the beginning 
of the twelfth century, author of a great variety of poetical pieces. " Scrips 
sit carmina" says Harles, " invita autem Minerva." The principal was his 
romance, in iambic verse, entitled the love of Rhodanthe and Dosicles. The 
other two were Constantine Manasses, and Nicetas Eugenianus ; both lived 
about the same time with Prodromus. The work of the former, the loves of 
Aristander and Callithea, is nearly all lost ; that of the latter, the loves of 
Drosilla and Charicles, in nine books, is extant. They were both in the verse 
called political. 

Schmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. livr. ii. ch. 5. livr.vi.ch. 74. — " On appelle politiques des vers de quinze 
syllables, dans lesquels on n'observe pas la quantite ; ils ont la cesure apres la huitieme syl- 
lable, et l'accent sur l'avant derniere.' Cf. Hermann (on Metre), lib. ii. c. xxix. 26. 

§ 34. (k) The Epigram. The term iTciy^aiiua originally signified merely an 
inscription, and from this use the poetry so called derived its prevailing char- 
acter. The Greek epigram served for a motto on a pillar or an offering to a god, 
an explanation or memento under a painting, a panegyric on a statue or a 
monument, an epitaph on a grave-stone. Of course we could not expect it to 
be strikingly marked by that smartness of manner and sharpness of wit and 
point, which modern taste demands. It usually expressed a simple idea, a 
sentiment, a reflection, a regret, a wish; inspired by the accidental sight of a 
monument, an edifice, a tree or other object; or awakened by the recollection 
of something agreeable, melancholy, or terrible in the past. Here we propose 
to mention some of the authors of different ages to whom epigrams are ascribed. 

A few are referred to the time antecedent to Solon. Those ascribed to Homer 
are the most ancient, but their genuineness is doubted. One worthy of its 
reputation bears the name of iEsop. 

There are various epigrams'belongingto the two periods between Solon and 
the Roman supremacy, some said to be from the most distinguished authors. 
Indeed most of the poets, it is probable, composed occasionally these little 
pieces. Anacreon, Erinna, JEschylus, Euripides, and especially Simonides of 
Ceos, may be named. The latter defeated JEschylus in competition for the 
prize-inscription at Thermopylae. — A single epigram is referred to Socrates; 
one to Thucydides ; thirty to Plato, but without foundation. Three by the 
painter Parrhasius are preserved by Athenseus. 

The Alexandrine age abounded in epigrammatists ; more than thirty "are 
enumerated. The most eminent were Callimachus, and Leonidas of Tarentum. 
The latter left a hundred epigrams, in the Doric dialect, among the best that 
are preserved. 

In the next period, the number of epigrammatists was still larger ; above 
forty writers are named between the fall of Corinth and the time of Constan- 
tine, and a great number of their pieces are extant. Among them is the poet 
Archias, less celebrated for his own productions than by the oration of Cicero 



POETRY. EPIGRAMS. ANTHOLOGIES, 167 

in his behalf. Diogenes Laertius, the biographer, also has a place here. We 
have the largest number of pieces from Meleager and Lucilius. The latter, a 
contemporary of Nero, published two books of epigrams, of which more than 
a hundred remain, chiefly of a satirical cast. Some of the emperors amused 
themselves in writing poetry of this description ; we have several pieces from 
Trajan. In this period, collections of epigrams began to be compiled and pub- 
lished under different titles. They are now called Anthologies, and will be 
described in the next section. 

After Constantine, it was chiefly in the epigram that the poets labored, or 
gained any distinction. Between forty and fifty different writers are mentioned, 
pagan and Christian. The more eminent among them were Gregory Nazian- 
zen (§ 292), Paul Silentarius, the consul Macedonius, and Agathias of Myri- 
na (cf. § 257 J. 

Besides the epigrammatists that have been now alluded to under the differ- 
ent periods of Greek literature, the Anthologies contain the names of nearly 
one hundred others, whose epoch has not been ascertained. 

On the Greek epigrams ; F. Jacobs, Delectus Epigramm. Grcecorum (a vol. of the Bibliotheca^ 
cited § 7. 1.) in the Introduction. — Lessing, on epigrams, in his Vermxschte Schriften (Melanges), 

Berl. 1771. 8 Herder, in his Zerstreute Blatter, Gotha, 1785, 86. (Samml. I. II.)— Franc. Vavas- 

sor, De Epigrammate, in his Opera. Amst. 1709. fol. — C. O. Sonnlag, Hist. Poeseos Gr. brevi- 
oris, ab Anacr. usq. ad Meleag. ex. Anthol. Gr. adumbrata. Lips. 1785.— Schmll, livre iii. ch.16, 
livre iv. ch. 51. livre vi. ch. 72. 

§ 3o£. Anthologies. The Greek Anthologies (Blumenlesen) are collections of 
small poems, chiefly epigrams, of various authors. Many of the pieces are re- 
markable for their beauty and simplicity in thought and their peculiar turns 
of expression. These collections began to be compiled during the decline of 
Greek literature. Several of these collections were made before the fall of 
Carthage, but seem to have been formed with more reference to the historical 
value of the inscriptions than to their poetical merit. The collection of Polemo 
Periegetes was of this early class, which are entirely lost. Next to these, the 
first of which we have any knowledge was made by Meleager of Gadara in 
Syria, B. C. nearly 100. It was entitled Zriyavog, the crown or garland, and 
contained the better pieces of forty-six poets, arranged alphabetically. The 
next was by Philippus of Thessalonica, in the time of Trajan, with the same 
arrangement. A little after, under Hadrian, about A. D. 120, a collection of 
choice pieces was formed by Diogenianus of Heraclea. About one hundred 
years later, Diogenes Laertius gathered a body of epigrams composed in honor 
of illustrious men ; from the variety of metres in them, it was styled Uuiius- 
rqor. In the second or third century, Strato of Sardis published a compilation 
including most of the poets embraced in the anthology of Meleager, and some 
of those embraced in the work of Philippus, together with several others. It 
was entitled JIui8iy.\'j Movoa. But that which may be considered as the third 
Anthology was published in the sixth century by Agathias of Myrina, who has 
already been named as one of the more eminent epigrammatists after the time 
of Constantine. This bore the title of KryJ.oq, and consisted of seven books, 
into which the pieces were distributed according to their subjects. In the 
tenth century a fourth coHection was made by Constantine Cephalas, of whom 
nothing else is known. In preparing it he made use of the preceding compi- 
lations, especially that of Agathias, but inserted also pieces of ancient authors 
not introduced in them. The epigrams and other pieces are arranged accord- 
ing to subjects, in fifteen sections. Finally in the fourteenth century, Maxi- 
mus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople, the same who collected the fables of 
^Lsop, formed a fifth Anthology. Planudes arranged the pieces included in his 
collection in seven distinct books. 

The two last mentioned, that of Cephalas and that of Planudes, are the only 
Anthologies now extant. That of Planudes was first printed in 1494, and the 
collection of Cephalas was, after that, almost entirely forgotten. In 1606, a 
manuscript copy of Cephalas was found by Claude Saumaise (Claudius Sal- 
masius), in the library at Heidelberg. 

Of the Antholoffy of Planudes the following are the principal editions : — Henr. Etienne 
(Henr. Stephanus), "Par.1566. 4.— Wechel, Frankf.1600. fol.— An edition at Naples, 1796. 5 vols. 4, 
with an Italian translation. — Jerome de Bosch, Utrecht, 1795, 98. 3 vols. 4. with a translation in 
'•rain verse by Hugo Orotius, and a supplement containing additional pieces ; De Bosch added 



168 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

3 4th vol. of Notes, by himself and Claud. Salmasius ; a 5th was published by D. J. Van Lennep f 
1822. ("belle et bonne edition." Scholl.) 

The discovery of the manuscript copy of Cephalas excited much interest in the literary world. 
Salmasius made preparations for publishing an edition, but died without having accomplished 
the work ; having delayed it from conscientious scruples, as is said, about publishing some of 
the amatory pieces. After his death, J. Ph. iVOrville engaged in preparing for an edition of 
Cephalas ; but he also died without effecting it, and his papers passed to the library at Leyden. 
Some portions of the work of Cephalas were published, in the mean time, by J. Jensius, at Rot- 
terdam, 1742, and J. H. Leich, at Leipzic,1745. But after D'Orville, the next principal labor upon 
this Anthology was by J. J Reiske, who published his work under the title Anthologies gr. a C. 
Cephala conditae libri in. &c. Lips. 1754. 8. This was republished, with a valuable preface, by 
Thos. Warton, Oxf. 1766. 2 vols. 12. Reiske having declined editing the impure pieces which 
constituted the 12th section of Cephalas, they were published by Chr. Ad. Kloti, under the title 
Stratonis aliorumque vet. poet. gr. epigrammata eel. Altenb. 1764. 8. 

A more complete collection of Greek epigrams and small poems is found in Brunch, Analecta 
veterum poetarum Grascorum. Argent. 2d edit. 1785. 3 vols. 8. Each piece is placed under the 
name of the author to whom it is ascribed.— A new edition was afterwards published by Fred. 
Jacobs, Anthologia Grseca, sive poetarum graecorum iusus, ex recensione Brunckii. Lips. 1794. 
23 vols. 8. ; the first 4 vols, contain the text, more correct ; the 5th consists of various tables and 
references ; the remaing 8 contain a valuable commentary by Jacobs. — By the same, Anthologia 
Grseca, ad fidem cod. olim Palatini nunc Parisini, ex apographo Gothano edita, curavit, epi- 
grammata in cod. Pal. desiderata et annotat. critic, adjecit F. Jacobs. Lips. 1813, 17. 3 vols. 8. 
("un corps complet des epigrammes grecques restant de 1'antiquite." Sciibll.) — The text of this 
edition is followed in the stereotype edition of Tauchnitz. Lipz. 1819. 3 vols. 12mo.— There are 
smaller collections : by A. F. Kanne. Halle, 1799. 8. ; A. Weichert. Meizen. 1823. 8. ; Melea- 
ger's Sinngedichte [epigrams], by Manso. Jena, 1789. 8. ; and by Grasfe. Leipz. 1811. 8.— Engl, 
translations of some of the pieces, by Robert Bland and others, Collections from the Greek An- 
thology, comprising the fragments of early lyric poetry, with specimens of all the poets included 
In Meleager's Garland. Lond. 1833. Reviewed in Blackwood's Mag. June, 1833. — There are 
tasteful translations into German of some of the most beautiful pieces in Herder's Zerstreute 

Blcetter. Gotha, 1785. 8. ; several also in Tempe (by F. Jacobs). Leipz. 1803. 2 vols. 8 Cf. 

Edlnb. Rev. vol. ix. — Lond. Quart. Rev. x. 139. 

For accounts of Anthologies, &c. see Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. livr. v. ch. 51. livr. vi. ch. 72. — 
Fuhrmann, Kleineres Handbuch, &c. p. 83, 474. — Schneider, Analecta critica Fasc. I. — F.Jacobs, 
Prolegomena, in his Anthol. Grcec. Lips. 1794. ss. — Harles, Introd. in Hist. L. G. Proleg. vol. i. 
p. 91. 

§ 36. (I) Dramatic Poetry. Dramatic poetry took its rise from the religious 
ceremonies of the Greeks. It was an essential part of the public worship of 
the gods, especially of Bacchus at Athens, that there should be choirs com- 
posed of a sort of actors, who should, with dancing, singing, and instrument- 
al music, represent some story relating to the divinity worshiped. 

Herodotus states, that the people of Sicyon thus represented by actors the 
adventures of Adrastus, whom they honored as a god, and although referring 
to a period anterior to the existence of dramatic poetry, he calls these choirs 
of actors tragic, because they represented the sufferings (r« nix&sa) of Adras- 
tus. Suidas and Photius mention Epigenes the Sicyonian as the inventor of 
tragedy. Themistius asserts expressly, that tragedy was invented by the Sic- 
yonians, and perfected by the Athenians. — The father of history also states,, 
that when the inhabitants of ^Egina took away from the Epidaurians the stat- 
ues of two national divinities of the latter, and erected them in their own 
island, they instituted in honor of the same, choirs of females under the di- 
rection of a male leader, in imitation of the Epidaurians. These choirs, in 
the worship rendered to the divinities, performed what might, by an anachro- 
nism similar to the other just mentioned, be called comic dramas. 

At Athens, as has been intimated, there were choirs like, those of Sicyon 
and iEgina, that performed a part in the festivals of Bacchus. Sometimes 
representing, by their dances, songs, and gestures, the expeditions of Bac- 
chus and other events of his life, sometimes yielding to the intoxication that 
accompanies the pleasures of the vintao-e, they constantly vaunted the praises 
of the god, to whom they were indebted for the vine. These performances 
were conducted with a high degree of licentiousness both in language and in 
action. 

In these performances the drama had its origin. Probably at first they did 
not include what is now understood either by action or by fable. The songs 
employed were lyric in their nature. Those sung by the choirs of Sicyon 
and iEgina were lyric, but of a tragic or comic character. But at length it 
began to be a custom to interrupt the song of the choir by the representation 
of some scene or action, which was called fyaua or insioodior, that is, some- 
thing acted or something brought in. The murder of Bacchus or Osiris by 
Typhon was, it is likely, one of the most common subjects thus represented. 



TRAGEDY. 169 

But subjects of a grotesque character would also be natural, from the great 
license attending the Dionysiac festivals. Gradually, and from causes of 
which tradition preserves no account, three distinct kinds or varieties of rep- 
resentation arose ; and these laid the foundation of the three branches of the 
Greek drama, viz. tragedy, comedy, and satyre. 

§37. (1) Tragedy. The etymology of the word tragedy is uncertain ; perhaps 
it was derived from the circumstance that a goat (rQayog) was the prize re- 
ceived by the conqueror. Tragedy was an improvement upon the chorus of 
the Bacchian festivals, and for a long time retained marks of its origin ; hav- 
ing taken its rise, beyond question, from the songs at these annual festivals 
of the god of dissipation, when the poet who furnished the most popular piece 
was rewarded with a goat, or perhaps a goat-skin of wine. The chorus was a 
principal and essential part of the tragedy ; it was lyric in structure, and like 
other lyric poems usually presented the regular division of strophe, antistro- 
phe, and epode. [n tragedy the chorus was charged with the exposition of 
the fable ; it praised the gods and justified them against the complaints of the 
suffering and the unhappy ; it sought to soothe the excited passions and to 
impart lessons of wisdom and experience, and in general to suggest useful 
practical reflections. 

The chorus usually never quitted the stage, but remained during the whole performance. 
Their presence was indispensable, because the tragedy was not as among the moderns divid- 
ed into acts ; it served also to preserve the unity of the piece. The chorus was usually com- 
posed of men of advanced age and experience, or of young virgins of uncontaminated minds. 
The numlier of yoQEvrai was at first quite large 5 in the Eumenides of yEschylus it con- 
sisted of fifty ; but after the representation of that piece, it was limited to fifteen. It was di- 
vided into two portions, each having its chief or head styled y.oovcpcaog. When united they 
were jointly under the direction of a leader styled /oqrjybg or usou/oqog. When they took 
part in the dialogue, it was done by the Coryphaeus or leader. The portion strictly lyrical 
was sung by the whole chorus together, accompanied by the flute. When the chorus moved, 
it was in the orchestra (oQx t 'l or Q a ) ; when still, they occupied the thymele (-dviiiP.il), a sort 
of altar placed in the orchestra, whence as spectators they could look upon all that transpired 
on the stage. In singing the part termed the strophe, the chorus moved in a sort of dance 
across the orchestra from right to left ; and back from left to right, while uttering the antistro- 
phe; in the epode, they stood in front of the audience. Tragedy had its appropriate kind of 
dance, termed aiuie/.sia ; that of comedy was called, xoqda^ ; and that of satyre, oixivvig. 
The chorus was' instructed in performing its part frequently by the poet himself. (P. I. $ 66.) 
The expense of preparing and furnishing a chorus for an exhibition was often very great ; it 
was defrayed by individuals (/oor/yoi) designated by the civil authorities. (Potter's Arch. 
Graec. bk. i. ch. xv.) 

Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. livr. iii. ch. xi. — On the import of the chorus, SchlegeVs Dramat. Lit. 
lect. iii. — Heeren, Diss, de chori trag. Graec. natura. Goett. 1785. 4. — llgen, Chorus Graec. qua- 
lis fuerit, &c. Erf. 1797. 8. — Vatry, On the tragic chorus in the Mem. Acad, Inscr. Tin. 199. — 
Franklin, Diss, on the Tragedy of the ancients. Lond. 1762.— On the music of the chorus ; 
J. J\T. Forkel, Allg. Gesch. der Musik. 

§ 38. Thespis, of Icarus (a ward of Attica), contemporary with Solon and 
Pisistratus, is regarded as the inventor of tragedy. Much obscurity rests on 
the changes, which were introduced by this poet, as the work of the peripa- 
tetic Chamasleon of Heraclea, which treated of the subject, is lost. His 
first innovation appears to have been in relation to the chorus. Before Thes- 
pis, its actorfe were masked as Satyrs and indulged in the most licentious free- 
dom in amusing their auditors ; he assigned them a more decent part. He 
also introduced an actor whose recitals allowed intervals of rest to the chorus. 
Other events besides the exploits of Bacchus were likewise made the subject 
of representation. But Solon prohibited the exhibition of his tragedies as 
being useless fabrications. The performances of Thespis were no doubt rude. 
The stage is said to have been a cart, the chorus a troop of itinerant singers, 
the actor a sort of mimic, and the poem itself a motly combination of the se- 
rious and trifling, the ludicrous and the pathetic. — After twenty-five years, 
the prohibition was removed by Pisistratus, and Thespis reappeared with new 
glory. It was now, 537 B. C. according to the Parian marble, that he gained 
the prize in a tragic contest. 

Suidas gives the titles of four tragedies of this poet. There remain two fragments of doubt- 
ful authority, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, v.) and Plutarch (De audiendis poetis), 
and a third found in Pollux (lib. vn. 13.) 

Phrynicus, of Athens, is the next name in the history of tragedy. He was 
a disciple of Thespis, and introduced some changes, particularly the use of 

15 



170 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

the female mask. He employed however but one actor besides the chorus J 
yet this actor represented different persons, by changing the dress and masks. 
He was the author of a tragedy, which Themistocles caused to be exhibited 
with great magnificence, and which bore away the prize. The memory of its 
success was perpetuated by an inscription. — The first author, whose trage- 
dies are cited as having been committed to writing, was Choerilus of Athens, 
about 500 B. C. It was from regard to him that the Athenians constructed 
their first theatre. The ancients attribute to him 150 pieces, all lost. He is 
to be distinguished from Choerilus of Samos (§ 20), and from Choerilus of Ia- 
sus, the contemporary of Alexander. 

§ 39. The real father of tragedy was JEsckylus of Eleusis, who flourished 
in the time of the Persian war, and fought in the battles of Marathon, Sala- 
mis, and Plataea. Before him, the fable formed but a secondary part, the epi- 
sode of tragedy ; he made it the principal part, by adding a second actor and 
speaker, and thus introducing a dialogue in which the chorus did not always 
take a share. Sophocles of Athens, a contemporary of iEschylus but 27 or 
28 years younger, added a third speaker and sometimes even a fourth. Thus 
the importance of the chorus was diminished, and the dialogue engrossed the 
chief interest of the play. Under Sophocles, Greek tragedy received its final 
and perfect form. A third distinguished tragic writer, contemporary with the 
two just named, was Euripides, born 16 or 17 years later than Sophocles- 
Euripides added nothing to tragedy in respect to the external structure ; but 
in tragic interest he excelled both his precursors. The productions of these 
three authors were regarded by the Athenians as monuments of national glo- 
ry. The orator Lycurgus procured the enactment of a law, directing that an 
accurate and authentic copy of the tragedies of iEschylus, Sophocles, and 
Euripides should be deposited in the archives of the state, under the care of 
the magistrate called yQuuuaTsvg rfjg no'lzug. This copy, it is said, was ob- 
tained by Ptolemy III., son and successor of Philadelphus king of Egypt, on 
a pledge of 15 talents, for the purpose of correcting by it the copies in use at 
Alexandria ; he chose to forfeit the money and retain the original manuscript, 
sending back to Athens a copy in its stead. 

Some have expressed doubts whether we possess the exact productions of the poets above 
mentioned, as they came from their fertile imaginations. Corrections and additions may have 
been made by persons called Siaoxsvuarai. Those of iEschylus are said to have been re- 
touched by Bion, Euphorion, and Philocles ; those of Sophocles, by his sons Iophon and Aris- 

ton; and those of Euripides, by Cephisophorus. See Aug. Ba:ckh,Greec. Tragcedise principum 

^Eschyli, Sophoclis, Euripidis, num. ea qua? supersunt et genuina omnia sint et forma primiti- 
va servata, &c. Heidelb. 1303. 8. 

The history of tragedy in Greece, so far as it is chiefly important, is com- 
paratively brief. iEschylus, as has been stated, was its real author, and its 
history included but two other names of any distinction ; Sophocles and Eu- 
ripides complete the list. These were nearly contemporary. iEschylus, at 
the age of 45 fought at the battle of Salamis ; Euripides was born at that 
place on the very day of the battle ; and Sophocles, the same or the next year, 
being 16 or 17 years old, led the choir of singers and dancers around the 
trophy erected to commemorate the same battle. Of their writings only about 
30 plays remain to us. But their reputation rests on a basis more solid than 
the quantity of what they produced or time has spared. 

Perhaps, however, the plays now extant are valued the more because they are so few, being 
considered, as it were, the savings of a vast wreck. There was a rich abundance of dramatic 
works amon<r the Creeks. Pieces once exhibited were seldom again brought forward, and this 
circumstance may have increased their number. Authors cite at least two hundred tragedies 
of the first order, and five hundred of the second ; and the number of inferior merit is still 
greater. — See Wolf & Buttmann, Museum der Alterthumskunde, vol. i. f 

§ 40. Besides the three eminent tragic poets, the grammarians of Alexan- 
dria placed in their canon three others, viz. Ion of Chios, Achasus of Eretria, 
and Agatho of Athens, nearly contemporary with the three whose names are 
so illustrious. Only a few fragments of their works remain; they may be 
found in the collection of Grot'ms (cf. § 43). The names of above twenty 
others are recorded as writers of tragedies before the time of Alexander ; but 
none of them are eminent, and nothing remains of their works but discon- 
nected fragments. Among them are Euphorion and Bion, sons of iEschylus, 
and Iophon, son of Sophocles. We find also in the catalogue, Critias and 
Theognis, two of the famous thirty tyrants. 



COMEDY. 171 

In the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth, there were a 
few tragic writers, whom the critics of Alexandria ranked in their second 
canon, the first including the masters who wrote before the death of Alexan- 
der. Their second canon, called the tragic Pleiades, included seven poets, 
who lived in the times of the first Ptolemies. They were Alexander of iEto- 
lia, Philiscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer the younger, iEantides, Sosipha- 
nes, and Lycophron. The first of these has been named among the elegiac, 
and the last among the lyric poets. The trifling fragments of these writers, 
now extant, are found in the collections of Frobenius (cf. § 31) and Grotius. 
Another poet, Timon, who for a while taught philosophy at Chalcedon, is said 
to have composed sixty tragedies. — Ptolemy Philadelphus, in order to en- 
courage the dramatic art, established theatrical contests like those at Athens. 
But the productions of the poets at Alexandria fell far short of those of Ath- 
ens in the preceding period. The tragedies were rather works for the cabinet 
than for the theatre, adapted for the amusement of princes and courtiers, or 
the inspection of cold critics, rather than for popular exhibition. They were 
productions of subtlety and artifice, but comparatively uninteresting and life- 
less. — After what is termed the Alexandrine age, nothing was produced in 
Greek tragedy. 

On the origin of Tragedy ; Schneider, De origin, trag. Gr. Vratisl. 1817. 8. — Vatry, Recher- 
ches sur l'orig. et le prog, de la Tragedie, in Mem. de VAcad. tome xxiii. xxx. xv. p. 255 ; xix. 
p. 219, of Paris ed. — Dr. Blair's Lect. xlv. — Marmontel, Poet, tome n. — Brumoy, Disc, sur l'o- 
rig. de la Trag. pref. to Theatre des Grecs.-R.ich. Bentley, Resp. ad C. Boyle (Opusc. Philol.). 

On the history and character of Gr. Tragedy ; Jos. Barnes, Tract, de Trag. Vet. Grcec. &c, 
in his ed. of Euripides. — Le Beau, Des Tragiques Gr., in Mem. de VAcad. xxxv. — J. J. H. Nast, 
Ohs. in rem tras. Grrec. Stuttg. 1778.— Barthelemy, Anacharsis, ch. lxix-lxxi. — Ji. Augen, De 
la Trag. Gr. &c. Par. 1792.— Brumoy, Theatre des Grecs, ed. Raoul Rochette. Par. 1820.— Schler- 
gel's Lectures on Dramat. Lit. (tr. bv Black.) Lond. 1815. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xn. 121 ss. 
—Theatre of the Greeks. Cambr. 1830. 8.—Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre iii. ch. xi.— Cf. Bibl. 
Repository, No. xviii. p. 475. — Talfourd's Ion has been pronounced a successful imitation of 
the Greek tragedy. Cf. North Amer. Rev. April, 1837. 

§ 41. (2) Comedy. Epicharmus of Cos, who was a professor of the Pytha- 
gorean philosophy at the court of Hiero, in Sicily, about 470 B. C, is usually 
considered as the first writer of comedy. The species cultivated by him is 
called Sicilian comedy, which the ancient writers distinguished from the Attic 
comedy. — Fifty comedies are ascribed to him, but the fragments preserved 
(found in the collection of Hertel, cf. § 43.) scarcely enable us to judge of 
their character. Pkormis, of Syracuse, was another writer in the same spe- 
cies. The pieces of Epicharmus are said to have been known and admired 
especially by the Athenians, and to have given a great impulse to the culti- 
vation of comedy among that people. (Bartlielemif s Anacharsis, ch. lxix.) 

Scholl gives the following account of the origin of Attic comedy. "Between 
Tragedy and Comedy in modern literature there is such an analogy that they 
are justly regarded as two species of the same genus. From this it has been 
imagined, that both had the same origin among the ancients. But it is not 
so. Tragedy grew out of the songs with which the cities of Greece celebrat- 
ed the festivals of Bacchus. Comedy, on the other hand, took its origin in 
the country. The wards or boroughs (STiioi) of Attica were accustomed to 
unite in singing the phallic songs (<pa?J.iza), in which the most unrestrained 
licentiousness was allowed. The performers, drawn in cars, proceeded from 
borough to borough ; their numbers increased at every station ; and they 
strolled about the country until their excesses forced them to seek repose. 
Hence comedy derived its name from zci/n], a village. The two species of 
drama followed in their progress a different course. They were for a long 
time strangers to each other, and it was not till a late period that comedy 
adopted the improvements embraced by her sister. At length, however, the 
chorus, which had played the principal part, as in tragedy, lost its primitive 
importance, and it finally happened that comedy appeared on the stage with- 
out this accompaniment." 

Susarion of Megara, about 570 B. C, is described as traversing the territo- 
ry of Attica with an exhibition of these burlesque pieces, which constituted 
the beginnings of comedy. Crates, about 500 B. C, is said to have given to 
them a more complete and perfect form. From this time tragedy was not the 
only representation attending the festivals of Bacchus ; comedy was associ- 
ated with it as a novel spectacle. 



172 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Mythology furnished but few of the subjects of comedy in the character, 
which it first assumed after its introduction from the country to the city. It 
was a complete contrast to tragedy. Passing events, the politics of the day, 
the characters and deeds of leading chiefs, the civil and military officers, and 
in short every thing pertaining to public or private affairs, entered into the 
materials, with which it amused the hearers. It was therefore obviously lia- 
ble to great abuse. No citizen could be secure from attacks, which were not 
made by mere allusion, but more frequently by naming the person and por- 
traying his features upon the mask of the actor. It is this use of personal 
satire, which essentially characterizes what is called the old comedy. 

The grammarians of Alexander have ranked, as belonging to the old come- 
dy, six poets ; viz. Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Pherecrates, 
and Plato, called the comic, to distinguish him from the philosopher. The 
first has already been spoken of. Aristophanes is the only one of the rest of 
whom we have any whole pieces extant. The fragments of the others may 
be found in the collection of Grotius. The plays of Aristophanes justify and 
illustrate the character above ascribed to the old comedy. Besides these six 
poets, more than twenty others are recorded as authors in this kind of come- 
dy, of several of whom trifling fragments are preserved. 

See P. F. Kanngiesser, Die alte Komische Buehne in Athen. Breslau, 1817. 8. — Vatry, La 
vieille comedie, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. 245. 

§ 42. The old comedy continued until the time of the Thirty, when, B. C, 
404, a law was enacted which prohibited the use of living characters and real 
names, and also of the naQa§aoig of the chorus. This gave rise to what is 
called the middle comedy. All that we know historically of this, is from the 
remarks of an ancient grammarian by the name of Platonius. (See HerteVs 
Collection.) But there is one piece of Aristophanes, the W.ovrog, which is a 
specimen of the kind ; it was not represented until after the law abolishing 
the old form. The chief peculiarity is the exclusion of personal satire. It 
seems also to have consisted in a considerable degree of parodies. — The 
grammarians of Alexandria regarded two authors in the middle comedy as 
classic ; viz. Antiphanes of Rhodes and Alexis of Thurii. No more than in- 
significant scraps are left of the 360 pieces ascribed to the former, or the 145 
of the latter. There were between thirty and forty other writers whose names 
are preserved, with the titles of some of their comedies. 

The comic chorus consisted of twenty-four members, even after the tragic was limited to 
fifteen. There were other points of difference. " It frequently happens that there are sever- 
al choruses in the same comedy, who at one time all sing together, and in opposite positions, 
and at other times change with, and succeed each other without any general reference. The 
most remarkable peculiarity, however, of the comic chorus is the parabasis, an address to the 
spectators by the chorus, in the name and under the authority of the poet, which has no con- 
cern with the subject of the piece. Sometimes he enlarges on his own merits, and ridicules 
the pretentions of his rivals ; at other times he avails himself of his rights as an Athenian 
citizen to deliver proposals of a serious or ludicrous nature for the public goood. The parab- 
asis may be considered as repugnant to the essence of dramatic representation. All tragical 
impressions are by such intermixtures infallibly destroyed ; but these intentional interrup- 
tions, though even more serious than the subject of the representation, are hailed with wel- 
come in the comic tone." — Schlegel, on Dram. Lit., lect. vi. — See also Schbll, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre 
iii. ch. xiii. on the parts of the comic chorus, mxQuSaoig, tTcifJQijiia, avrsniooriya, &c. — 
Le Beau, sur le Plutus d'Aristoph. et sur les caracteres assignes a la comedie moyenne, in the 
Mem. de V&cad. cles Inscr. et Belles Lettres, tome xxx. 

§ 43. The new comedy belongs wholly to the Alexandrian period of Greek 
literature. In this the chorus wholly disappeared, having been deprived of 
its most important functions by the change from the old to the middle. The 
new comedy instead of indulging in personal satire with the use of real names 
like the old, or turning into ludicrous parodies the verses and themes of other 
poets like the middle, aimed more to paint manners. "The new comedy," 
says Schlegel, " is a mixture of seriousness and mirth. The poet no longer 
himself turns poetry and the world into ridicule ; he no longer gives himself 
up to a sportive and frolicsome inspiration, but endeavors to discover what is 
ridiculous in the objects themselves; in human characters and situations he 
paints that which occasions mirth." 

The most celebrated writer in the new comedy was Menander, whose pieces 
are spoken of by the ancients with great admiration, and their loss is much 
regretted. He began to write at the age of twenty, and is said to have com' 



SATYRE. 173 

posed a hundred plays. Besides Menander, the Alexandrian critics recognise 
four others as possessing classical merit, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon and 
Apollodorus. Several other names are also recorded, which it is of no im- 
portance to repeat. 

Although the plays belonging to the new comedy were very numerous, 
amounting it is said to some thousands, not a single original specimen is pre- 
served. We have however several imitations or translations in the Roman 
authors Plautus and Terence. 

On Comedy generally ; P. Ic Bran, Disc, sur la Comedie &c. Par. 1731.— Eschenburg's 
Entwurf. — Hard's Comment, on Ep. Hor. Lond. 1753,1766.— M. de Cailhava, De l'Art de la com- 
edie, Par. 1772. 4 vol. 8. B. Bidwhi, Essay on Comedy. Lond. 1782. 8. On the Gr. Com- 
edy ; Schlegel, Lect. on Dramat. Lit. — Brwtnoy, Disc, sur la com. Gr. in his Theatre des Grecs. 
— Theatre of the Greeks cited § 40. — Vatni, Recherch. surl'or. et les prog, de la Com. Gr. in 
Mem. de VAcad. T. xxv. vol. xvi. p. 389. of Par. ed.—Fla-gePs Gesch. d. kom. Literatur.— For 
the fragments of the comic poets, Jac. Hertel, Vetustis. sapientiss. comicor. Qumquaginta Sen- 
tent.iee.~Bas. 1560. Brix. 1612.— Hear. Stephanies, Comicor. Grsec. Sent. Frankf. 1579. 8. H. Gro- 
tius, Excerp. ex Trag. et Com. Gr. Par. 1626. 4.— J. Clericus (Le Clerc), Menandri et Philemonis 
Fragm. Ams. 1709. 8. 

§ 44. (3) Satyre. The following account of the satyric drama is given by 
Barthelemy. ''After having traced the progress of tragedy and comedy, it 
remains to speak of a species of drama, which unites the pleasantry of the lat- 
ter, to the gravity of the former. This, in like manner, derives its origin 
from the festivals of Bacchus, in which choruses of Sileni and Satyrs inter- 
mingled jests and raillery with the hymns they sang in honor of that god. 
The success the} 7 met with gave the first idea of the satyric drama, a kind of 
poem in which the most serious subjects are treated in a manner at once af- 
fecting and comic. It is distinguished from tragedy by the kind of person- 
ages it admits ; by the catastrophe, which is never calamitous ; and by the 
strokes of pleasantry, bon-mots and buffooneries, which constitute its princi- 
pal merit. It differs from comedy by the nature of the subject, by the air of 
dignity which reigns in some of the scenes, and the attention with which it 
avoids all personalities. It is distinct from both the tragic and comic dramas 
by rhythms which are peculiar to it, by the simplicity of its fable, and by the 
limits prescribed to the duration of its action ; for the satyre is a kind of en- 
tertainment, which is performed after the tragedies as a relaxation to the spec- 
tators. The scene presents to view groves, mountains, grottoes, and land- 
scapes of every kind. The personages of the chorus, disguised under the 
grotesque forms attributed to the satyrs, sometimes execute lively dances with 
frequent leaps, and sometimes discourse in dialogue, or sing, with the gods or 
heroes, and from the diversity of thoughts, sentiments and expressions, re- 
sults a striking and singular contrast." 

; - The satyrical drama," says Schlegel, " never possessed an independent 
existence ; and it was given as an appendage to several tragedies, and from 
all we can conjecture was always considerably shorter. In external form it 
resembled tragedy and the materials were in like manner mythological. The 
distinctive mark was a chorus consisting of satijrs, who accompanied the ad- 
ventures of the fable with lively songs, gestures and movements. The im- 
mediate cause of this species of drama was derived from the festivals of Bac- 
chus, where satyr-masks were a common disguise. As the chorus was thus 
composed of satyrs, and they performed the peculiar dances alluded to (2ixir- 
ry or aiy.nric), it was not a matter of indifference where the poet should place 
the scene of his fable ; the scene must be where such a choir might naturally, 
according to Grecian fancy, display itself; not in cities or palaces, but in a 
forest, a mountain, a retired valley, or on the sea-shore." 

The great tragic authors, iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, each distin- 
guished themselves by pieces of this kind. Several other writers in the same 
age are mentioned, as Pratinus, Aristias. Xenocles, and Philoxenes. But the 
most distinguished of all, in the satyric drama, were Achreus of Eretia, and 
Hegemon of Thasus. 

" The latter added a new charm to the satyric drama," says Barthelemv, " by parodying 
several well known tragedies. The artifice and neatness with which he executed these paro™ 
dies, rendered his pieces greatly applauded, and frequently procured them the crown. During 
trie representation of his Gigat»tomazh a, and while the' whole audience were in a violent fit of 
laughter, news arrived of the defeat-of the army in Sicily. Hegemon proposed to break off the 
piece abruptly ; but the Athenians, without removing from their places, covered themselves 

15* 



174 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

with their cloaks, and after having paid the tribute of a few tears to their relatives who had 
fallen in the battle, listened with the same attention as before to the remainder of the entertain- 
ment." 

The Cyclops of Euripides is the only drama of this species that has come down to us. Its 
subject is drawn from Homer's Odyssey 5 it is Ulysses depriving Polyphemus of his eye, after 
having made him drunk with wine. In order to connect with this a chorus of satyrs, the poet 
represents Silenus and his sons the satyrs as seeking over every sea for Bacchus carried away 
by pirates. In the search, they are wrecked upon the shores of Sicily, enslaved by Cyclops, 
and forced to tend his sheep. When Ulysses is cast upon the same shore, they league with him 
against their master ; but their cowardice renders them very poor assistants to him, while they 
take advantage of his victory and escape from the island, by embarking with him. The piece 
derives its chief value from its rarity, and being the only specimen from which we can form an 
estimate of the species of composition to which it belongs. 

Casaubon, de satyrica Grsecorum poesi. Hals, 1779. 8. — H. C. A. Eichst'ddt, de Dram. Grcec. 
Comico-Satyrico. Lips. 1793. 8. — Brumoy, Disc, sur le Cyclope d'Euripide &c. in Theatre des 
Grecs. — J. H. Buhlc, de Fabula Satyr. Grsec. Gcett. 1787. 4. — Salter's Allg. Theorie, Satire. 

§ 45. It is important not to confound these satyrical compositions of the 
Greeks, which have now been described, with the satire of the Romans, which 
was totally different in its nature. 

It may be remarked however here, that the Greeks had satire in various 
forms both in poetry and prose. The Mar git es of Homer may be considered 
as a sort of epic satire. Of lyric satire (or iambic as it may be called, from the 
verse generally used), a few fragments remain from different authors. Archi- 
lochus is one of them. Another was Simonides of Nimoa in the island of 
Amorgos, author of a satire upon women. We may add the name of Hipponax 
(Hor. Ep. vi. 12.) j who employed, perhaps invented, the Choliambic verse 
(zoj/.taufiog, 'iaupog, oxulcov), as best adapted to satirical purposes. 

Here also may be mentioned the poems called 2[U.oi ; for they were a kind 
of satire. They have been called by some didactic satire, as they seem to have 
ridiculed especially the pretensions of ignorance. They were a sort of parody, 
in which the verses of distinguished poets, Homer particularly, were applied 
in a ludicrous manner to the object of the satire. Xenophanes of Colophon is 
regarded as the first author of this species. Yet the only writer, of whom it is 
certain that he composed 2Ukoi, is Timon of Phlius, the sceptic philosopher 
already named (§ 40) as a dramatist. His satires formed three books, and were 
very caustic. A few fragments are extant. He enjoyed a high reputation with 
the ancients, and Athenaeus states that commentaries were written upon his 
2i?.?.oi. This is not the place to speak of the prose satire of the Greeks, but 
it may be remarked that the principal writers were Lucian and the emperor 
Julian. 

Le Beau on Homer's Margites, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. torn, xxix, xxx. 4to edit. — 
E. L. D. Huchs, Versuch iiber die Verdienste des Archilochus um die Satire. Zerbst. 1767. 8. — 

The fragments of Hipponax were published by Theoph.Fr. Welcker. Gcett. 1817. 4. Is. Heinr. 

Lantrheinrich, de Timono sillographo. Lips. 1720, 21. 4. — Suiter' s Allg. Theor. art. Satire. — 
SchWl, Hist. Gr. Lit. livre iv. ch. 34. — Fr. Wclke, De Graecorum Sillis. Varsaviag. 1820. 8. — 
Fred. Paul, de Sillis Grsecorum. Berol. 1821. 8. — The fragments may be found in Brunch's 
Analecta. — Sallicr, Oxig. et caract. de la Parodie, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 398. 

§ 46. Besides the three regular varieties of the drama already described, the 
Greeks had a great number of performances which were of the nature of farces. 
At festal entertainments buffoons were often introduced, whose pantomime 
was mingled with extemporary dialogue (hvroy.a^Sulai) . In the theatre, ludi- 
crous and indelicate representations were made by actors called uui.oi. Pieces* 
of this sort were termed ?.voicoSoi or uaycodui. No specimen of them is pre- 
served. 

The name of mimes (utuoi) was at length given to little poems designed to 
bring before the spectator or reader an incident or story, which was not, like 
that of tragedy, drawn from mythology or heroic adventures, nor like that of 
comedy, taken from civil or political life, but furnished by domestic occur- 
rences. A piece of this sort contained a painting of manners and characters, 
without a complete fable. Sophron of Syracuse, B.C. 420, is mentioned as a 
writer of mimes. His pieces were written in the Doric dialect, and not in 
proper verse, but in a kind of measured prose {y.uraloyu8i}v) . Plato very much 
admired them, and encouraged at Athens a taste for such performances. The 
few fragments of Sophron's mimes which remain are not sufficient to enable 
us to judge fully respecting their character. The fifteenth idyl of Theocritus 
is an imitation of one of them. A commentary on the mimes of Sophron was 



PRINCIPAL POETS. 175 

written by Apollodorus of Athens. Another author of mimes was Philistion of 
Nicea, who flourished, in the last days of Socrates. 

For the fragments of Sophron, see Classical Journal, vol. i v. Museum Criticum (Camb. Engl.), 
No. vn. Nov. 1821. The sentences of Philistion and Menander were published by Nic. Rioou- 
let. Par. 1613. 8. 

§ 47. In concluding this sketch of the Grecian drama, it may be remarked 
that the Athenians had not, like the moderns, a regular theatre, daily open for 
public amusement. Dramatic representations were appropriated to religious 
festivals. Performances designed for public exhibition were submitted to the 
first Archon. When this magistrate judged them worthy of appearing, he as- 
signed the poet a choir or chorus, an ornament or appendage so essential that 
no piece could be performed without it. Great pomp attended the choral ser- 
vice, that it might seem worthy of the auspices of a divinity. The expenses 
were defrayed by the rich citizens to whom the tribes decreed the honor, or 
assigned the tax. The citizens vied with each other in the splendor and mag- 
nificence with which they furnished these theatrical displays, which might 
serve to promote their private political interests under the name of generosity 
and patronage. 

The labor of the poet was not ended, as in modern times, with furnishing 
the composition for the use of the declaimers or actors. He was obliged to 
form his band of speakers, distribute the parts, and make them learn and re- 
hearse. He was also obliged to instruct the chorus how to conform their 
movements to the voice of the coryphaeus. Often the poet became himself an 
actor, and assumed one of the more difficult parts. The laborious task was 
expressed by the phrase diSaoxsiv fycuia. In this view the poets were termed 
diSaoy.alot, and the instruction given by them to the performers was called 
technically SiSaaxa/.ia. This last term was, however, afterwards used in an- 
other sense in reference to the drama; viz. to signify something like what we 
should call a literary notice, giving an account of the title and subject of a play, 
the time of its exhibition, its success, its author, and the actors, &c. Aristotle 
and the critics of Alexandria composed such notices (8idaoy.u?.lat), which were 
no doubt accompanied with critical remarks, and the loss of which is a matter 
of great regret. Scholl, vol. n. p. 9. 

§ 47£. Having glanced in a general manner at the history of Greek 
poetry in each of its departments, the plan already pointed out (§ 8) 
leads us now to notice more particularly the principal poets. 

In doing this, it will be recollected, we are to arrange the names in chrono- 
logical order. To a brief notice of the poet and his works, a view of the 
more important editions, translations, and other illustrative works, will be ad- 
ded. Before commencing with individuals, however, we will subjoin here 
some references to works which relate to the Greek poets, or classes of them, 
collectively. 

1. History and character. — Lil. Greg. Giraldi Historiae Poetar. tarn Graec. quam Latin. Dia- 
logi X. Bas. 1548. 8. — G.J. Vossius, de veterum poetarum Grsecorum et Latinorum temporibus. 
Amst. 1654. 4. — Hartmann, Versuch einer allg. Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Rbmen. 
Berl. 1788. 8. — Le Fevre, Vies des Poetes Grecs. — Lor. Crasso, Istoria d'Poeti Greci. Nap. 1678. 
fol. — B. Kennet, Lives and Characters of the ancient Grecian Poets. Lond.1697. 8. — Charac- 
tere der cornehmsten Dichter aller Nationen &c. von einer Gcsellschaft von Gelehrten. Lpz. 1792 
ss. 8. — C. A. Elton, Specimens of the Classic Poets from Homer to Tryphiodorus. Lond.1814. 
3 vols. 12. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xm. 151. — G. H. Bode, Geschichte des Hellenischen Dicht- 
kunst. Lpz. 1838. 2 vols. 8. to be continued. 

2. Collections. — R. F. Ph. Brunck, Hdixt, nolijOtg, sive Gnomici poetae Graeci. Arg. 1784. 
8.— Same, with additions, by 6?. Sch'dfer. Leips.1817. 8. — Claude Chapelet,Poet3d graeci christiani. 
Par.1669. 8.— Mm. Porti Novem Lyrici Grsecorum. (pr.Commeline) Heidelb.1598. 8. Repr. Anjou. 
1611.4. — Stephanus, c Ot rijg i^owiy.^g jtot^oaojg TCQonivovrsg noitrxui xai lixX/.oi Tivig. 
Poetae grcBciprinc. heroic, carm. Par. 1566. fol. — By same, LToitjOig cpu.oOcxpog. Poesis phi- 
losophica, &c. Par. 1573. 8. — J. Leclius, Poetae graeci veteres, carmini heroici Scriptores, &c. 
Aurel. Allobrog. 1606. fol. — Same, Poetae graeci veteres tragici, comici, &c. Colon. Allobrog' 
1614. 2 vols. fol. — Mich. Mattaire, Miscellanea Graecorum aliquot scriptorum carmina. Lond. 
1722. 4.— Morel, E comicis graecis xlii deperditis sententiae collectae (gr. et lat.) Par. 1553. 8. — 
Jl. Schneider, Movnoiv ar6t], sive poetriarum Graecarum carminum fragmenta. Giessae. 1702. 
8. ; containing the fragments of Sappho, Erinne, Myro, Corinna, &c. — R. Winterton> s Poetae 
minores graeci. gr. et lat. Cantab. 1635, et al. Lond. 1739. 8. — Thorn. Gaisford, Poetae minores 
Graeci. Oxf. 1814— 20. 4 vols. 8. containing Hesiod, Theognis, Archilocus, Solon, Simonides, 
Mirnnermus, Callinus, Tyrtaeus, Phocylides, Naumachius, Linus, Panyasis, Rhianus, Evenus, 
Pythagoras, Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, with the scholia to Hesiod and Theocritus An im- 



176 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

proved ed. of Oahford's Coll. was published, Lpz 1823. 5 vols. 8. containing Sappho, Alcseus? 
and Stesichorus, in addition. — J. F. Boissonade, Poetarum Gnecorum Sylloge. Par. 1823 — 32* 
in 24 vols. 32. ; containing, vol. i. Anacreon, with fragments of others ; vol. u. Theocritus, 
Bion, Moschus ; in. Theognis, Tyrtaeus, Phocylides, Callinus, Mimnermus, Solon, Simonides, 
Naumachus, Pythagoras, Linus, Panyasis, Rhianus, Evenus, Eratosthenes, and small fragments; 
iv-vn. Homer ; vm. Callimachus, Cleanthes, Proclus 5 ix. x. Sophocles; xi. Hesiod ; xn. 
xiii. iEschylus ; xiv. Pindar (after Bceckh) ; x v. Lyrici, Synesius, Gregorius ; xvi-xx. Euripi- 
des (text of Matthiae) ; xxi.-xxiv. Aristophanes. — WiegeVs Bibliotheca Classica. Lpz. 1828 ss. 
12. — Teubner's Auctores Classici. Lpz. 1824 ss. 12. with " correct text, and beautiful type." 
— Tauchnitz, Corpus Poet. Gra3C Lpz. 1832. — F. Melhorn, Anthologia Lyrica. Lpz. 1827. 12. 
W. E. Weber, Die elegische Dichter. Gibbc. & Germ. Frankf. 1825. 8. — J. F. Boissonade, Anec- 
dota Graeca, e codicibus Regiis. Par. (begun) 1829. 8. 1st vol. a Gnomic coll. — Dichter Griechische 
in neu. metrisch. Uebersetzungen ; herausgegeben voiiTafcl,Osiander und Schwab. Lpz. 1830-7. 
11 vols. 12. of various merit : chiefly very good. 

3. In noticing editions of the Greek authors, the translator encounters a peculiar difficulty. 
To many persons every thing except merely naming a good edition of each author will appear 
superfluous. Others will scarcely be satisfied without such specification and description as 
properly belong to works expressly bibliographical. The following plan is adopted under the 
impression that it will be, on the whole, the most zisefal. The editions which are judged to be 
best, on account of a generally good text and a good critical apparatus of readings, comments, <fcc. 
will be first mentioned, after the letter B. — Next after the letter F, will be named in chrono- 
logical order such other editions as have been celebrated, from the Princeps, or earliest, to the 
year 1800. — Last will be given, after the letter R, the editions since 1800, which are known to 
be worthy of notice, and are not named in the first list, or among the translations. In this third 
class, the mark § is employed to designate good school editions. Other marks are also employed, 
with a uniform signification wherever applied ; viz. the | to designate an edition distinguished 
for a pure or improved text ; the sign J to designate one having notes, excursuses, or other ac- 
companiments of special value. The star * is used to discriminate an edition, a translation, or 
any other work named, which is considered superior to others of the same class. 

§ 48. Orpheus, a Thracian, pupil of Linus, and companion of the 
Argonauts, lived about B. C. 1250. The tradition, that by his lyre 
he tamed wild beasts and moved inanimate things to action, is mere 
allegory, and refers only to the moral improvement effected perhaps 
by means of his song. 

1 u. The works ascribed to him are Hymns, Tslsral, twenty-eight in num- 
ber ; a historical poem on the expedition of the Argonauts, 3 Aqyovavrixu ; a 
metrical treatise on the secret powers of Stones, LTeQi AI&ojv ; a piece on earth- 
quakes, IIsqL 2 sioudiv ', and other fragments. These poems are now consid- 
ered as the production of later times, composed at different periods. 

2. Editions. — B. — G. Hermann, Orphica cum notis H. Stephani, A. C. Eschenbachii, J. M. 
Gessneri, Th. Tyrwhitti, &c. Lips. 1805. 2 vols. 8. A stereotype ed. of this text. Lpz. 

1823. 12mo.— Of the Orphic Fragments, the most perfect collection is in Ch. A. Lobeck, Agla- 

ophamus, cited P. III. $ 12. 2 (a). F. — Princeps, Orphei Argonaut. Hymni. et Procli Lycii 

Hym. Grsec. Florent. 1500. 4. (imp. Junta).— Aldina. Ven. 1517. 8 Stephani, in Poet. Gr. 

princ. her. carm. cited §47. XGessneri, (ed. Hamberger). Lips. 1764. 8.— Th.Tyrwhitt, Trea- 
tise on Stones. Lond". 1781. 8. R. — J. G. Schneider, Araonautics. Jena. 1803. 8. — 

G. H. Schcefer, Orphica. Lpz. 1818. 8.—^. P. Dietsch, Hymni. (Gr. & Germ.) Erl. 1822. 4. 

3. Translations. — English. — Th. Taylor, Hymns; with preliminary dissert. Lond. 1787; 

1824. 8.— Dodd, Hymns ; in his Callimachus. Lond. 1755. German. — I. H. Voss, Argo- 

nautics. Heidelb, 1806. 4. — Dietsch, as above cited. Italian. — Ant. Jerogades, Innidi 

Orfeo, esposti in versi volgari. Neap. 1788. 8. Latin, by J. Scaliger. Ludg. Bal. 1516. 12. 

4. Illustrative. — Huet, in his Demonst. Evang. Prop. iv. c. 8. — Ruhnken, in Epist. Crit. 1782. — 
Fried Snedorf, de Hymn. Vet. Grcec. Lips. 1786.— Car. G. Lent, de Orphic. Frag. Gott. 
1789. — Gerlach, de Hymn. Orph. Comment. Gbtt. 1797.— Hermann, Diss, in his ed. of Orphe- 
us. — De Orphei Argonauticis. Rostoc, 1806. 4.— De argument, pro Antiq. Orph. Argon. Lips. 
18.11. 4.— *Bode, Orpheus Poet. Greec. Antiquiss. Gbtt. 1824. l.—Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. 1. 
p. 38. — North Amer. Rev. vol. xxi. — On the fables respecting the music of Orpheus, cf. Fra- 
guicr, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 117. 

§ 49. 3Iuscbus, according to tradition a contemporary of Orpheus, 
born at Athens, a poet and philosopher. The poem of Hero and 
Leander, Th y.a&> c Hqo> y.al Atavfyov, which has been ascribed to him, 
was certainly the work of a later age, probably the fifth century af- 
ter Christ. It contains many passages of epic beauty, but far too 
little of the simplicity belonging to its pretended age. 

1. There was a Musseus who flourished not far from A. D. 500. A letter 
from Procopius to him implies that he was a grammarian, which title is given 
to the author of the poem, in all the Manuscripts. Hence it is conjectured, 
that the real author was this person. 

We have the titles of many works ascribed to the ancient Musseus ; the 
following, besides others ; Xotjoubi, oracles ; Tzlsrui, initiations, a species of 



POETS. ORPHEUS. MUSJBUS. HOMER. 177 

poem referring to religious rites of an initiatory and expiatory kind, called 
also xa&aQuol, purifications, and rcaQa/.i'osig, absolutions; ^Axsaaig roowv; 
c Y7to&ijxai, precepts ; Utoi QaOTtqwrcov, describing the remarkable things of 
Thesprotia; Sipatqa, an astronomical poem, &c. — The few fragments of the 
ancient Musebus remaining are gathered in the collection of philosophic poetry 
by Stephanus. (See § 47.) 

2. Editions.— B.— J. Schrader. Leuward. 1742, 1793. 8.— *G. H. Schafer, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 

1825. 8 C. A. Motrins, Halle, 1814. 12. F.—Princeps, Aldina, Gr. et Lat. 1494 ; supposed 

the first work from the Aldine press ; extremely rare. — Juntina (Phil. Giunta), Grsec. et Latin. 
Florent. 1519. 8. — With other works, Gr. et Lat. ap. J. Frobenium. Bas. 1518. 8.— if. Stephani 
(in Poet. Grasc. princ. &c. cited §47.)— -\ J. H. Kronmayer. Halle, 1721. 8.— K. F. Heinrichs. 
Han. 1793. 8.— f M. Raver. Leyd." 1737. 8. With the Scholia, and from collation of 7 Mss. and 
17 editions (ed. being 17 years of age). — Du Theil, Gr. and Fr. Par. 1834. 12. 

3. Translations. — English.— G. Chapman. Lond. 1606. 4.— R. Stapylton. Oxford, 1645. 4. 
— Stirling. Lond. 1728. 12. — * Fr. Fawkes, with Anacreon, Sappho, and others. Lond. 1760. 

12.— J. Gram e, in Anderson's British Poets. Lond. 1795-1807. 8. 11th vol. French.— C. 

L. Mollerault, (met.) Par. 1805.— Da Theil, as above cited. — L B. Gail, (Gr. Lat. & Fr.) Par. 

1796. 4. German. — Fr. Passow. (Gr. & Ger.) Lpz. 1810. 8.—F. C. Fulda, (met.) Lpz. 

1795. 8. Italian. — Fr. Maz. Furao. Neap. 1787. S.— G. Pompei. Parm. 1793. 4. Cf. 

Suher's Theorie, vol. n. p. 508. 

4. Illustrative. — Prefaces of Schrader, Heinrich, and Passow. — Diss, in Kronmayer. — C. F. 
Hindenburg, Specimen Animadv. in Musseum. Lips. 1763. 4. — J. Ogilvie, in his Essay on the 
Lyric Poetry of the Ancients, &c. Lond. 1762. 4. — De la Name, Rem. sur l'Hist. d'Hero,&c. 
and Nic. Jtl'ahudel,Refl.. Crit. &c. in Mem. de PAcad. des laser, iv. & vu. p. 240. — Cf. Class. 
Jour. xvi. 126 ; xi. 88. 

§ 50. Homer lived about 1000 B. C, or perhaps later. The place 
of his birth is uncertain ; seven Grecian cities claimed the honor ; it 
probably belonged to Chios (Scio) or Smyrna. Most of the circum- 
stance related of his life are derived from two biographies, which 
haveibeen ascribed, on insufficient grounds, to Herodotus and Plu- 
tarch. The story of his blindness seems to have been a mere tra- 
dition. 

1. There is a diversity of opinion respecting the period in which Homer 
lived. While some place him as above, B. C. 1000, others place him only 
about B. C. 600. The Arundelian Marble places him B. C. 907. The date 
ascribed by Wood (a) and adopted by Mitford (b) is B. C. 850. A writer in 
the Philosophical Transactions (vol. xlviii.) brings Homer down to the sixth 

century before Christ, by astronomical calculations, not to be relied on. 

Different traditions are related respecting his parentage and birth, to explain 
the terms Maeonides, son of Maion, and Melesigenes, born by the river Meles. 
Conflicting etymologies of his name, c 'Our t oog, have been devised, some of 
them sufficiently absurd. — Respecting the manner of his life, all the accounts, 
whether genuine or spurious, generally agree in representing him as a Rhap- 
sodist wandering on the Asiatic coast and through the islands of Greece, and 
earning fame and a maintenance by the recitation of his verses. — His death 
is variously told. One story brings him to his end by falling over a stone. 
Another allows him a gentler death. Another tells that he broke his heart 
out of pure vexation, (c) because he could not solve a riddle proposed to him 
by some waggish young fishermen. 

(a) R. Wood, Essay on the original genius of Homer. Lond. 1770. 8. — (b) History of Greece, 
ch. iii. Append. — (c) Coleridge, p. 45, 60, 63, as cited § 21. 

^Numerous treatises have been written on the life of this poet. Besides the two above men- 
tioned, ascribed to Herodotus and Plutarch, there are three short lives in Greek, one of them 
written by Proclus ; Allatius, De Patria Homed. Lug. Bat. 1640. — Wood, in his Essay just 
cited, defends the authenticity of the piece ascribed to Herodotus. That ascribed to Plutarch is 
by some judged to be of an earlier date than the supposed author. — Of modern biographies, 
those of Pope and Madame Dacier are very convenient. See also Thomas Blackwall, Enquirv 
into the Life and Writings of Homer. 2d ed. Lond. 1736. 8. Tr. Germ, by Voss. Leipz. 1776. 8. 
— Kceppen, in the Erkl'dr. Anmerkungen, below cited (6). — JYitsch, cited below (4). — K. E. Schu- 
barth, Ideen zur Homer und seiner Zeitalter. Bresl.1821.8. The author maintains that Homer 
was a Trojan ; a bold, speculative work, which attracted attention without producing convic- 
tion. — The pretended tomb of Homer, drawn by D. Fiorillo, with notes by C.G. Heyne. Lond, 
1795. 4. 

2u. His two epic poems, the Iliad ('l/uug) and Odyssey ^OSvccsia), origin- 
ally consisted of various Rhapsodies, which were first reduced to their pres- 
ent form under the direction of Pisistratus and his son Hipparchus. On be- 
ing committed to writing, which could hardly have been done by Homer hira- 



178 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

self, it is not improbable, that they received some additions and interpolations. 
Both of them are a series of songs, probably from several authors, Homer and 
the Homeridse, composed at different times and successively enlarged. The 
subject of the Iliad is the " wrath of Achilles," his separation from the Gre- 
cian army in consequence of it, and the events of the Trojan war during his 
absence and immediately after his return. The theme of the Odyssey is the 
wandering of Ulysses, the dangers and sufferings of his return from Troy to 
Ithaca, and the events following his arrival. — Besides these two heroic poems, 
the most celebrated of epic productions, there is ascribed to Homer a comic 
piece, the B uroce youvou a y ia (Battle of the Frogs and Mice), a mock-heroic 
poem, belonging unquestionably to a later period. There are also ascribed to 
him thirty-three Hymns, besides various small pieces and epigrams. Some 
of the Hymns were probably composed by the HomeridaB or Homeric Rhap- 
sodists (cf. § 21). 

3. Besides the works above named, many others were formerly ascribed to 
Homer, of which the titles only are preserved. The Mtxoyio;c has already 
been mentioned (§ 45), " a satyre upon some strenuous blockhead," often al- 
luded to by the ancient writers. At least twenty other titles (a) are recorded; 
among which are the following : 5 Auatovia, 3 A-Qarouayia, rsQavouayia, 'Erri- 

yoroi, Key.ovjTTeg, JYuOrot, Ilaiyvia, &C. The Barqayouvouay'ia has been 

ascribed to Pigres, who lived in the time of the Persian invasion ; but some 
allusions and names in it are supposed to indicate an Alexandrine age and 
source. This mock heroic has been repeatedly imitated. Theodore Prodro- 
mus, in the 12th century, wrote an imitation in Iambic trimeters, called the 
Galeomachia. There are also Latin imitations; one by Addison in the Musce 

Etonenses. The greater part of the Homeric Hymns belong to the class 

of addresses and invocations (c) to the gods (LJoootina), which the Rhapsodists 
were accustomed to make in commencing their recitals. But several of the 
larger ones, especially, may with propriety be termed epic. 

(a) Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. i. 374. — R. P. Knight, Prolegomena in Homerum. Cf. Class. 
Journ. vii. 321. — (b) Fuhrman kleineres Handbuch. p. 44. — J. F. D. Goes, Diss, de Batracho- 
myomachia etc. Erlang. 1798. 8. — C. D. llgen, Hymn. Homerici etc. (containing a modern 
Greek version of the Batrachom. by Demetr.Zenus, and the Galeomachia of Prodromus). Hal. 
1796. 8. — Coleridge, p. 182. — (c) Hermann's Epistle, prefixed to his edition cited below (5). — 
Coleridge, p. 190. 

4. The controversy among the learned respecting the origin of the Iliad and 
Odyssey, has awakened much interest, and deserves some notice here. 

The first doubts whether Homer was the sole author, seem to have been expressed by Per- 
rault in his Parallele des Jlnciens et des Moderns (Par. 1688), in which it is suggested, that they 
are but a collection of many little poems, of different authors. This suggestion was noticed by 
JBoileau, in his Reflexions Critiques sur Longin (Par.1694), and by Kennet, in his Lives of the Gre- 
cian Poets (Lond. 1697), and opposed by them. The notion, however, was enforced by F. He- 
delin, who went so far as to deny the personal existence of Homer, in a treatise bearing the title 
Conjectures academiques, on Dissertation sur VEiad, 1715. Dr. Bentley (in reply to Collins's dis- 
course of free-thinking ; Lette#to JV. JST. by Phileutherus Lipsiensis §~7.) expressed an opinion, 
that these poems originally consisted of several distinct songs and rhapsodies composed by Ho- 
mer, but not united in an epic form until 500 years afterwards. The same idea was more fully 
developed by an Italian author, G. B. Vico, in a work called Principi di scienta nuova d'intorno 
alia commune natura delle nazioni. Naples, 1744. 8th edit. A bolder position was taken by Rob- 
ert Wood, in his Essay above cited ; he affirmed, that Homer could not have committed his po- 
ems to writing, because the art of writing was of subsequent invention ; which he argued, 
(1) from the absence of all allusion to the art in the Iliad (cf. P. I. «5 59.) and Odyssey ; (2) from 
the fact asserted by him that prose composition, always coeval with the art, did not then exist ; 
and (3) from the loss of other literary productions of the age. The performance of Wood was 
translated into German, and attracted much attention, and gave a new impulse to the study of 
Homer. In 1795, Wolf published his' Prolegomena ad Homerum, in which he maintained that 
" the Iliad and Odyssey are not the production of Homer, or of any other single author, but a 
collection of rhapsodies, composed at different times and by different persons, and subsequently 
and gradually wrought up into the form in which they now exist." This doctrine was not ea- 
gerly embraced by the public. At the close of the year 1795, Heyne, who then had the reputation 
of the first Hellenist in Germany while Wolf was acquiring that of a rival to him, published in 
the Gb'ltingcn Journal a review of WolPs Prolegomena. In this review, Heyne stated or in- 
sinuated, that he had himself always taught the same general doctrine respecting the Homeric 
poems. This was resented by Wolf, and occasioned a controversy between these champions ; 
not, as has often been supposed, concerning the genuineness of these poems, but concerningthe 
merit of priority in starting the new theory of their gradual formation. This contest for the 
honor of originating the doctrine, had great influence in deciding general opinion in favor of it 
in GermanyT It was defended with ingenuity by llgen, in the introduction to his edition of the 
Homeric hymns cited above (3). One of the principal attempts to controvert it was made by Hug, 
in his work on the Invention of Alphabetic Writing (cited P. I. § 32.), published in 1801. In 
1802, Heyne fully avowed and supported the theory in the excursuses in his edition of the Iliad. 



POETS. HOMER. 179 

The theory Was attacked in France by St. Croix, in a pamphlet, styled Refutation d'un paradox 
littcraire. Par. 1798. In England also a powerful opposerof it has appeared in Granville Penn, 
whose arguments are given in the work styled An Examination of the primary Argument of the 
Iliad, &c.~piiblished in 1821. This work was severely reviewed in the London Quarterly (voL 
xxvu.), and to the review Penn replied in the Classical Journal (vol. xxvi.). Scholl gives a 
glance at the history of this question, and plainly intimates that he does not embrace the Wol- 
fian doctrines. "Posterity," says he, "will judge of their solidity; and we will only add,, 
that while in Germany the views of Wolf are generally received, they are almost as generally 
rejected in England, Holland, France and Italy. It is known that they were firmly resisted by 
Ruhnken, one of the greatest critics of the last century, and by the celebrated Villoison." Cole- 
ridge remarks (in his Introduction, cited § 31), "however startling this theory may appear at first 
sight, there are some arguments in its favor, that with all calm and serious inquirers will ever 

save it from indifference and contempt." The work of Nitzsch, below cited, controverts the 

doctrine of Wolf with much ability and success, and is said to be producing at least a partial 
revolution of opinion in Germany. But TV. Mutter, in his work cited below, strongly defends 

the Wolfian theory. For the special arguments employed in this controversy, we must refer 

the reader to the works of the different writers ; observing, however, that the grand argument 
of Wolf and Heyne is an assumption of that as a fact, which have never been proved ; namely, 
that writing, or at least any common writing material, was unknown in Greece, in the Home- 
ric age ,• while the apparent familiarity of Homer with Sidonian artists, the close alliance be- 
tween the Sidonians and the Jews, and the indisputable use of the art of writing among the 
Jews long before the Trojan war, render the opposite highly probable. 

Sclwll, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre ii. ch. 4. — Coleridge, p. 37 ss. — Also besides the works cited in 
the preceding remarks, H. C. Kocs, Commentatio de discrepantiis in Odvss. occurrentibus. 
Havriae. 1806. — Besseldt, Erklarende Einleitung zu Odyss. Kbnigsb. 1816. — TV. Mutter, Ho- 
merische Vorschule. Lpz. 1824. 8. — Bern. Thiersch, Urgestalt der Odyssee, &.c. Kbnigsb. 
1821. 8. — C. F. Franceson, Essai sur la Question, si Homere a connu l'usage de 1'ecriture &c. 

Berl. 1818. 12. — Other references in Harles, Supplem. I. p. 95. Particularly as opposing the 

Wolfian theory: Knight, in his Prolegomena, as cited above (3). — Delisle de Sales, Histoire 
d'Homere — J. Kreuscr, Vorfrage iiber Homeros, &c. Frankf. 1828. 8. — G. TV. Nitzsch, De as- 
tate Homeri &c. meletemata. Hannov. 1830—37. 2 vols. 4. — G. Lange, Versuch die poet.- 
Einheit der Iliad zu bestimmen. Darmst.1825. said to contain " pithy arguments from a fine 
scholar." — E. L. Bulwer, Athens bk. i. ch. 8. as cited P. IV. §9. — Loud. Quart. Rev. vol. xliv. 

— Edinb. Rev. i/xii. — N. Am. Rev. xxxvii. — dm. Quart. Rev. vol. n. p. 367. 

Whether the Iliad and Odyssey were the productions of the same author and age, is a differ- 
ent question. A doubt was expressed even in ancient times, (cf. Seneca, De Brevit. vit. c. 13.) 
A modern writer {Constant, De la Religion, vol. 3d. bk. 8. as cited P. III. <S 12. 2. a.) has urged 
the diversity of style, manners, and mythology in the two works, as evidence of diversity of 
authorship. — Cf. Knight, Thiersch, Bulwer, Coleridge, and the Revieios &c. as just cited. — 
Another modern has attempted to show that Ulysses was the author of the Iliad and the Odys- 
sey ; Koliades (Prof, dans l'universite Ionienne), Ulysse-Homere, ou du veritable auteur de 
l'lliade et de l'Odyssee. Par. 1829. fol. 

5. Editions.— B — Iliad. C. G. Heyne, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. & Lond. 1802. 8 vols. 8. ; it. Lond, 
1819. a 9th vol. appeared Lpz. 1822. — Odyssey. Baumgarten-Cruzius. Lpz. 1822 — 27. 3 vols. 8. 
Whole Works. F. A. Wolf, Gr. and Lat. Halle, 1794. 5 vols. 8. Lpz. 1804. 8. — J. A. Ernesti, 
Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1759. 1824. Glasg. 1814. 5 vols. 8. — Samuel Clarke, Gr. and Lat. Lond. 1729. 
J740. 4 vols. 4. 16th ed. Lond. 1815. — * G. Dindorf, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1823. 2d ed. Lpz. 1824. 
5 vols. 8. Wolf's Clarke's recension ; readings and notes of Ernesti. — Hymns (and Batracho- 
myomachia). Matthim. Lpz. 1805. 8. — Epigrams (and Hymns 8f Batr.) * G. Hermann. Lpz. 1806. 8. 

F. — Princeps (Demetrius Chalcondylas & Demetrius Cretensis). Flor. 1488. fol. 2 vols. — 

Aldus. Venet. 15U4. also 1517. 1524. 2 vols. 8. — Junta. Flor. 1519. 2 vols. 8. — Hervagius. Ba- 
sil, 1535. fol. Cum. Schol. — Francini. Ven. 1537. 2 vols. 8. — With the Comynentaries of Eustathius. 
Rom. 1542— 50. 4 vols, fol.— if. Stephanus. Par.1566. (in Poet. Gr. Princ. cited $ 47.) 1588.2 vols. 8. 
Gr. & Lat. — j Barnes. Camb.1711. 2 vols. 4.— Foulis, Glasg. 1756. 8. 4 vols. fol. very splendid. 

Flaxman's illustrations were executed for it. — % Villoison, Iliad. Ven. 1788. fol. R. — The 

Grenville Homer. Oxf. 1800. 4 vols. 4. — Bodoni, Iliad. Parm. 1808. 3 vols. fol. — R. P. Knight. 
Lond. 1820. fol. (see Class. Journ. vol. vn. and viii. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxvu.) — J. A. Mid- 
ler, Iliad, with extracts from Eustathius, &c. Meissen, 1813. 2 vols. 8. — G. H. Schdffcr, Iliad 
and Odyssey. Lpz. 1810 — 11. 5 vols. 12. ; prepared for the collection of Tauchnitz, and con- 
sidered by Scholl as preferable to the stereotype impression of Tauchnitz, in 4 vols. — § C. C. 
Felton, Iliad, from the text of Wolf, with English notes and Flaxman's illustrations. Bosti 1833. 
a beautiful edition. — Clarke's Iliad, 2d Am. ed. N. Yk. 1826. 8. Cura G. Ironside. — G. Her- 
mann. Lpz. 1825. 2 vols. 8. — T. H Bolhe. Han. 1834. 5 vols. 8. — § Spitzner, Iliad, in Rost's 
Bibliotheca, cited Q 7. 1. — The Odyssey, with the Scholia of Didymus, the Hymns, &c. Oxf. 
1827. 2 vols. 8. — G. C. Critsius, Odyssey (with notes in German). Han. 1838. 8. 

6. Translations. — English. — G. Chapman. Lond. 1616. fol. — I. Ogilby. Lond. 1669. 
2 vols. fol. with engravings. — A. Pope. Lond. 1715 — 20. fol. very often reprinted. — W.Cowper. 
Lond. 1791. 4. 1802. 4 vols. 8. — Sothcby, Iliad. Lond. 1831 . 2 vols. 8. cf. Blackwood's Magazine, 
vol. xxix. — By a member of the University, Iliad, 'pr.) Oxf. 1821. 2 vols. 8. Odyssey, (pr.) Lond. 

1823. 2 vols. 8. — Of che Hvmns, Blackwood'' s Ma o-azine, vol. xxx. — xxxn. French. — Mad. 

Dacier. Par. 1711—16. 1741. 8 vols. 12. — Le Bran. Par. 1809—19. 4 vols. 12. German. 

J. H. Voss. Alton. 1793. 4 vols. 8. imitating the ancient hexameter. 5th ed. 1821, improved, 

— Schioenck, Hymns. Frankf. 1825. 8. Italian. — M. Cesarotti. Ven. 1786— 90. 10 vols. 8. 

7. Illustrative.-Ithas been justly remarked, that it would be an endless task merely to name 
all the authors who have written about Horner. We select a few of the best works illustrative of 
this poet.-G. Ch. Crusius, Wbrterbuch iiber die Gedichte des Homeros, Sec. Han. 1836. 8.-Teras- 
son's Crit. Dissertations on the Iliad, transl. into English, by Brerewood. Lond. 1745.2 vols. 8.— 
L. Coulon, Lexicon Homericum. Par. 1653. 8. — Duport, Homeri Gnomologia, Gr. & Lat. Cant. 
J66U. 4.—E. Feith, Antiquitates Homerics. Amst. 1726; Argent. 1743. 8.-Riccii Disputationes 



180 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Homeric®. Lips. 1784. 8.— if. I. Kmppen, Erkl'arende Anmerkungen zur Homer. 1st ed. Han. 
1787 ss. 3d ed. by Rukkopf&c Spitzner. Han. 1820. 6 vols. S.—P. Buttman, Lexilogus, &c. haupt- 
s'acliiich fur Homer und Hesiod. Berlin, 1828. 2 vols. 8. Trans. English, by T. R. Fishlake. 
Lond. 1836. 8. — Clavls Homerica, or Lexicon of all the words in the Iliad. Transl. by J. Walk- 
er. Lond. 1829. 8. On the Geography and Topography of Homer's poems, we mention the 

following. — J. Bryant, Dissertation concerning Troy, &c. as cited P. III. § 133. — J. B. S. Mor- 
rit, in Reply to Bryant. — W. Fra-ucJdin, Remarks on the Plain of Troy, &c. Lond. 1800." 8. — 
R. Chandler, History of Troy and adjacent country, &c. Lond. 1802.8. — Le Chevalier, Voyage 
de la Troade. Par. 1802. 3 vols. Transl. English, by Dalzel.— W. Oell, Topography of Troy. 
Lond. 1804. 4, with plates.— IT. if, Volcker, Ueber Homerische Geographie und Weltkunde. 

Han. 1830. 8. There are illustrative Drawings.— Elaxman's Compositions. London, 1805. 

2 vols. fol. — Tischbein's Illustrations, in drawings from the antique, with descriptions (Germ.) 
by Heyne. Gott. 1801. fol.— C. F. Inghirami, Galleria Omerica (or antique monuments to aid 

the study of Homer). Firenze, 1830. 2 vols. 8. For others on various points, cf. Moss, 

Manual, vol. i. as cited § 7. 10. — Suiter's Allg. Theorie, Homer. — An extensive survey of re- 
cent works pertaining to Homer is given by Baumgartcn-Crusius, in Jahn's Jahrbiicher, vols, 
i. and ii. for 1827. 

§ 51. Hesiod lived probably B. C. 950, according to some before 
Homer. He was born at Cuma in JEolia, and was called the Ascrae- 
an because educated at Ascra in Bceotia. As a poet, Hesiod is infe- 
rior to Homer. But his poems are highly valuable, as they make 
known to us so much respecting the conceptions and modes of think- 
ing which prevailed in a high antiquity, upon domestic, mythologi- 
cal, and physical subjects. 

1. We may collect from the poems of Hesiod, that his father was a native 
of Cuma, and removed to Ascra at the foot of Mt. Helicon, where he devoted 
himself to pastoral and agricultural life. Of the estate, which his father left 
at death, the greater part was obtained by Perses, his elder brother, who had 
bribed the judges to make an unequal division. Yet Hesiod by the prudent 
management of his portion acquired a competence, while Perses was reduced 
by improvidence to want 

It has been supposed by some, that he tended his own flocks on Mount Helicon, while oth- 
ers maintain that he was the priest to a temple of the Muses on that mount. — He mentions a 
poetical contest at Chalcis, which formed a part of the games at the funeral of Amphidamas, 
king of Eubrea, and in which he gained the prize of a tripod, afterwards by him consecrated 
to the Muses of Helicon. (Cf. P. I. ft 65. 1.) This incident was the foundation of the fable 
of his victory over Homer, which Plutarch, in his Banquet of the seven wise men, puts into the 
mouth of Periander ; and which forms the subject of a work styled c S2ui' t Qov y.a'i "Hoiodov 
ayiov , written after the time of the emperor Adrian. — Plutarch likewise introduces in the 
Banquet, from the lips of Solon, a marvelous story respecting the death of Hesiod, which also 

is probably a fabrication. On the life and age of Hesiod ; See the Lives by Vossius, Kennett, 

&c. cited § 47. — Also Prelim. Diss, in Robinson's Hesiod, and Discourse prefixed to Cooke's 
Hesiod, both cited below (5). 

2u. We have from him a didactic poem, on rural economy, "IToya xal r JTuf- 
tiCu, Works and Days ; and another of a mythological character, QsoyovLa, a 
theogony, on the lineage of the gods and origin of the world. The piece 
styled 3 Aonlg c HQax?.eovg, Shield of Hercules, is probably a fragment from a 
later author. 

3. The Works and Days of Hesiod consists of 828 hexameter .verses. The 
poem is of unequal merit, some parts of it bordering on the puerile, others 
discovering great elevation of thought and feeling. It is an object of the 
poet in the Works and Days to rebuke his brother and judges for their injus- 
tice, and teach the duties of industry, frugality, and prudence. — Pausanias 
says, that this was the only work allowed by the Boeotians to be the genuine 
production of Hesiod. He states that he saw, near the fount of Helicon, a 
copy of this' poem in lead, almost destroyed by age. The Theogony con- 
tains about 1000 lines. There are passages in it of great force and sublimity. 
The contest of the Giants and Titans and of Jupiter with Typhosus are often 
specified as such. 

The Shield of Hercules, in 480 lines, is supposed by some modern critics to 
have belonged to a lost work of Hesiod, entitled 'HQojoyovia, the Heroogony, 
a genealogy of the demigods, including, as they think, two pieces cited by 
the ancients; viz. Karu/.oyog yvvaix&v, catalogue of icomen, a history of such 
as were mothers of demigods; and ^Hoiai jii£ycc?.ai, an account of heroines. 
The KaraZoyog is sometimes mentioned as consisting of five cantos , of which 



POETS. HESIOD. ARCHILOCHUS. TYRT.EUS. 181 

the *Hoiai formed the fourth. The title ^Hoiai was supposed by Bentley to 
have arisen from the phrase ij 6hj (qualis, such as), with which the transition 
was made from one heroine to another. Of this last piece the Shield is com- 
monly thought to have been a part ; it begins with the phrase just mentioned, 
in a description of the person and adventures of Alcmene, which occupies 
the first 56 lines. Others consider the part of it relating to Alcmene as all 
that belonged to the piece styled ^Hoicu or Ecea, and view the rest, describing 
the armor of Hercules, &c. as a separate poem. This portion of the 'Aorcig, 
or Scutum, is an amplification of Homer's description of the shield of Achil- 
les. Thirteen or fourteen other works, not extant, were ascribed to Hesiod. 

Cooke, Discourse pref. to his Transl. — Edinb. Rev. vol. xv. p. 101. — Manso, on Hesiod, in the 
Charactere der vomehmsten Dichter, vol. in. p. 49, as cited §47. 1. 

4. The same theory which some have so strenuously maintained in relation to the Homeric 
poems, has also heen applied to the poems of Hesiod. They have been said to be pieces com- 
piled by Jiaoy.svaOTu'i in the ages of Solon and Pisistratus, from the recitations of the Rhap- 
sodists, or at least from imperfect written copies ; it being supposed, that there were many 
poems from different authors imitating the manner of Hesiod, and in after times ascribed to 
him. Thus Hesiod has been considered as the head of an ancient Boeotian school of poetry, as 
Homer of an Ionian. — See Heinrich's Prolegomena and Wolf's Notes in the editions below 
cited (5). — Aug. Twesten's Commentatio critica de Hesiodi carmine, quod inscribitur, Opera et 
Dies, Kiliae, 1805. 8. — G. Hermann's Letter to llgen, in Ilgen's Hymn. Homerici, cited §50. 3. 

5. Editions.— B. — whole works. Chr. Fr. Losner, Gr. et Lat. Lips. 1778. 8. — Thorn. Robin- 
son, Gr. et Lat. Oxon. 1737. 4; Lond. 1756 * C. Gotling. Erfurt. 1831. 8.— works and days. 

L. Wachler. Lemgo. 1792. 8. — shield. Car. Frid. Heinrirh. Vratisl. (Breslaw), 1802. 8. — the- 

ogont. Fr. Aug. Wolf. Halle, 1783. 8. F.— The Princeps contains only the Works and 

Days. Milan, 1493. fol. — The Princeps (or earliest) edition of the whole works of Hesiod, is 
that of Aldus, Venet. 1495. fob, connected with an edition of Theocritus. — Junta. Florent. 
1515. 8 ; this is the first edition of Hesiod separately.— Trincavelli. Ven. 1537. 4; the first 
with the Scholia.— D. Heinsius. Lug. Bat. 1603. 4. Gr. et Lat.— f Orcevius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 
1667. 8.— Clericus (Le ClercJ. Amst. 1701. 8. The two last are the foundation of Robin- 
son's. — B. Zamagna (called also edition of Bodoni). Gr. et Lat. Parmas, 1785. 4. R. — Lanzi, 

(Works and Day.?.) Gr. Lat. et Ital. Florent. 1808. 4.—Spohn, (Works and Days.) Lips. 1819. 
8. A more critical edition announced by same. — Oaisford, in his Poetse Minores Graeci, cited 
\S 47 ; said bv Dibdin (in 1827) to give the purest text of Hesiod. 

6. Translations.— English.— G. Chapman. Lond. 1618. 4.— J. Cooke, (met.) Lond. 1728. 4. 

— Ch. Abr. Elton, (met.) Lond. 1812. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xv. French.— P. C.,Cl. Gin. 

Par. 1795. 8. German.— J. H. Voss, whole works. Heidelb. 1806. 8.— J. D. Hartmann, Shield. 

Lemgo. 1794. 8. 

7. Illustrative. — S. F. Thiersch, Uber die Gedichte des Hesiodus, ihren Ursprung, &c. Miin- 
chen, 1813. A.—Heyne, Abhandlung uber die Theogonie, in the Comment. Soc. Gott. vol. ii. — 
F. Schlichtegroll, uber der Schild des Hercules, &c. Gotha. 1788. 8. — Creuzer & Hermann, 
Briefe, &c. cited P. III. § 12. 2. (a).—C. Lchmann, De Hesiodi carminibus perditis. Berl. 
1828. 8. 

§ 52*. Archilochus flourished about B. C. 680. He was a na- 
tive of the island of Paros, and ranked among the greatest poels of 
Greece, and generally supposed the inventor of Iambic verse. He 
wrote satires, elegies and triumphal hymns, and lyrical pieces, of 
which only trifling fragments remain. 

1. Little is known of his life. He went, while young, with his father in a 
Parian colony to Thasos. He states of himself, that in a battle between the 
Thasians and Thracians, he threw away his shield, and saved himself by 
flight. On account of this, it is said, when he afterwards visited Sparta, he 
was ordered by the magistrates to quit the city. 

2. The fragments of Archilochus are found in Brunck's Analecta, and Jacobs's Anthologia 
cited $35.— Also in Gaisford, vol.]. and Boissonadc, vol. xv. as cited § 47. 2. They were 

published separately, with comments, by Ign. Licbel, Lips. 1812. 8 ; enlarged 1819. 8. Cf. 

Sevin, La vie et les ouvrages d'Archiloque, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. x. p. 36. 

§ 53. Tyrtceus, about B. C. 647, of Athens, or more probably 
Miletus, leader of the Spartans against the Messenians. By his ele- 
gies, full of the praises of military glory and patriotism, he roused 
the ardor of his warriors, and rendered them victorious. Of his writ- 
ings, only three elegies and eight fragments have come down to us. 

1. The common account is, that the Lacedaemonians, at the bidding of Delphian Apollo, sent 
to the Athenians for a general to conduct their wars with the Messenians, hitherto unsuccess- 
ful : and that Tyrtreus, lame and deformed, was selected by the Athenians, out of hatred. 
Schbll remarks that the whole story has the air of fable, and that the alleged deformity had no 
foundation in truth, being a satirical allusion to his use of pentameter verse. 

16 



182 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

2. The effect ascribed to his poems is riot improbable. The Lacedaemonians* 
were accustomed to enter the field under the inspiration of martial music and 
songs, as illustrated in Plutarch's life of Lycurgus. The song thus Used in 
rushing to battle was termed peAog lufiaTijQiov. The instruments used by the 
Lacedaemonians were flutes. Tyrtaeus is said to have invented and introduced 

among them the trumpet. The elegies composed by Tyrtaeus amounted 

to five books. It is commonly supposed that they were chiefly war-songs of 
the kind just mentioned. We have but a single fragment of these songs of 
Tyrtaeus, which were in the Doric dialect ; his now remaining elegies, being 
in the Ionic dialect, are not to be confounded with them, A work by Tyr- 
taeus is cited by Aristotle and Pausanias under the title of ^Evvouia (" bonne 
legislation''), which some have considered as a distinct poem, while others 
have supposed it to be only a certain class of his elegies collected together and 
so named. 

Lowtli's Hebrew Poetry, lect. i. — Sch'dll, vol. i. p. 189. — Fuhrmann's Kleineres Handb. p. 65. — > 
J. V. Franke's Callinus, cited § 29. — Matthice de Tyrtaei Carminibus. Altenb. 1820. 4. — Pol- 
whele, below cited. 

3, Editions. — B. — Chr. Adolph. Kloti. 1767. 8. ; with a German version by Weiss, and disser- 
tation on Tyrtaeus and on warlike songs. — Chr. Dahl. Upsal, 1790. 4. Gr. et Lat. F. — Prin- 

ceps, by S. Oelenius. Bas. 1532. 4. with remains of poetesses. Lond. 1761. 12. with English me- 
trical version. — In Brunch's Gnom. Poet, and Koppen's Griech. Blumenlese. R. — L. Lam- 

berti, with Lat. and Ital. version. Par. 1801. 8. — Nic. Bach, Callini Ephesii, Tyrtcei Aphidnaei, 
et Asii Samii Carminum, quae supersunt. Lips. 1830. 8. 

4. Translations.— English. R. Polwhele. (metr.) Lond. 1786. 1810. 2 vols, with Theocritus, &c. 
French. Poins. de Sivry. Par.1788. German. C. Ch. Stock. Lpz.1819. 8. 

<§, 54, Sappho flourished probably about B. C. 612. She was a na- 
tive of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos. Of distinguished celebrity 
as a poetess, she is also remembered from the story of her unhappy 
passion for Phaon, and her tragical leap from Leucate into the sea, 
in a fit of despair. This story, however, seems to belong to another 
Sappho, of a later age. It is from the poetess that the verse termed 
Sapphic takes its name. Of her productions there now remain only 
two odes, full of warm and tender feeling, and some small fragments. 

1. There is disagreement respecting the precise date (a) which should be 
assigned to Sappho. Some make her a contemporary of Anacreon, consider- 
ably later than the time above named. Little is known of her life, and her 
character is a subject of controversy. 

The imputations cast upon her are of doubtful authority, and are supposed by some to have 
had theil- origin in the license of the comic poets. They may have arisen from confounding 
her with the courtesan Sappho, of Eresus, in the same island Lesbos. It is now made quite 
probable, that the whole story of the passion for Phaon and its fatal issue belongs to the latter, 
who was a person of some celebrity, as seems evident from the fact that her image was stamped 
upon some of the Lesbian coins, a circumstance which Barthelemy (b) applies to the poetess. 
A coin, brought from Greece in 1822, has upon it a female head with the name 2-An<t>S2 

and the letters EPECI, supposed to refer toEresus. (a) J. Ch. Cra?ner,Di&tribe de ovy/qoviOuCi 

Sapphus et Anacreontis. Jen. 1755. 4. — H. F. M. Volger, Diatribe historico-crit. de Sapphus 

Poetriae vita et scriptis. Goth. 1809. 8. (b) Barthelermfs Anacharsis, ch. iii. — Fr. O. fVelcker, 

Sappho von einem herschenden Vorurtheil befreyet. Gbtt.1816. 8. — De Hauteroche, Notice sur la 
courtisane Sappho d'Eresus. Par. 1822. — F. TV. Richter, Sappho und Erinna, nach ihren Leben 
beschrieben. Q,uedl. 1833. 8. — Schbll, Hist. Lit. Gr. livre ii. ch. 5. 

2. Sappho is said to have composed hymns, elegies, scolia, and epigrams, as 
well as odes. The two odes now extant are preserved, the one in Longinus 
and the other in Dionysius Halicarnasseus (de Compositione verborum) as a 
specimen of soft and flowing style. Two or three epigrams are among the 
fragments otherwise preserved. 

3. Editions. — B.— C. F. Neue, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1827. 4. Other lyric fragments promised by 

him. Cf. Jahn's Jahrblicher, for 1828. vol. i. p. 389 — 433. F. — Princeps by H. Stephanus, 

(with Anacreon) Lut. Par. 1554. 4. — % J. C. Wolf. Hamb. 1733. 4. as 1st vol. of his Fragments 

of nine Greek poetesses. Ev — H. F. M. Volger. Lips. 1810. 8. — E. A. Mcebius. Hannov. 

1815. 8. — $ Same, as given in Bibliotheca of Jacobs fy Rost, with Anacreon, as below cited, the 
best for students. — Blomfield, in the Mus. Crlt. or Camb. Class. Researches, vol. i. Lond. 1813. ; 
this text highly valued. — The odes are found in most editions of Anacreon. The epigrams are 
in the Anthology of Jacobs. 

4. Translations. — English. J. Addison, in the Works of Anacreon. Lond. 1735. 8. — Cf. 

Addison's Spectator, Nos. 223, 229. — — French. De Sivry, as cited § 53. German. Ramler, 

and Overbeck, cited $ 59. 4. 



POETS. SAPPHO. SOLON. THEOGNIS. PHOCYLIDES. 183 

§ 55. Solon, the distinguished lawgiver of Athens, native of Sala- 
mis, and descendant of Codrus, lived B. C. 594. He wrote several 
poems. By one of them he aroused the Athenians to a war with the 
Megareans, in which he, as their general, subdued Salamis. After- 
wards he was appointed Archon at Athens, and this was the epoch of 
his legislation so much celebrated. We have a series of moral max- 
ims, in elegiac verse, ascribed to Solon. 

1. Solon is said to have engaged in early life in trade, and in this pursuit 
to have visited Egypt and other foreign countries. On returning to Athens, 
he devoted himself to poetry and philosophy. After he was brought into pub- 
lic office, as above mentioned, and had established his laws, he again left 
Athens for ten years, for the sake of rendering them permanent. He returned 
and spent the remainder of life in literary pursuits, and is said to have done 
much in collecting and publishing the poems of Homer. Some accounts say 
that he died at Athens, others at Cyprus, at the age of 80. — His biography is 
given by two ancient writers, Plutarch and Diogenes Laertius. 

2. Besides the poetical remains of Solon, there are some fragments of his 
laws extant, and a little piece on the pursuits of life. Diogenes Laertius also 
has recorded certain letters, said to have been written by Solon. 

3. Editions B. — For&age. Lips. 1776. 8. ; the 2d vol. of a collection of Gnomic Poets. — 

* JV*. Bachius {Bach). Bonnae, 1825. 8. F. — Princeps, by Gelenius, as cited § 53. 3. — The 

chief poetical fragments are in the collections of Brunck,Winterton, and others, cited $ 47.2. 

For the fragments of Solon's laws, Sam. Petit, Leges Atticae. Par. 1635. fol. improved ed. by 
P. Wcsseling. Lugd. Bat. 1742. fol. 

4. Translations. — English. — Of the Letters, in Savage's Collection, as cited § 152. 1. 

German. — Poet. Fragments, in G. C. Braun, Die Weisen von Hellas als Sanger. Mainz. 1822. 8. 

§ 56. Theognis, born at JVlegara, lived in banishment at Thebes, 
about B. C. 550. There remain of his poetry 1238 verses, belong- 
to the class of Y vS > uai (sententia) or maxims. 

lu. They are simple verses or couplets, once probably forming parts of con- 
nected poems ; two poems, particularly, are said to have been composed by 
him. The portions extant are valued for their moral rather than their poetical 
character. 

2. Theognis is said to have died B.C. 495. His verses are addressed, under 
the name of nuouivsong, exhortations, chiefly to a young man to whom he gives 
counsel on the conduct of life. He has been reproached for the licentious na- 
ture of some of his sentiments ; yet nothing of this character appears in the 
fragments extant. He inculcates religious and filial duty, and recommends 

caution in the choice of friends. It is not improbable that some of the verses 

ascribed to Theognis are of later origin, although most of them are thought to 
be evidently of high antiquity. In 1815, or near that time, 159 verses, never 
printed, were discovered by Bekker, in a Modena manuscript. These added 
make the whole number extant about 1400. 

3. Editions. — B. — Imm. Bekker (with the translation by Grotius). Lpz. 1815. 8. — F. T. 
Welcker. Frankf. 1826. 8. for the critic, rather than the student. He gives a new arrangement 
of text, which is opposed by G. Grafenham, Theognis Theognideus, &c. Mulhusse (Muhlhau- 
sen). 1827. 4. F. — Princeps, by Aldus (with Hesiod), as cited § 51. 5. — The verses (ex- 
cept the 159) are found in Brunck's Gnomic Poets, GaisforcPs Minor Poets (cited § 47.) and other 
collections. On Theognis, cons. Quart. Rev. No. xcv. 

§ 57. Phocylides, of Miletus, lived about B. C. 540. He belongs 
to the class of Gnomic Poets. Of the genuine verses of Phocylides, 
only a few fragments are extant, preserved by Stobseus. 

lu. An ethical poem, called the Exhortation ox Admonition (Tcoiriua vov&yjri- 
y.bv) in 217 verses, is ascribed to him (cf. § 31). It is allowed by the critics to 
be the work of a later author, perhaps a Christian of the second or third cen- 
tury. 

2. The genuine remains of Phocylides are in Brunck's Analecta (cited § 35) and other collec- 
tions.— The Exhortation was first printed by Aldus (with the golden verses of Pythagoras, in 
C. Lascar's Greek Grammar), Ven.1495. 4. It is found in the collections mentioned (cf. § 47). 
It has been published separately several times ; best probably by J. A. Schier, Gr. & Lat. Leipz. 
1751. 8.— Cf. Harlcs Brev. Not. Lit. Gr. p. 64. 



184 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 58. Pythagoras, of Samos, probably lived between 550 and 500 
B. C. He is celebrated as the founder of the Italian School of phi- 
losophy. The fragments called Xqvoa I'ttt/, Golden Verses, which 
commonly pass under his name, are probably from some disciple be- 
longing to a later period. 

1. Certain epistles, and a number of symbolical precepts ([bqu a7tocp6iyuara) 
are also ascribed to him. The name of Pythagoras most properly belongs to 
the department of philosophy. Cf. § 170. 

2. Editions.— B.—JE. G. Glandorf, Lips. 1776. 8.— J. G. Lindler, Gr. & Lat. Rudolst. 1810. 8. 

F. — Princeps, by Aldus, in C. Lascaris Erotemata (the same cited § 57. 2.) — P. Needham, 

(with the comm. of Hierocles on the verses). Cant. 1709. 8.— J. A. Schicr, Lips. 1750. 8. The 

verses are found in the collections of Gnomic Poets already cited ; and in OrellPs Opuscula 
Grsecor. vet. sententiosa et moralia. Lips. 1819. 8. 

3. Translations.— French.— Fabre de Olivet, (Gr. & Fr.) Par. 1813. 8. German.— G. Ch. 

Link, (in hexameter) Alt. 1780. 4. 

§ 59. Anacreon lived about B. C. 536, a native of Teos in Ionia. 
He fled with his parents from Persian oppression, to Abdera in 
Thrace. Subsequently, he resided at Samos, under the protection 
of Polycrates the king, and afterwards at Athens, under Hippar- 
chus. He died in his native place, or at Abdera, in the 85th year 
of his age. He was a lyric poet, and wrote in that light kind of ode, 
of which love, social pleasures, and wine, form the subjects, and 
which from him has received the name Anacreontic. The collection 
of odes ascribed to him contains many belonging to other authors, 
some of whom were of a later age. The pieces are of unequal 
merit. Many of them arc unworthy of the praise which the ancients 
bestowed on Anacreon, and which, beyond question, justly belongs 
to the rest on account of their vivacity, grace, and lyric beauty. 

1. The time and manner of Anacreon's death are variously stated. Com- 
mon tradition reported that he died by suffocation, from swallowing a grape- 
stone, while in the act of drinking wine. This tradition is supposed by some 
to have originated from the bacchanalian character of his poetry. 

Herodotus (iii. 121.) and Plato (in Hipvarchus) are the authorities for some of the facts stated 
above. — A learned life of Anacreon is given by Barnes, in his edition of this poet. 

2. He is reputed to have written elegies and iambic poems in the Ionic dia- 
lect, besides scolia and epigrams. The odes which have been ascribed to him 
are 65 in number. 

The genuineness of most of them was denied in the middle of the 16th century, by Francis 
Robortcllus, one of the acutest critics of that age. Their credit having revived, it was again 
attacked at the commencement of the last century, by De Pauw. The same views were en- 
forced by Fischer at the close of the last century, since which time the opinion above stated by 
Eschenburg has generally prevailed. The opinion is confirmed by the fact that, with two ex- 
ceptions, none of the existing odes are known to be cited by any ancient author. 

3. Editions.— B.— Jo. Frid. Fischer, Lips. 1753. 8. repr. 1776, and 1793, with additions.— R. 
Ph. Gr. Brunck, Strasb. 1780. 12. accurate.— J. Fr. Degen, Lips. 2d ed. 1821. 8. with a German 
translation, and other lyrical pieces.— J 1 . Melhorn, Glogav. 1825. 8. learned ; with bold criti- 
cism ; commended by translator of Scholl F.— Princeps, by H. Stephanus, Lutet. Paris. 

1554. 4. Gyssc— Morel $ R. Stephanus, Paris. 1556. 8,—Fabri (Tanaquil Fabcr,) Gr. et Lat. Sal- 
mur. 1660, 1690.— Barnes, Gr. et Lat. Cantab. 1705, 1721. 8.<—Mattaire, Gr. et Lat. Lond. 
1725, 1740. 4. rare.— Pauw, Gr. et Lat. Tr. Rhen. 1732. A.—Spalletti, Gr. Rom. 1781-83. 
fol. very splendid. " Printed from ancient Ms. of the tenth century ; the type, comprehending 
the first sixteen pages, a facsimile of the Vatican Ms."— Bodoni, Parma. 1784. 8. handsome. 
Also, Gr. &. Ital. 1793. 4.—J. B. Gail, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Par. 1799. 4. with dissertations, musical 

adaptations, and engravings. 1801. 4 vols. 12. R.— Ed. Foster, Lond. 1802. 12. not professing 

to be critical ; but correct, with elegant engravings.— F. H. Bothe, Lpz. 1805. 12. more elegant 
than valuable. — /. H. Van Ree?ien, Amst. 1808. 8. as 1st vol. of a collection.— Schatfer, Lpz. 
1809. 8. it is the indifferent ed. of Born (1789) improved.— § E. A. Mcebius, Hal. 1809. 8. This 
as given in the Bibliotheca of Jacobs is the best for common use. — C. Casellius, (with Sappho) 

Flor. 1819, fol.— C. G. Gxvmcclius, Upsal. 1824. 8.— T. Bergk, Lips. 1835. 8. The epigrams 

ascribed to Anacreon are found in the Anthology of Jacobs (cf. $35). 

4. Translations.— English.— T. Stanley, Lond. 1683. 8. 1815. 12.— J. Addison, Lond. 1735. 12. 
—Fawkes, Lond. 1760. 12.— D. H. Urquhart, Lond. 1787. 8.— T. Moore, 1800. 4. 1818. 2 vols. 12, 

with the Greek text. Cf. Ed. Rev. vol. ii.— Edwards, Gr. & Angl. Lond. 1830. 12. French. 

— Dacier, Amst. 1699. 8 Gail, above cited.— Saint Victor, Par, 1810. — —German,— Qverbeck^ 



POETS. PYTHAGORAS. ANACREON. PINDAR. 185 

Lub. 1800. 8.— Ramler, Berl. 1801. 8 — F. C. Brosse, Berl. 1806. 8.-^9. Drexel, Landsh. 1816. 8. 

Italian.— Ch. Rodolfi, Venet. 1765. 8. 

5. Illustrative.— P. C, Henrici, de indole carminis Anacreontici. Alton. 1752. 4. — De- 
gen, iiber d. Philos. des Anacreon. Elang. 1776. 8. — J. 6. Schneider's Anmerkungen iiber 
den Anacreon. Leipz» 1770. 8. — Manso's Character of Anacreon in the Charaktere der vornehm- 
sten Dichter, cited $ 47.— JD. H. Urquhart. Dissert, on the Odes of Anacreon. Lond. 1790. 8. — 
Ford. Nolan, On the Greek Rose, as illustrating the imagery of the odes ascribed to Anacreon, 
&c, in Transactions of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol, 2d. Lond. 1834. — F. W. Richter, Anacreon 
nach seinem Leben geschrieben. Q.uedl. 1834. 8. 

§ 60. Pindar, of Thebes in Bceotia, about B. C. 490, a lyric poet 
of the greatest celebrity. He wrote in the higher kind of lyric verse, 
employed to celebrate the triumphs of heroes and victors. He sung 
chiefly the praises of victors in the great public games of the Greeks. 
There now remain 14 Olympic, 12 Pythian, 11 Nemean, and 8 Isth- 
mian Odes. Many other Hymns and Paeans, Dithyrambics, Threni 
(Gqi'jvoi), and the like, are lost, duintilian justly ranks Pindar first 
among the nine most distinguished lyric poets of the Greeks (cf. § 
26). He is marked by his lofty sublimity, his bold energy of thought, 
his vivid and poetical imagination, and the flowing fullness of his 
diction. Horace gives a lyric description of his character (lib. iv. 
ode 2). 

1. Pindar was early taught the arts of music and poetry. Lasus and Si- 
monides were his instructors. The Greeks related a story of him, that once, 
while he was a youth, as he threw himself upon the grass fatigued and sleepy, 
a swarm of bees deposited their honey on his lips, which prefigured the sweet- 
ness of his future poetry. In several instances he lost the prize in poetical 
contests with Corinna, who is, however, supposed to owe something to the 
charms of her person as influencing the feelings of the judges. He is said 
at last to have appealed from them to herself. From all other competitors he 
invariably bore away the prize. He enjoyed great honors while living. The 
conquerors at the public games counted it a great part of their glory to be 
celebrated in the verse of Pindar, for which they courted his person, and be- 
stowed on him the most liberal rewards. A statue was erected to him in 
Thebes and was standing in the time of Pausanias, six centuries afterwards. 
The house which he had occupied was spared by the Spartans, and at a later 
period by Alexander, when Thebes was laid in ruins. — The age which he at- 
tained is variously stated ; some say 55, others 66, and others 86 years. 

For the incidents of Pindar's life we are chiefly indebted to Pausanias ; some circumstances 
are drawn from iElian, Plutarch, and others. Of the accounts by moderns, see Lives of the Po- 
ets, cited § 47. — Preface in Tow-lei's Translation below cited. — J. O. Schneider, Versuch iiber 
Pindars Leben und Schriften. Strasb. 1774. 8. 

2. The division of the odes into four classes is ascribed to Aristophanes of 
Byzantium. He selected, out of the general mass of Pindar's effusions, such 
as had reference, more or less directly, to victories gained at the great games 
of the Greeks ; yet some are found in the selection which do not refer spe- 
cially to any particular victory. Scholl remarks, that some of these odes 
seem to have been prepared to be rehearsed at the general triumph of the 
conquerors on the evening after the contest in the games, and others for the 
more private festival afterwards given to the individual victor, by his rela- 
tives and friends. — One of the Odes (Olymp. 7) is said by a scholiast to have 
been preserved in a temple at Athens, in letters of gold. — The more the odes 
of Pindar are studied, the more the reader will be impressed with the genius 
of the author. The abruptness of his transitions has often been a ground of 
censure, but with great injustice. In many cases, where a new topic is in- 
troduced with apparent violence, or, as might at first seem, only by a perfect- 
ly wild imagination, there is found, on a closer view, a very philosophical and 
logical connection. — There is much of an epic character in the use of histo- 
ry and mythology, which he so happily employs. The Doric dialect abounds 
in his language ; yet he does not confine himself to it, but adopts iEolic and 
other forms where strength, variety, or the peculiarity of his metre demands. 

C. TV. Theop. Cament, Pindari ingenium, etc. Misense, 1804. 4. — Q. Hermann, de Dialecto 
Pindari Observationes. Lips. 1609. 4.— See also Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. & xvm.— Scholl, 

16 s 



186 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. i. p. 277.— Preface to West, cited below (5).— Fraguier and others, cited be- 
low (6). 

3. Various forms of poetical composition, besides odes, were written by Pindar; as, in the 
words of Neander, " Pceanes, Dithyrambi, Scolia, Epitaphia, Encomia, Threni, Prosodice, Par- 
thcnia, Enthronismi, Bacchica, Daphnephorica, Hyporchemata, Dramata tragica, Epigrammata epica, 

etc." Very little, however, of all this remains. We have nothing entire except the odes. 

Mich. JVeander, Aristologia Pindarica Grceco-Latina. Basil, 1558. 

4. Editions.— B.—Aug. Bockh, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1811-22. 2 vols. 4. Admirable.— C. G. Hcy- 
ne, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1817. 3 vols. 8.—* L. Dissen. Gothce, 1830. 2 vols. 8. After Bockh's re- 
cension. The 1st vol. has the text, an introduction, and Muller's plans of Delphi and Olym- 
pia. pp. 282. The 2d vol. consists of Latin notes, pp. 634. It is included in Rost's Biblioth- 

eca ; and is the best for the student. F — Princeps, the Aldine. Ven. 1513. 8. With the hymns 

of CalHmachus. — Calliergi. Rome, 1515. 4. Cum Scholiis. First Greek book printed at Rome. 
— R. Stephanus. Par. 1560. 2 vols. 8. — Erasm. Schmid, Gr. & Lat. cum schol. Wittenb. 1616. 
A.—iWestSf Welsted,Gi:&t~L&t. Oxon. 1697. fol.—Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 1744-54-70. 3 vols. 
12. R.— D. Beck. Lips. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Not completed. — Fr. Thiersch, with a German trans- 
lation in Pindaric verse. Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — Tauchnitz. Stereot. Lpz. 1819. 12. — Huntingfard, 

Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1814. 8. With an abridgment of Damm's Lex. Pindaricum Ch. TV. Ahl- 

wardt. Lips. 1820. 8. He contests with Bockh the priority of inventing a new metrical sys- 
tem for Pindar's verse. — <2. Mezianotte, Gr. &. Ital. (met. & prose.) Pisa, 1820. 4 vols. 8. — New-is, 
Gr. with English notes. Lond. 1835. 12. 

5. Translations. — English.— G. West. Lond. 1753. 2 vols. 8.— H. J. Pye, Six Odes (omitted 

by West). Lond. 1775. 8.— E. B. Greene. Lond. 1778. 4.— T. Banister. Lond. 1791. 8 J. L, 

Girdlestone. Norw. 1810. A.— A. Moore, with notes. Lond. 1822. 8. French.— T. Maurin. 

Par. 1617. 8.—L. C. Gin. Par. 1801. 8.—* R. Tourlet, Gr. &c Fr. Par. 1818. 2 vols. 8. Ger- 
man.— F. Gedike, fpr.J Olympic and Pythian Odes. Berl. 1777-79. 2 vols. 8.— G. Fdhse,(met.) 
Penig. 1806. 2 vols. 8.—F. H. Botke, (met.) Olympic Odes. Berl. 1808.— Thiersch, as above 

cited ; highly esteemed. Italian. — int. Jerocades. Nap. 1799. 8. Latin verse, J. Costa. 

Patav. 1808. 8. 

6. Illustrative. — JEm. Porti, Lexicon Pindaricum. Han. 1606. — Damm, Lexicon Pindaricum. 

Berl. 1765 J. M. Duncan, Dammii Nov. Lex. cui substrate sunt elucidationes Homericse et 

Pindaricse. Lond. 1827. 4.— Rost published an improved edition of Duncan's. 1835. 4. Re- 
printed 1838. — Hermann, on the Pindaric Metres, in Heyne's edition, 3d vol. — Aug. Bockh, Le- 
ber die Versmasse des Pind. Heidelb. 1809. 8. — J. C. Fr. Gotschel, Mythologia; Pindaricae 
Specimen. Erlang. 1790. A.—Blondel, Comparaison de Pindare et d'Horace. Par. 1673. 12. — 
Fraguier & Massieu, Sur Pindare, &c. Mem. de V Acad, des Inscr. u. 33 ; iv. 502; v. 95; vi. 
283, 354. — Also Sallier, in the same work, Mem. fyc. iv. 486 ; x. 352 ; and De Chabanon, in the 
same, xxxn. 451 ; xxxv. 386 ; xxxvu. 91. — L. F. Tafel, Dilucidationes Pindaricse. Berl. 1827. 
2 vols. 8. Good in explaining words. — Vauvilliers, Essai sur Pindare. Par. 1772. 12. — W. Con- 
greve, Discourse on the Pindaric One, in 3d vol. of his Works. Lond. 1753. 3 vols. 8. — Dawes, 
Miscellanea Critica. Lpz. 1800. 8. (Sect, ii.) 

§61. JEschylus, a native of Eleusis, in Attica, nourished about 
490 B. C. He engaged in military service, and acquired glory in 
the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Platasa. He afterwards re- 
tired to Sicily where he died. His merit was very great as a poet in 
the department of tragedy. Indeed he was, properly speaking, the 
author of tragedy, as he gave it greater unity of action, introduced 
the dialogue (although the chorus still retained an important place), 
employed a more dignified style, and imparted a more noble and ele- 
vated character to the external representation. Yet we notice a want 
of completeness and finish in his plays. His efforts to present ter- 
rific or shocking scenes, with bold and uncommon modes of thought 
and expression, sometimes lead him into what is exaggerated, ob- 
scure, or unnatural. Nor can we find in him the beauties belonging 
to a full and regular method. 

1. The birth of ^schyfus is dated JB. C. 525, and his death, 456. He is 
said to have made his first public attempt, as a tragic author, at the age of 25, 
B. C. 499. Six years after the battle of Marathon, he gained his first tragic 
victory, and eight years after the battle of Platsea, he gained again the prize 
for a tetralogy (cf. P. I. § 66). — Different accounts are given as to the reason 
of his removing to Syracuse in Sicily. Some ascribe it to his disgust at be- 
ing charged and tried before the Athenians for profanation of the mysteries 
in some of his plays, although he was acquitted. Others assign as the reason, 
his defeat in a poetical contest with Simonides, and in another with Soph- 
ocles. Schlegel suggests (Dram. Lit. lect. iv.) that he retired from appre- 
hensions of the hostility of the populace towards him, because he had highly 
recommended the Areopagus as holding a check upon democratic violence. 

See F. C. Petersen, De iEschyli vita, etc. Havnise, 1816. 8.— Life of ^Esch. in Stanley's e di- 
tion, cited below (4). 



POETS. ^SCHYLUS. SOPHOCLES. 187 

2m. Of 75 or 90 tragedies, which he is said to have written, only seven re- 
main. These are entitled IlQouij&Evg ^auwT^, Prometheus vinctus; iHqaai, 
Persce ; ( Ercra Inl Qi'fiag, Septem contra Thebas ; 3 Ay auhivwv, Agamemnon ; 
XoyjyoQoi, Choephori ; 'Evutvidsg, Eumenides, Furies; 'Ixtridsg, Supplices. 

3. The plots of iEschylus are very simple. His characters are sketched 
boldly. A lofty and grave spirit reigns in his poetry. Terror is the predom- 
inant emotion. His Prometheus bound is called his master-piece. 

A. W. SclilegeVs Lect. on Dramatic Lit. lect. iv.—Edingb. Rev. vol. xxvi. — Theatre of the 
Greeks, cited $ 40. — Charactere der vornehmsten Dichter, &.c. von einer Gesellschaft von Ge- 
lehrten. Lips". 1792. vol. n. p. 391.— Lond. Quart. Rev. in. 389 ; v. 203 ; xxv. 

4. Editions. — B.— C. G. Schiitz, Gr. & Lat. 4th ed. Halle, 1809-12. 5 vols. 8. Repr. Lond. 
1823. 4 vols. 8. with Lat. vers. The editions of Schiitz have been highly lauded by some crit- 
ics ; but an English reviewer has spoken in a different tone. See Mus. Criticum, vol. i. p. 109. 
Cf. Dibdui's Introd. cited § 7 (9), vol. l. p. 241. — S. Butler, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1809. 4 vols. 4. ; 
8 vols. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xix. — A. Wellauer. Lips. 1826-31. 3 vols. 8. the 3d vol. a Lexicon 
JEs chyle um, called good by Hermann. Repr. Camb. 1827. 2 vols. 8. without the Lexicon. — 
C. J. BlomfieWs editions of the separate tragedies are ranked very high, and said to give the 
purest text. The glossaries appended to each are highly prized. The reprint of Bloomfield, 

Lpz. 1823 s. contains additions. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1518. 8. — F. Robortellus. 

Ven. 1552. 8. — Turnebus. Par. 1552. 8. — Victorius (printed by H. Stephanus). Par. 1557. 4. — 
Th. Stanley, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1663. fol. It was very celebrated ; the foundation of Butler's. 

Pauw, Gr. & Lat. Hag. Com. 1745. 2 vols. 4. "to be shunned." {Dibdin.) — Foulis, Gr. & 

Lat. 1746. 4. & 12.— Porson. Glasg.1795. fol. with designs by Flazman. — See on this, Pursuits of 

Literature, pt. ii. p. 42. — Dibdin, i. p. 242. R. — F. H. Bothe, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1805. 8. not 

hiahly esteemed (Dibdin). new ed. 1831. 2 vols. 8. " too bold in criticism." — I. Scholefield. 
Camb. 1608. 8. — § Schdfer. Lpz.1812. 8. — Pfiugk. Gothaj (begun) 1835, in Rost's Bibliotheca. 
— C. Schioenk, separate tragedies. Lpz. 1818 ss. 8. — Cf. JV. Am. Rev. xxin. p. 505. 

5. Translations. — English. R. Potter (blank verse). Norvv. 1777. 4. 2d ed. imp. Lond. 1779. 

2 vols. 8. — For D. A. Talboys. (prose) Oxf. 1822. 8 French. F. J. 6. de la Porte du Thcil, 

(with original &c notes) Par. 1798. 2 vols. 8. also in new edition of Brumoifs Theat. Gr. (by 

Raoul-Rochette) Par. 1820 ss. — Marquis de Pompignan. Par. 1770. 8. German. J.T.L. Dam. 

Lips. 1805. 1808. 2 vols. 8. " too much modernised." —Qottf. Fdhse. Lips.1809. 8. " defective." 
(Fuhrmaiin.) — C. Ph. Conz, (met.) Choephori, Zur. 1811. 8. ; Persffi, and the rest, Tub. 1815. 
1820. " good." (Fuhrmann.) — * W. von Humboldt, Asamemnon. Lpz. 1816. 4. — * Droyen. 
Berl. 1832. 2 vols. 8. Italian. M. Mallius (with Sophocles & Euripides). Rom. 1788. 8. 

6. Illustrative. — J. Meursius, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, sive de tragrediis eorum li- 
bri in. Lug. Bat. 1619. ; also in Gronovii Thesaurus Gr. tome x. — J. A. Starck, de iEschylo et 
imprimis ejus tragcedia, qu?e Prometheus vinctus inscripta est, libellus. Gbtt. 1763. 4. — H. 
Blumner, Ueber die Idee des Schicksals in d. Tragoedien ./Eschyl. Lpz. 1814. 8. — Car. Fr. 
Wunderlicli, Observat. criticee in iEschyli tragcedias, etc. Gbtt. 1809. 8. — G. Hermann, De versi- 
bus spuriis ap. iEschylum. Lips. 1814. 4. — Barney's Tentamen de metris (ab iEschylo) in 
chor. cant, adhibitis. Lond. 1811. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xvin. — C. F. Bamberger, De car- 
minibus iEschyl. a partibus chori cantatis. Bruns. 1832. 8. — Vauvilliers, on Mss. of iEschylus 
in the JVotices des Manuscrits, &c. vol. i. as cited P. I. § 108. 2. — M. G. Fdhse, Lexicon Grcecum 
in Tragicos. Lpz. 1830. 4. Commenced; a collection of scholia & glossae from the ancient gram- 
marians and of modern notes. — Apparatus Criticus ad JEschylum. Halle, 1830. 1st vol. the com- 
mentary of Stanley. 2d vol. Abreschii Animadversiones. 3d vol. to contain notes from various 
authors*.— B. W. Bcatson, Index Gra;citatis iEschyleas. Cantab. 1830. 8. — R. H. Klausen, Theo- 
logumena iEschyli. Berl. 1829. 8. — C. G. Haupt, Qusestiones /Eschylese. Speciinina i — iv. 
Lips. 1828-30. 

§ 62. SopJwcks, born at Colonus, near Athens, was the greatest 
author in Greek tragedy, and not without honor as a warrior. He 
flourished about 450 B. G. He improved the tragic stage by intro- 
ducing a third speaker, and by limiting the office of the chorus, 
which, with him, appears rather as a contemplative spectator, than a 
real participator in the action represented. His tragedies have the 
merit of a regular and judicious plan, a striking truth in characters, 
and a masterly and energetic expression and play of the passions. 
They are full of feeling and full of nature. 

lu. Of a great multitude of plays composed by him, we possess only seven : 
viz. "■' Aiuq ii aoriy ocpoooc, Ajax Flagellifer, Ajax bearing the lash ; c H?Jxr^a, 
Electra ; 'Oid'ucovg Tvnavvog, CEdipus King ; \4vriyovt], Antigone ; ' OiS'mog 
ini Koloavm, CEdipus at Colonus ,' Tqax'iviai, The Trachinian women ; <Pt?.oy.- 
ri}rr,g, Phitoctetes. The third of these, CEdipus King, is esteemed as the best. 

1. Sophocles was about 30 years younger than ^schylus, and about 16 older 
than Euripides (§ 39). In early youth, it is said, he was beautiful in person, 
and made rapid attainments. His father, Sophilus, was wealthy, and fur- 
nished him with the best advantages for education. At the age of twenty-five 
he brought forward his first tragedy, for a prize. It was in a memorable dra- 



188 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

matic contest, in which iEschylus was a candidate, and Cimon and his nine 
colleague-generals, after their victory over the Persians near the Eurymedon, 
were the judges. Sophocles received the prize by their decision, B. C. about 
468. He won the first prize in such contests twenty times, while JEschylua 
gained this distinction but thirteen times, and Euripides but a still smaller 
number. 

The unnatural ingratitude of his family, in attempting to deprive him of his property on the 
charge of dotage, furnished him an opportunity to acquire new glory ; he read before the court 
his CEdipus at Colonus, which he had just composed. In admiration of the piece, the judges 
not only rejected the suit of the family, but escorted the poet from the place of trial to his own 
dwelling. He died about B. C. 405, not long before the defeat of the Athenians atiEgos-potamos. 

Discordant and marvelous tales are related of his death. See Oott. Eph. Lessing, Leben des 

Sophokles (cd. Eschenburg). 1790. 8. — Charactere der vornehmster Dichter (cited § 61.), vol. iv. 
p. 86. — F. Schultz, De Vita Soph, commentatio. Berl. 1836. 8. 

3. Different statements are made respecting the number of tragedies composed by Sophocles. 
Suidas makes it 123. It is commonly judged that the true number is about 70. Many of the 
plays, which were ascribed to him, are thought to have belonged to his son Iophon and grand- 
son Sophocles. — He was called by the ancients the Attic Bee, to designate the sweetness and 

grace which characterised his works. See Besenbeck, Diss, de ingenio Sophocles. Erlang. 

1789. 4. — SchlegeVs Dram. Lit. lect; iv Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. vol. n. p. 30. 

4. Editions.-B R.F. Ph.Brunck,Gr. & Lat. Areen. 1786-9. 3 vols. 8. repr.often; best,Oxf.l820. 

3 vols. 8. Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8. — * C. G. A. Erfuhrdt. Lips. 1802-11. 6 vols. 8. each volume 
one play ; CEdipus Coloneus was supplied in a 7th vol. by Heller $ Dbderlein, with a Lexicon, 
in 1825. — G. P. TV. Schneider. Weim. 1823-27. 8 vols. 8. with German notes ; and a Sopho- 

klusches TVorterverzeichniss. 1830. 2 vols. 8. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. 8. — Junta 

(Francinus ed.), cum Schol. Flor. 1522, 1547. 4. — Turnebus (with the Schol. of Dem. Triclinius). 
Par. 1553. 4. — H. Stephanus. Par. 1568. 4. — Canterus. Antw. 1589. 12. Repr. Lugd. Bat. 1593. 

Johnson, Gr. & Lat. Cum Schol. Oxon. 1705. 2 vols. 8. 3d vol. Lond. 1746. Reprinted, 

Lond. 1758. & Eton. 1775. this last edit, by J. Tweedie is most correct. (Dibdin, n. p. 412 ) — 

Capparonier (finished by Vauvilliers), Gr 1 . & Lat. Par. 1781. 2 vols. 4. R.— F. H. Bothe, Gr. 

& Lat. Lpz. 1806. 2 vols. 8. repr. Gr. 1827.— G. H. Sclidfer. Lpz. 1810. 2 vols. — || G. Hermann. 
Lpz. 1824. 7 vols. 12. The first 2 vols, by Erfurdt. Repr. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8. — E. Wundcr, 
Gothae (no* finished), 1835. in Rost's Bibliotheca. — § F. Neue. Lpz. 1831. 8. — || P. Elmsley. 

Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Repr. with additions, Lpz. 1827. Of the editions of single tragedies, 

a few only can be noticed. — Ajax. B. Stolberg (with Scaliger's metrical version). Wittenb. 
1668. 8. — J. G. Hoerius. Wittenb. 1746. 8.—* Ch. Aug. Lobeck, 2d ed. Lips. 1835. 8. — Electra. 

• (Gr. Lat. & Ital.) Rom. 1754. 4.— G. Ant. Ch. Scheffler. Helmst. 1794. 8. — CEdipus Tyrannus. 
J. H. C. Barby. Berl. 1807. 8.— P. Elmsley. Oxf. 1811. 8. impr. Lpz. 1821. — $ /. Stuart, with Engl. 
notes. Ando. 1836. 12. — Antigone. J. H. C. Barby. Berl. 1806. 8. — || F. C. Wex. Lpz. 1830. 
2 vols. 8. — CEdipus Coloneus. * C. Reisig. Jenae, 1820. 8. and 2 vols, of Comment, crit. Jen. 
1822. 8. — J. Brasse, with English notes. Lond. 1829. 12. (in same manner, other pieces.) — P. 
Elmsley. Oxf. 1823. 8. — Trachini^:. J. G. Ch.Hbpfner. Lips. 1791. 8. — L. J. Billerbeck. Hil- 
desb. 1801. 8. Philoctetes. Buttmann. Berl. 1822. 8. — * J. P. Mattluei. Alt. 1828. 8. — G. 
Burgess, with Engl, notes. Lond. 1833. 8. 

5. Translations. — English.— PA. Francklin (bl. ver.) Lond. 1759. 4. impr. ed. 1788. — R. Pot- 
ter. Lond.1788. 4. — P. Dale. Lond.1824. 8. — For D. A. Talboys, (prose) Oxf.1824. 2 vols. 8.— 
P. TV. C. Edwards, Gr. & Engl, prose (Antigone, CEdipus Rex, Philoctetes). Lond. 1824-27. 8. 

French. — Dupuy. Par.1762. 4. — Guil. de Rochefort. Par.1788. 2 vols. 8. German. — Count 

Stollberg. Hamb. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — * C. TV. F. Solger. Berl. 1808. 8. new ed. 1824. 

6. Illustrative. — * F. Ellendt, Lexicon Sophocleum. Regiom. (Kbnigsb.) 1835. 2 vols. 8. — 
J.G.V. Frbhlich, Kritische Versuche uber Sophocles Tragb'dien. Miin. 1824. 8. — B. TV. Beatson, 
Index Grascitatis Sophocleee. Cant. 1830. 8. 

§ 63. Euripides was born at Sal amis, of Athenian parents, B. C. 480. 
He was instructed in rhetoric by Prodicus, and by Anaxagoras in phi- 
losophy. Socrates was his familiar friend. He died B. C. 406, at the 
court of Archelaus, king of Macedon. His talent for philosophy and 
eloquence appears in his tragedies, which are strikingly marked by 
sententious passages and pathetic scenes ; in this respect he some- 
times violates tragic dignity. An easy and regular method is found 
in all his pieces. His characters are designed with exactness, and 
are less ideal than those of Sophocles. With much fidelity and truth 
in expression, he unites great richness and fullness. Most of his plays, 
of which he composed at least seventy-five, are lost ; seventeen or 
eighteen however remain, besides some fragments, and the Cyclops, 
which was a performance of Euripides belonging to the satyrical 
drama (§ 44). 

1. Euripides remained at Athens until within a few years of his death. He 
went to Macedonia on the invitation of the king, Archelaus. Several causes 



POETS. EURIPIDES. 189 

are suggested as influencing him thus to retire ; domestic trials, the abuse and 
ridicule received from Aristophanes, and public prosecution on a charge of 
impiety. His death is said to have been occasioned by an attack of some fero- 
cious hounds, in which he was so mangled that he expired not long afterwards. 
He was seventy-five years old. 

For the biography of Euripides, see (besides the works referred to in § 47.) his Life by Barnes, 
in Pref. to his edition below cited (5.), and by Moschopulus, Thomas Magister, and Au- 
his Gellius, found in Musgrave's edition ; and the anonymous Life in Elmsleifs edition of the 
BacchtB. 

2. Euripides is said by some to have composed 120 dramas. A catalogue of 
those lost is given by Fabricius(a). Those which remain bear the following titles: 
r E)ca(ir], 'OoiaTtjg, <&oLviOoat, M>}§£ta, ' ' ItctcoJ.vtoq OTsyavtjipoQoc, Hyppolytus 
Coronifer ,* Al.zTjCTig, Avbaouayi], f IxinSsg, The Female Suppliants, 3 Icpiyivtia 
7] iv *^.4v?.ldi, 'lyiysveia tf iv Tavqoig, TqcoaSsg, The Trojan Women, Ruy.yai, 
The Female Bacchanals, ' HqaxlztSai , c E?Avr\, *Iwv, 'HQayJ.ijg [laivoiisvog, Her- 
cules furens, > H?Jy.TQa, and Ptjoog, Rhesus. This last, however, is considered 
as spurious, by some of the best critics. The principal fragments, are of two 

pieces entitled ipai&wv and Javuij. The Medea is generally considered as 

one of the best pieces of Euripides. It is said that Cicero was reading this, 
when arrested by the ministers of the proscription. 

(a) In his Biblioth. Grac. See vol. n. p. 234 ss. — On the number of pieces written by Eu- 
ripides, what genuine, what lost, &c. Fuhrmanri's Klein. Handb. p. 151. — Scholl, Hist. Litt. 
Gr. ii. p. 52. — Valckcncer, Diatribe in Eurip. deperditor. dram, reliquias. Lips. 1824. 8. — Fr. 
Osann, Epist. ad Matthiaeum, de nonnullis fabularum Euripidis deperd. titulis. in Wolps lite- 
rar. Analekten (vol. 2d, p. 527). Bed. 1820. — In same work (Analekten, vol. 2d, p. 392), iiber 

den Prologus der Danase (one of the fragments above named.) i. Bockh, Graecse tragoedia? 

principum, iEschyli, Sophoc. Eurip. num ea qua? supersunt et genuina omnia sint, et forma 
primitiva servata, etc. Heidelb. 1808. 8.—Hardion, sur la tragedie de Rhesus, in Mem. de VAcad. 
des Inscr. etB. Lett. torn. x. — Class. Journ. No. xLiii. — On different plavs. Loud. Quart. Rev. 
in. 167. vii. 441. ix. 348. xv. 117. 

3. Ancient authors refer to a production of Euripides, styled ^Ejziy./jSsiov, 
a funeral song, in honor of Nicias and others, who perished in the fatal expe j 
dition of the Athenians against Syracuse. There exist alsojft^e letters ascribed 
to Euripides. 

The letters may be found in the editions of Barnes, Beck, and others. — See Scholl, n. p. 64. 
The genuineness of these letters is discussed in R. Bentleifs Dissert, upon the epistles of Phala- 
ris, &c. Lond. 1816. first published in Wottoii's Reflect, on Anc. and Mod. Learning. (Cf. P. I. 
$29.) — Comp. remarks of Beck in the Glasgow edition of Euripides, vol. vn. p. 720. 

4. In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it 
may be said, that he ranks first in tragic representation and effect ; Sophocles 
first in dramatic symmetry and ornament ; and iEschylus first in poetic vigor 
and grandeur. iEschylus was the most sublime ; Sophocles the most beauti- 
ful; Euripides the most pathetic. The first displays the lofty intellect ; the 
second exercises the cultivated taste ; the third indulges the feeling heart. 
Each, as it were, shows you a fine piece of sculpture. In JEschylus, it is a 
naked hero, with all the strength, boldness, and dignity of olden time. In 
Sophocles and Euripides, it may be perhaps the same hero ; but with the for- 
mer, he has put on the flowing robes, the elegant address, and the soft urban- 
ity of a polished age ; with the latter, he is yielding to some melancholy emo- 
tion, ever heedless of his posture or gait, and casting his unvalued drapery 
negligently about him. They have been compared by an illustration from an- 
other art : " The sublime and daring iEschvlus resembles some strong and 
impregnable castle situated on a rock, whose martial grandeur awes the be- 
holder; its battlements defended by heroes, and its gates proudly hung with 
trophies. Sophocles appears with splendid dignity, like some imperial palace 
of richest architecture, the symmetry of whose parts and the chaste magnifi- 
cence of the whole, delight the eye, and command the approbation of the judg- 
ment. The pathetic and moral Euripides hath the solemnity of a Gothic tem- 
ple, whose storied windows admit a dim religious light, enough to show its 
high embowed roof, and the monuments of the dead, which rise in every part, 
impressing our minds with pity and terror at the uncertain and short duration 
of human greatness, and with an awful sense of our own mortality." {Potter.) 

On the character of Euripides and his writings, comp. Schlegel, Dram. Lit. lect. v. — CJiar. 
vornehmst. Dicht. (cited § 61.2) vol. v. p. 335. — Anacharsis, ch. lix. — Clodius, Versuche aus der 
Literatur und Moral. Th. l. p. 72. — Fr. Jacobs, Animadvers. in Euripidem. Goth. 1790. 8. — 
Same, Curas Secundae in Eurip. Lips. 1796. 8. — Levesque, Sur les trois Poetes tragiques de la 



190 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Grece. Mem. de Vlnstitut, classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. I. p. 305. — F. A. Scfineither, De Eu- 

ripide philosopho. Gron.1828. 8. Euripides is defended from the common charge of misogyny 

in the work styled Hinterlassene Papiere einesphilos. Landpredigers, herausgegeben von K. H. 
Heydenreich. Lips. 1798. 8. 

5. Editions. — B. — Variorum, Gr. & Lat. (publisher, Priestley.) Glasg. 1821. 9 vols. 8. very 
highly commended by Dibdin ; the text of each play drawn from the most eminent editor of 
that play. — Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1778-88. 3 vols. 4. — % Matthias, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813-29. 

9 vols. 8. vol. i— in. Text. iv— v. Scholia, vi — vin. Notes, ix. Fragments. F. — Princeps, 

by Aldus. Ven. 1503. 2 vols. 8. (or 12. Dibdin.) — There was an edition of four plays, perhaps 
earlier, but without date, printed at Florence. — Hervagius. Basil, 1537, 44, 51. (three editions) 

2 vols. 8. — Oporinus, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1562. fol. — Canterus. Antw. 1571. 12. — Commelin, 
Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1597. 2 vols. 8. — P. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1602. 4. — J Barnes, 
Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 4 vols. 4. differently estimated by critics. — Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 1797. 

10 vols. 12 R E. Zimmei-mann, Gr. & Lat. Francof. ad M. (Francfort) 1808-15. 4 vols. 8. 

— F. H. Bothe. Lips. 1825. 2 vols. 8. — R. Porson. (Hecuba, Orestes, Phcsnissae, & Medea) Lond. 

1822. 8. — Same, with notes by Hermann. Lips. 1824. 8. b. J. E. Pjlugk, in Rosfs Bibliotheca. 

To detail editions of single plays would take too much space. Among the most celebrated 

editors are, O.Hermann, B ace h ae . Lpz. 1823. Alcestis . Lpz. 1824. Hecuba. Lips. 
1831. &c. — P. Elmsley, Bacchae. Lips. 1822. Medea. Oxf. 1818. — L. C. VoXckendr, 
P h 03 n i s s 33 . (rec. ed.) Lips. 1824. — J. H. Monk, Hipp olytus. Camb.1829. (cf. Lond. Quart. 

Rev. vol. xv.) Alcestis. Camb.1818. The following should be noticed : J. R. Major. 

(Hecuba, Orestes, Phrenissae, & Medea.) Lond. 1833. 8. with Engl, notes. — § T. D. Woolsey, 
Alcestis (with the Prometheus of iEschylus, and the Antigone & Electra of Sophocles), in 

his Selection of Greek Tragedies. Bost. 1837. 2 vols. 12. designed for Schools and Colleges. 

The Cyclops separately ; Hdpfner. Lips. 1798. 8. — Cum notis variorum. Glasg. 1819. 8. Gr. &. . 
Lat. 

6. Translations. — German.— F. H. Bothe. (met.) Berl. 1800. 5 vols. 8. (new edit. 1837.) 

French. — P. Prevost. Par. 1783. 3 vols. 8. and in Brumoy's Theatre des Grecs. English. — 

R. Potter. Lond. 1783. 2 vols. 4. and later. — M. Woodhull. Lond. 1782. 4 vols. 8. 1802. 3 vols. 8. 

— T. W. C. Edwards, Gr. &; Eng. prose. (Medea, Hecuba, Phcenissee, Alcestis.) Lond. 1821-24. 8. 

— By a member of the University, (prose.) Oxf. 1820-22. 2 vols. 8. including Hecuba, Orestes, 
Phoeniss33, Medea, Hippolytus, & Alcestis. 

7. Illustrative. — C. Fr. Ammon, Diss, de Eurip. Hecuba. Erl. 1788. 4. — Fr. JV. Moras, 
Prog, de Phoenissis Eur. Lips. 1771. 4. — H. Blumner, Ueber die Medea von Euripides. Lpz. 
1790. 8. — Bouterwek, de philosophia Euripidea, &c. in the Commentt. class, hist, etphilos. Soc. 
Reg. Scientiar. torn. iv. and in Miscell. Orcec. Dram. Cambridge. — C. A. BdUiger's prolusi- 

ones ii. de Medea Eurip. cum priscaa artis operibus comparata. Weim. 1802. 4. d. W. Schle- 

gel, Compar. entre la Phedre de Racine et celle d'Euripide. Par. 1807. 8. — L. Racine & Bat- 
teaux, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. &c. torn. vin. x. xlii. — Henr.Aug. Zeibisch, Disp. qua mos 
Graecorum infantes exponendi ex variis scriptor. antiq. maxime Euripidis lone illustratur. 
Wittenb.1753. 4. — R P. Joddrell, Illustrations on the Alcestis, Ion, and Baechaa. Lond. .1789, 90, 

3 vols. 8. 

§ 64. Empedocles, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished about 
B.C. 440, may be mentioned here as a didactic poet. He was one of 
the most eminent men in his native land, and distinguished as a phi- 
losopher and naturalist. That from ostentatious pride he threw him- 
self into the crater of iEtna, is a fable; he probably died while jour- 
neying in Peloponnesus. 

lu. A poem in three books, on the nature of things (LTaql yvoswg r£>v ovrtav) 
is ascribed to him by ancient authors. It was imitated by Lucretius, and a 
fragment of it still remains. Another poem, called the Sphere (2(paiQa,) was 
ascribed to him, but it is undoubtedly from some later author. 

2. Other productions were ascribed to him, particularly a number of verses 
under the name of Ka&aouoL, and a poem called ^larQixbg ?.oyoq. Some have 
considered him as the author of the so called golden verses of Pythagoras. In 
philosophy he was a disciple of the Italic or Pythagorean school. His Life is 
given by Diogenes Laertius. 

For his philosophical views, see EnfieWs Hist. Phil. bk. n. ch. xii. $ 2. (vol. i. p. 430. Dub- 
lin, 1792.) — H. Ritter, in Wolfs Analekten, vol. n. p. 411. — Cousin's French Trans, of Ten- 
nemann's Hist. Phil. vol. l. §108. — B.H. C. Lommatisch, Die Weisheit des Empedocles, &c. 
Bed. 1830. 8. 

2. Editions.— B.—Fr. TV. Sturz, Empedocles Agrigentinus, &c. Lips. 1805. 2 vols. 8. Con- 
taining his poetical fragments, and also a view of his life, character, writings, &.C.—A. Peyron, 

Empedoclis et Parmenidis Fragmenta. Lips. 1810. 8. The poem of the Sphere was published 

by F. Morel (Par. 1584. 4), as the work of Dem,. Triclinius, probably author of the copy that 
fell into the hands of Morel. Shortly after (1587. 4) a Latin translation by Q. Sept. Florent. 
Christianus.— The original and the translation by B. Hederich. Dresd. 1711. 4.— Both found 
also in Fabricius, (Harles ed.) vol. i. p. 816. 

§ 65. Aristophanes lived at Athens about B. C. 430. His native 
place is not certainly known. He is the only comic poet of the 
Greeks, from whom any complete plays now remain. Aristophanes 



POETS. EMPEDOCLES. ARISTOPHANES. MENANDER. 191 

possessed a very fertile genius, a lively wit, true comic power, and" 
Attic elegance. We are obliged, however, to charge him with bit- 
ter personal satire, and ridicule of worthy men, especially of Socra- 
tes and Euripides. This, it is true, was in accordance with the char- 
acter of Grecian comedy at that time, as was also his abundant con- 
tempt for the common religious belief. His plays furnish a valuable 
means of learning the state of manners and morals among the Greeks 
in his age. 

1. He was probably a native of iEgina. He is supposed to have died about 

380 B. C, at the age of 80. Kick. Frischlin, Life of Aristoph. prefixed to 

Kuster's edition (cited below). — Fuhrmann's Klein. Handbucb. p. 163. 

2 u. Of more than fifty comedies written by him, only eleven are extant. 
They are styled ^Ayaovug, the Acharnians ; 'Innng, Knights; JVscpi/.ai,- 
Clouds; ^cpijxsg, Wasps; Eio^rtj, Peace ;" Oqvi&sg, Birds ; Avaiorqartj, Lysis- 
trata ; OsouoyoQidtLovoai, Females keeping the festival OsouotpoQia (in honor 
of Ceres); Barqa/oi, Frogs; ^ExyJ.^oiatovoai, Females in Assembly ; JJ/.ov- 
toc, Plutus, god of riches. 

3. In the ^Ayaqraig. the author attacks Euripides, and in the Qsouocpoqiu- 
ilovoai and Barqa/oi also brings him particularly into view. Tt is in the Nsip-- 
iXai that Socrates is ridiculed ; many have supposed that the poet merely in- 
tended to ridicule, under the name of Socrates, the sophists in general, and 
that this play had little or no influence in reference to the trial and condem- 
nation of that philosopher. 

SchlegePs Dram. Lit. lect. vi. vol. i. p. 203. — Schbll, Hist. Lit. Gr. vol. n. p. 95. — Mitchell's 
Translation, Introduction. (Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xxxiv. North JLmer. Rev. vol. xiv. London 
Quarterly, vol. xxm.) — Harles, de Consilio Aristoph. in scribend. comoed. Nubes inscripta. 
Erlang. 1737. — Remarks on Aristophanes, and that part of his life which relates to Socrates. 
Lond. 1786. 8. — For a view of the character of Aristophanes and his writings, we add Char- 

akt. vornehmst. Dicht. (cited §61. 2.) vol. vn. p. 113. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. ix. p. 141 Boivin, 

in the Mem. de PAcad. des fnscr. it. 549. — Lebeau, in the samewk. xxx. 29, and Dutheil, xxxix. 
203. — Levesque, in Mem. de PInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux, Arts, vol. i. p. 344. 

4. Editions. B * Imm. Bekker, Gr. &. Lat. Lond. 1829. 5 vols. 8. With Scholia, vari- 
ous readings, and notes of different critics.— Brunck, Gr.& Lat. Strasb. 1783. 4 vols. 8. Repr. Oxf. 
1811. 4 vols. 8. with the Lexicon Aristophaneum of J. Sanzay,&s 5th vol — Inverniz, Beck, 
& Dindorf. Lips. 1795-1834. 13 vols. 8. Vol. l. h. Text ; m-ix. Notes; x-xn. Scholia; xm. 

Latin version, with Mitchell's Proleg. -F. — Princeps, by Aldus, (Marc. Muslims ed.) Ven. 

1498. fol. cum Schol. (9 comedies.)— Junta. Flor. 1515. 8 ; 1525. 4. (ed. Francinus.) — Cratan- 
drus (ed. S. Grynceus.) Basil, 1532. 4. {First containing 11 comedies.)— Zannetti. Ven. 
1538. 8.— Froben. Basil, 1547. fol.— Me. Frischlin, Gr. & Lat. Francof. ad M. 1597. 8.—JEmil. 
Portus, Gr. & Lat. Aurel. Allobr. 1607. fol.— Lud. Kuster, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1710. fol. Very 
highly esteemed.— Bcrgler, rather P. Burman (with notes of S. Bergler and C. Duker), Gr. & 
Lat. Lug. Bat. 1760. 2 vols. 4. R.— C. G. Schutz. Lpz. 1821. 8. Commenced ; never fin- 
ished.— Sctucfer. Lpz. 1818. 2 vols. 8.—F. H. Bothe. Lpz. 1830, '31. 4 vols. 8.— T. Mitchell, 
Acharnenses, Aves, & Vespae, with English notes. Lond. 1835. 8. — Editions of separate plays 
cannot here be cited. Melancthon, Hemsterhuis, Harles, Kuinbl, Hermann, Hcepfner, and 
Elmsley, are among the principal names. Beck, Wolf, and Reisig may be added. 

5. Translations. — German. — J. H. Voss, with notes. Braunschvv. 1821. 3 vols. 8. Com- 
mended bv Fuhrmann. French. — L. Poinsinet de Sivry. Par. 1784. 4 vols. 8. — 8.. C. Brc- 

tier, in the Theatre des Grecs. Italian.— B. 8f P. Rositini. Ven. 1544. 8. English.— Th. 

Mitchell. Camb. 1817. 3 vols. 8. With valuable notes and preliminary dissertations. — Cum- 
berland (and others), Of the Clouds, Plutus, Frogs, and Birds. Lond. 1812. 

6. Illustrative. — Reieio-, Conjectaneorum in Aristoph. Libb. n. Lips. 1816. 8. — P. F. Kami- 
Messer, cited § 41. — J. G. Willamow, de Ethopreia comica Aristoph. Berl. 1766. 8. — J. Floder, 
Diss, explicans Antiquites Aristophaneas. Ups. 1768. 4. — The fragment of Plutarch contain- 
ing a comparison of Aristophanes and Menander. — Aug. Seidler, de Aristoph. fragmentis. 
Halle, Sax. 1818. 4. — Class. Jour. No. xxvni. — C. A. Bottiger, Aristophanes impunitus Dec- 
rum irrisor. Lips. 1790. 8.— P. Dobree, Aristophanica Porsoni. Cant. 1820. 8.— C. Passow, 
Apparatus crit. ad Aristoph. Lips. 1828. 12.— J. Caravella, Index Aristophanicus, &c. Oxf. 
1824. 8.— if. J. Rbtscher, Aristophanes und sein Zeitalter. Berl. 1827. 8. 

§ 66. Menander, born at Athens about B. C. 342, one of the later 
comic poets of the Greeks. He wrote numerous comedies (§ 43), 
of which we possess only slight fragments. The loss of Menander 
is the more regretted on account of the praise bestowed on him by 
Quintilian (x. 1). Some idea of his manner may be obtained, how- 
ever, from the imitations of him in Terence. Philemon is usually 
named in connection with Menander, as a contemporary and rival. 



192 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

1. Menander died at the age of about 50 ; Philemon, a native according to 
some of Sicily, but according to others of Cilicia, lived to the great age of 
97 or 99. The former was rather a voluptuary ; the latter was particularly 
temperate. 

De Rockefurt, on Menander, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlvi. p. 183.' — SclilegeVs Dram. Lit. lect. 
vii. — Dunlop, as cited P. I. $ 109. 2. 

2. Editions. — B. — A. C. Meinecke. Berl. 1823. 8. Fragments of Menander and Philemon ; 
with Bentley's emendations.— —They are found in the collections cited § 43. That of Le 
Clerc occasioned a bitter literary war. (Scholl, in. p. 82. Harles, Int. i. p. 489. Brev. Not. p. 
226.)— J. Q. Schneider. Vratisl. 1812. 8. With iEsop's Fables. 

§ 67. Lycophron, a poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis in Eu- 
bcea, flourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 
284. His performance styled 'AUlurSoa, Alexandra or Cassandra, 
was improperly ranked in the class of tragedies; it is a monologue 
or monodrama, in which Cassandra predicts to Priam the fate of 
Troy. This topic is interwoven with many others, pertaining to the 
history and mythology of different nations, so as to render the poem 
obscure and heavy. 

1. Lycophron was a writer of tragedies, and was ranked among the Pleia- 
des (§ 40). A work also on the subject of comedy, Tltoi y.wucoSiag, was writ- 
ten by him. The loss of the latter is more regretted than the loss of his 
dramatic pieces. The grammarians of Alexandria collected a mass of materi- 
als illustrating his Cassandra, from which John Tzetzes compiled a large com- 
mentary. SchSll, iii. p. 96. 

2. Editions.— B.—Ch. 6. Mutter. Lips. 1811. 3 vols. 8. With the Scholia of Tzetzes. (Cf. 

Dibdin, li.p. 211. Sclioll, m. p. 106.)— L. Bachmann. Lpz. 1830. 8. F.~Princeps, by Aldus. 

Ven. 1513. 8. With Pindar and Callimachus. — Peraxylus or P. Lacisius. Basil, 1546. fol. (Cf. 
Dibdin, n. p. 208.) — W. Canter. Basil, 1566. 4. With brief notes and two Latin translations, 
one in prose by Canter, the other in verse by Jos. Scaliger. — J J. Potter, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1702. 

Much celebrated.— f H. O. Reichard, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1788. 2 vols. 8.- J L. Sebastian, Gr. & 

Lat. Rom. 1803. 4. Commended by Dibdin. 

An English version of Lycophron by Royston, Class. Jour. xin. xiv. 

§ 68. Theocritus, a native of Syracuse, flourished in the time of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, and in the reign of the second Hiero, B. C. 
about 275. We have under his name thirty Idyls, 'EiScilia, some of 
which are probably not genuine, and also twenty-two smaller pieces, 
chiefly epigrams. He was the most distinguished of ancient authors 
in the department of pastoral poetry. Virgil followed him as a 
master and model, but was his inferior in simplicity and fidelity to 
nature. 

1. We cannot assert what induced Theocritus to remove from Syracuse to 
Alexandria, where he certainly spent part of his life. Some have stated that 
certain satires composed by him against Hiero exposed him to the vengeance 
of that monarch. Where and when he died is not known, although it has 
been supposed, that he retured to Sicily and suffered a violent death from the 
vengeance of Hiero. — Cf. Life of Theocritus in Polwhele cited below. 

2. The nature of the Greek Idyl has already been exhibited (§ 30). The 
Idyls of Theocritus are not confined to pastoral subjects. Of the thirty as- 
cribed to him, only fifteen can properly be considered as bucolic or pastoral ; 
viz. the first 9 and the 11th, considered by all as genuine bucolics, and the 
10th, 20th, 21st, 23d, and 27th, which may be put in the same class. Five 
are mythological, viz. the 13th, 22d, 24th, 25th, and 26th. Three have been 
termed epistolary, 12th, 28th, and 29th, bearing a slight resemblance to the 
epistles of Ovid, but having less of the elegiac character. They are called 
lyric by Scholl. Two may be denominated comic, the 14th and 15th. The 
latter, ^vqaxovmai, the Syracusan Gossips, has no more of the pastoral in its 
tone than a scene from Aristophanes. (Cf. § 46.) Two others may be styled 
panegyrical, the 16th and 17th. And there are two in the collection, 19th and 
30th, which may properly enough perhaps be called Anacreontic, being mere 
limitations of the lighter odes of Anacreon. The remaining one, 18th, is a 



POETS. THEOCRITUS. BION. MOSCHUS. 193 

genuine epithalamium, according to its title, 'EXhyg lni&a7.huioq. — The rep- 
utation of Theocritus is built on his Idyls. The epigrams would scarcely 
have preserved his name from oblivion. — One piece of a peculiar character 
remains, termed the Svqiy%, consisting of 21 verses so arranged as to form a 
resemblance to the pipe of the god Pan. In the Alexandrine age there was 
a depraved fondness for such odd and fanciful devices, in which the poet's 
lines presented the form of eggs, axes, wings, or altars. 

E. Hepner, De Theoc. Idyll, generibus. Bevl. 1836. 4. pp. 19.— E. Reinhold, De genuin. Theo. 
carminibus. Jen. 1819. 8. For the character of Theocritus, see Elton's Specimens of Clas- 
sic Poets. — Charcot, der vorn. Dickter, i. p. 89. — C. W. Aklwardt, zur Erklarung der Idyll. The- 
okrits. Rostach. 1792. 8. — Eickstadt, Adumb. quaest. de carm. Theocr. indole ac virtutibus. 
Lips. 1794. 4. — Hardion, De Theocr. in the Mem. de PJlcad. des laser, iv.520. 

3. The epithalamium of Helen has been thought to resemble the Song- of Solomon, and some 
have supposed that Theocritus imitated the latter. Scholl opposes this idea, although there 
are passages in the Idyls containing imagery which might have been drawn from the Scrip- 
tures. The Septuagint version was made in the time of Theocritus. Comp. Idvl. xxiv. 84, 

with Isaiah, lxv. 25 and xi. 6 ; Id. xviii. 26-28 with Sol. Son?, i. 9 and vi. 10 ; Id. xx. 26 with 
Sol. Song; iv. 11 : Id. xxiii. 23-28 with Sol. Song, viii. 6, 7.— See Scholl, vol. in. p. 146.— Mat- 
ter, Essai sur l'Ecole Alexandrie. — Ch. Fr. Stceudlin, Theokrits Idyll, und das hohe Lied ver- 
glichen, in Paulus, Memorabilien, vol. n. p. 162. 

4. Editions.— B.— Tk. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1819. 8. " Perhaps the very best, up to 
the time of its publication." Dibdin. — Jacobs. Halae, (commenced) 1824. 8. Promising to be 
most ample. — .E. F. Wustemann. Gotha?, 1830. 8. pp. 435, with notes on each page ; prepared 
with the assistance of Fr. Jacobs, and forming a volume of his Bibliotk. cited §7. 1. " Best 
for Amer. student." — J. B. Gail. Par. 1795. 3 vols. 4. With French version, and plates. New 
ed. 1828. 2 vols. 8. and volume of plates, 4. — Of previous editions, the best are, Th. Warton, 
Oxf. 1770. 2 vols. 4, and L. C. Valckenaer, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1779. 8. repr. (ed. Heindorf,) 

Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. F.—Prineeps, (18 Idyls, with Works and Days of Hesiod.) Milan. 

1493. fol. time and place known only by conjecture. Dibdin. — Second, by Aldus, (with Hesiod.) 

Ven. 1495. fol Junta. Flor. 1515, 1540. Q.—Callicrgus, cum schol. Rome, 1516. 8. Thought 

to be the second Greek book printed at Rome. — Morel. Par. 1561. 4. — H. Stepkanus. Par. 1566. 
In Poet. Princ. cited <S 47 t. and 1579. 12. Gr. & Lat. With Bion and Moschus.— D. Heinsius, 

Gr. & Lat. Heid. 1604. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1676. 8. Lond. 1729. 8. 1758. 8. Martinus, Gr. 

&l Lat. Lond. 1760. 8.—Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1765. 2 vols. 4.—F. A. Strotk. Gothae, 1780. 
8. Particularly valued for its illustrations of terms and phrases pertaining to botany and natural 
history. Dibdin. 4th ed. by Strotk and Jacobs, (for schools.) Gothae, 1821. 8. — Bodoni (ed. B. 

Zamagna). Parmae, 1791. 2 vols. 8. With Latin version. "Edition du luxe." Sckoll. 

R.—Dahl. Lips. 1804. 8 — G. G. Sckdfer. Lips. 1810. fol. Splendid j on basis of Valckeniir's, 
—L. F. Heindorf. Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Including Bion and Moschus, with notes of Valcken'ar } 
Brunck, and Troup.— J. Geel. Amsterd. 1820. 8.— Tk. Briggs, Poetas Bucol. Graeci. Cambr. 
1821. 2 vols. 8. Theocr. Bion, & Mosch. with Lat. version. 

5. Translations. — German. — Finkcnstein, Arethusa. oder die bukol. Dichter des Alterthums. 

Berl. 1806. 8. Containing a Life of Theoc— J. H. Voss. Tubing. 1808. 8. French.— Cka- 

b^inon. Par. 1777. 8.— Gin. Par. 1788. 2 vols. 8. Italian.— A. M. Salvini. Ven. 1718. 12. 

With annot. by Desmarais, Aret. 1754. 8. English.— E. B. Greene. Lond. 1767. 8.— R. Pol- 

tckele, (with Bion and Mochus.) Lond. 1792. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 69. Bion of Smyrna, and Moschus of Syracuse, were contem- 
porary with Theocritus, as is generally supposed. The Idyls of 
Moschus belong rather to descriptive than to pastoral poetry, proper- 
ly speaking ; they have more refinement, with less of natural simplic- 
ity, than the pieces of Theocritus. The Seizure of Europa is the 
most beautiful. The Idyls of Bion contain elegant passages ; but 
they savor too much of art, and are wanting in the freedom and nai- 
vete of Theocritus. His principal piece is the funeral song in honor 
of Adonis. 

1. Some have placed the dates of these poets considerably later than the 
time of Theocritus. Their era is perhaps a matter of real doubt. — Manso, 
Abh. von. Bion's Leben, in his ed. cited below, 3. 

2. There remain of Moschus four Idyls, and a few smaller pieces ; of Bion, 
besides the piece above named, only some short Idyls, and a fragment of a 
longer one. These pieces have usually been published in connection with 
those of Theocritus ; and anciently they were in fact confounded with them. 

Scholl, m. p. 175. — C. F. Grdfe, Epistola? crit. in Bucolicos Grrecos. Petropoli. 1815. 4. 

3. Editions.— B.— Jacobs, Gr. & Lat. Gothae, 1795. 8.— J. C. F. Manso. Lpz. new ed. 1807. 
8. Gr. & Germ, with notes. The 1st ed. 1784. inferior.— With Theocritus. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 
S. Gr. &. Lat. with Greek Scholia, and notes from Kiessling, Heindorf, &.c.— Valckendr, with 

Theocritus, cited § 68. 4. F.—Privceps, in Aldus, with Theocr. Ven. 1495. fol.— The first 

ed. of B. and M. separate from Theocr. was by Mckerckus. Brug. Fl. 1565. 4. — Vulcanius, Gr. 
& Lat. with Callhnachus. Antw. 1584. ]2.—Hcskin, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1748.— Sckicr. Lips. 1752. 
—Wakefield. Lond. 1795. Without accents. 

17 



194 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

4. Translations.— German.— Manso, as just cited.— ^French.— J. B. Gail. Par. 1794. 12, 
English. — Greene and Polwhele, cited $ 68. 5. 

§ 70. Callimachus, of Cyrene in Lybia, flourished B. C. about 
260. He was a historian and grammarian, at Alexandria, patron- 
ized by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and by him placed in the Museum. 
(Cf. P. I. § 74.) Of his many writings we have only six hymns, 
some smaller poems, and a considerable number of fragments. His 
hymns exhibit more of study and artificial effort, than of true poeti- 
cal spirit, duintilian, however, ranks him as the first elegiac poet 
of the Greeks ; and he certainly was imitated by the Roman Pro- 
pertius. 

1. The Hymns of Callimachus are in elegiac verse. Five are in the Ionic, 
one in the Doric dialect. That addressed to Ceres is judged the best. Be- 
sides these, he composed Elegies, which were regarded as the chief ground of 
his reputation ; but of which only fragments remain. Another class of his 
pieces consisted of Epigrams, of which nearly 80 remain. Strabo refers to 
his Iambics and Choliambics, and some fragments of these still exist. Among 
his poetical works are named also three little poems ; viz. ^Ainai, on the 
causes of fable, custom, &c. ; r Exu?.ij, on the hospitality shown by an old fe- 
male to Theseus, on his way against the bull of Marathon ; and^7/?ic, a poem 
directed against one of his pupils charged with ingratitude. Many prose 
works were written by this grammarian and professed teacher ; 'Y/ioiinjiara, 
Memoirs or Commentaries ; Kriostg r^owv y.ul ttuXsojv, Settlements of islands 
and cities; Qavii uaia, on the iconders of the world; Movosiov, an account of 
the Museum at Alexandria; Ilivuz TvavrodaTtoiv cvyyQauuuTojv, a sort of uni- 
versal Tableau of Letters, in 120 books, containing an account of authors in 
every department, methodically arranged, the first example probably of a his- 
tory of literature. Some of those performances, which were styled Jidaoy.a?.lai 
(§ 47), are also ascribed to him. All these works are lost. — Schdll, m. p. 109. 
— Porte Dutheil, in Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxix. 185. 

2. Editions.— B.—Emesti, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1761. 2 vols. 8.— C. J. Blomfeld, Lond. 1815. 
8. — Fr. M. Volger, Lpz. 1817. 8. containing the Hymns and Epigrams ; a good school edition. 
Volger promised a grand edition of all the remains of Callimachus. — C. Gottling, Goth. 1835. 

8. in RosVs Bibliotheca. — Valcken'dr's fragments of the Elegies, by Luiac, Leyd. 1799. 8. 

F. — Princeps, of J. Lascar, Flor. 1495. 4. in capitals ; called by Dibdin, the edition of Alopa, be- 
ing the 4th of the 5 extremely rare works printed in capitals by L. Fr. de Alopa.— Froben, Ba- 
sil. 1532. A.—Robortellus, Gr. & Lat. Ven. 1555. 8.—H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1577. 4.— 
Faber (Anne le Fever afterwards Madame DacierJ, Lutet. Paris. 1674. 8. Gr. & Lat. Her first 
effort in editing— J Grcevius, Gr. & Lat. Ultraj. (Utrecht) 1697. 2 vols. 8.— T. Bentley, Gr. & 
Lat. Lond. 1741. 8. Cf. Mus. Crit. ii. p. 150. Class. Jour. ix. p. 35.— Foulis, Glasg. 1755. fol. 
— Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1763. 8. — Bodoni, Parm. 1792. fol. in capitals, with an Italian 
version. 

3. Translations.— German.— C. Schwenk, Bonn. 1821. 8.—Ahlwardt, (metrical) Berl. 1794. 8. 

French.— G. la Porte du Theil, Par. 1775. 8.— P. Rhadel, with Lat. vers. Par. 1808. 8 

English.— W. Dodd, Lond. 1755. 4.— IT. W. Tytler, Gr. & Eng. Lond. 1793. 4. 

4. Illustrative. — C. G. G6ttlincr.Anima.dv. crit. in Callim. Epigrammata. Jen. 1811. 8 J. G. 

Zierlein, Disp. de ingenio Callim. Hall. 1770. 4. — Nachtr'dge zu Salter's Theorie, otherwise 
styled Charaktere der vornehmsten Dichter (cited § 61. 2.) vol. n. p. 86. 

5. Philetas of Cos, in the time of Alexander the Great, is sometimes mentioned in connec- 
tion and comparison with Callimachus (§ 29). — The fragments of his Elegies were published 
separately by C. Ph. Kayser, Gott. 1793. 8. 

§ 71. Aratus of Soli, afterwards called Pompeiolis, in Cilicia, 
flourished B. C. about 278. At the request of Antigonus, king of 
Macedon, he wrote an astronomical poem under the title of <Pair6fi£va 
y.ai Jtoa^usLui. It was not strictly an original, as the request of the 
king his patron was, that he should clothe in verse two treatises, the 
"'Evotitpuv and the (Pairciisra, of Eudoxus. This poem is memorable 
on account of Cicero's metrical translation of it. Of this transla- 
tion, however, only slight fragments remain. It was translated into 
Latin verse also by Ceesar Germanicus, and by Festus Avienus. 
That of Avienus and a part of the other are still extant. 

1. The poem of Aratus was much esteemed by the ancients. Cf. Ov. Amor. 






POETS. ARATUS. CLEANTHES. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. 195 

i. 15. v. 16. Quint x. 1. 55. Although he is charged with knowing but 
little on the subject of astronomy, many of the mathematicians wrote com- 
mentaries on his work; four of these are yet in existence. Delambre (Hist. 
Astr. Anc. i. p. 74.) remarks that Aratus has preserved nearly all that the 
Greeks knew of the science, at least so far as it could be told in verse, 
SchOll, iii. 137. 

2. There are three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides the notice of Suidas. 
On the later didactic poets of the Greeks, Aratus, Nicander, and Oppian, we 
may refer to the Nacht. zu Sulzer (cf. § 70. 5.) vol. vi. p. 350. 

3. Editions.— B.— J. G. Buhle, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8. containing the versions 
of Germanicns and Avienus ; also Leontius de Sphcera. — F. Ch. Matthice, Frankf. 1817. 8. with 

Eratosthenes, Dionvsius, and Avienus. F. — Princcps, hy Aldus, in the Astronomi Vcteres. 

Ven. 1499. 2 vols. fol. Cf. Scholl, i. p. 50. Intr.— Micylli, Gr. & Lat. Basil. 1535. M.—Valderus, 

Bas. 1536. A.—Colinceus, Par. 1540. 8 6. Morell, Par. 1559. 2 vols. A.— Grotius, Gr. & Lat.Leyd. 

1600. 4. among the more prominent of early editions ; the editor at the time, hut sixteen years 
of age.— J. Fell, Oxf. 1672. 8. with the Karaarsqiauoi of Eratosthenes. Repr. Oxf. 1801.8. 
(Cf. $ 215.)— Bandini, Gr & Lat. Flor. 1765. 8. with ital. metr. vers, by Salvini. Not highly es- 
teemed. R. — Tli. Foster, Lond. 1813. 8. value not known. — ibbe Halma, with French trans. 

Par. 1823. 4. with the version of Germanicus, and Scholia of Theon ; also the Catasterisms of 
Eratosthenes, and the sphere of Leontius. — J. H. Voss, Gr. &. Germ. Heidelb. 1824. 8. — Ch. 
Buttmann, Berl. 1826. 8.—/. Bekker, Berl. 1828. 8. 

4. Translations. — French. — Halma, just cited, German. — Voss, just cited. — G. S. Falbe,. 

in the Berlin Monatschrift, 1806. Feb. & Aug. 1807. Feb. & March. On a curious Ms. of Cic- 
ero's translation, see P. I. § 243. 

§ 72. Cleanthes of Assus in Troas, having been for many years a 
a disciple of Zeno, at length succeeded him as teacher in the Stoic 
school at Athens, B. C. 264. Of his numerous writings nothing re- 
mains but an admirable Hymn to Jupiter. 

1. Cleanthes received the name (frnsurTl.ijg from the circumstance that, in 
order to enable himself, being poor, to attend the schools of philosophy by 
day, he spent part of the night in drawing water, as a laborer in the gardens 
of the city. He is said to have died at the age of 80 or 90, by voluntary star- 
vation. The Hymn, which still keeps alive his memory, is in hexameter verse, 
and contains some exalted views of a Supreme Divinity. 

EnfieWs Hist. Philos. cited § 64. 2. Vol. i. p. 'ilQ.—Sclwll, Gr. Litt. iii. 335.— Diog. Lacrt. Lives 
of Philosophers. 

2. Editions. — B.— G. Ch. Monike, Cleanthes der Stoiker. Greifsw, 1814. 8. — H. H. Cludius. 

GStt. 1786. 8. Gr. & Germ, with notes. — F. W. Stun. Lips. 1785. 4. The Hymn was first 

published by Fulv. Ursinus, Carmina novem illust. feminarum, etc. Antw. 1568. 8. — Again in 
H. Stephanus, Poesis Philos. cited $ 47t. — In R.Cudworth, Intellect. Syst. of the Univ. Lond. 
1678. fol. p. 432. with a Latin metrical version by Duport. — In Brunch's Analekta (cf. $ 35) and 

Gnom. Poet. (cf. § 31) and in other collections. An English metrical version is" given in 

West's Pindar, cited § 60. See J. F. H. Schwabe, Specimen theologies comparative, exhibens 

K/.euvdovg vuvov tig Jia cum disciplina Christiana comparatum, etc. Jen. 1819.4. 

§ 73. Apollonius Rhodius, B. C. about 125, was a native of Nau- 
cratis, or perhaps of Alexandria, in Egypt. The name Rhodius was 
occasioned by his residence at Rhodes, where he for a time taught 
rhetoric. He was a pupil of Callimachus, and became the librarian 
at Alexandria. 

1. A bitter enmity existed between Apollonius and Callimachus until the 
death of the latter. Apollonius is said to have retired from Alexandria to 
Rhodes, from mortification at having been hissed by the partisans of Callima- 
chus at the public reading of his Argonautics. It was at a subsequent period 
that he was appointed keeper of the Alexandrian library, being successor to 
Eratosthenes. 

There are four ancient biographies of Apollonius in Greek. #. Weichert, Ueber das Leben 

und Gedicht des Apollonius von Rhodus. Meissen. 1821. 8. 

2u. His chief work was an epic poem, 3 Ar>yoravriy.a, on the Expedition of 
the Argonauts. He imitated Homer, with talents much inferior. His poem, 
however, evinces great application, and has some beautiful passages, particu- 
larly the episode on the passion of Medea. Yet in poetical genius and style 
he is rather surpassed by his imitator among the Romans, Valerius Flaccus. 

3. The poem of Apollonius consists of four books or cantos. The critics do not agree in their 
estimate of its worth, nor as to the comparative merits of the Greek original and the Roman 
imitation by Valerius. Scholl pronounces the latter superior to its model, in agreement with 
the remark of Eschenburg above. But in the edition of Eschenburg's work published after his 



196 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

death, the opposite is asserted Scholl, vol. in. p. 117.— Groddeck, in the Bibliothck der Alten 

Literatur vnd Kunst. St. 2. p. 61. — Charaktere vornehmst. Dicht. vol. vi p. 199. — O. Th. Bloch, 
Diss, de carm. epic. Apoll. Rhodii. Havn. 1792. 8.— Quintil. x. 1. 54. — D. Balfoordt, De Apollon. 
Rhodii laude poetica. Traj. 1825. 8.— A. JVcicIiert, Ueber das Leben imd Gedicht des Apol. von 
Rhodus. Lips. 1828. 8. 

4. Editions. — B.— Wellaucr. Lips. 1328. 2 vols. 8. — Schdfer. Lips. 1810-13. 2 vols. 8. with 

Brunck's notes ; and scholia. — Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1797. 2 vols. 8. Princeps, of Fr. de 

Alopa (cur. J. Lascaris). Flor. 1496. 4. in capitals. — ZUlus. Ven. 1521. 8.—Brubachius. Francof. 
1546. 8.—Rotmarus, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1572. 8. — H. Stephanus. Genev. 1574. 4.— Elzevir (ed. Hcel- 
zlin), Gr. &. Lat. Lug. Bat. 1641. 8. — T. Shaw. Oxf. 1777 2 vols. 4.—Flangini, Gr. & Ital. Rom. 
1794. 2 vols. 4. with plates ; elegant. — Hxrstel, school ed. Brunsw. 1806. 8. 

5. Translations. — German. — J. J. Bodmer. Zurich, 1779. 8. French.— J. J. A. Caussin, 

Par. 1797. 8. highly praised. English. — Fr. Fawkes. Lond. 1780. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 74. Nicander, born at Colophon in Ionia, lived about B. C. 146. 
He was a physician, grammarian, and poet. 

lu. There remain from him two poems in hexameter, termed GyQiax'a and 
^^disl-tcpuouay.a ; the former treating of venomous animals, and remedies for 
wounds from them ; the latter, of antidotes to poisons in general. His rswQ- 
yixu, Georgics, and AirtaZixa, Things pertaining to JEtolia, are lost. The two. 
former possess no great merit either as poems or as treatises of natural science, 
(cf. § 32.) The scholia of Eutecnius upon them are ofmuch value, particularly 
as illustrating the history of medicine. 

2. Nicander wrote also, as has been before noticed (§ 32), a work styled metamorphoses, wholfy 
lost. — Scliolly iii.;.141. — Charaktere vornehmst. Dicht. vi. p. 373. 

3. Editions. — B. — Alexipharmaca. T. G. Schneider, Gr. &. Lat. Hal. 1792. 8. with para- 
phrase of Eutecnius. — Theriaca. J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1816. 8. with paraph, of 

Eutecnius. F. — Princeps, Aldus. Ven. 1499. fol. with Dioscorides. — J. Soter. Cologne, 

1530. 4. — GorraiLs (Morel print.), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1557. 3 vols. 4. uniting the two poems as ed- 
ited separately by him in 1549 &. 1556. — Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1764. 8. with the scholia 
or paraphrase of Eutecnius. 

§ 75. Oppian, of Corycus in Cilicia, a later Greek poet, lived as 
is supposed under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, in 
the latter part of the 2d century after Christ. 

lu. Under his name we have two didactic poems; r As.hvti-A<, on fishing, in 
five books ; and Kuriiysrizu, on hunting, in four hooks. The former excels the 
latter both in thought and style. This circumstance has furnished some ground 
for ascribing them to different authors of the same name. The latter has been 
ascribed to an Oppian of Apamca in Syria, who lived under Caracalla, in the 
beginning of the 3d century. 

2. The hypothesis of two poets by the name of Oppian, father and son. or 
uncle and nephew, was advanced by Schneider, in 1776, in his edition of the 
poems. In 1786 it was attacked by Belin de Ballu, in an edition of the poem 
on the chase. Schneider, in a new edition, 1813, still maintained his hypo- 
thesis. — SchOll, iv. p. 70. — Charakt. vorn. Dicht. vi. p. 379. 

3. The poem > I^£vrixht, on folding, generally ascribed to Oppian, is lost; 
but there is extant a commentary upon it, by Eutecnius. This was published 
by E. Winding, Gr. & Lat. Copenh. 1702. 8. 

4. Editions. — B.—J. G. Schneider, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1813. ed. Sch'dfer. F.—Pri}iceps, by 

B. Junta. Flor. 1515. 8. only the Halieutiea.— Aldus, Gr. & Lat. Ven. 1517. S.— Tumebus. Par. 
1555. 4. — Rittershusii. Lug. Bat. 1597. 8. Gr. <fc Lat. with a proem on the life and writings of 
Oppian. — B. de Ballu, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 1786. 8. Cynegetica only. 

5. Translations. — (a) Of the Cynegetica. — German. — C. G. Lieberkiihn. Lpz. 1755. 8. 

French.— Belin de Ballu, Gr. & Lat. Ar<rent. 1787. 8. Italian.— A. M. Salvini. Flor. 1728. 8. 

English.—.!/. Sommerville. Lond. J 788. 8. — (&) Of the Ha lie utic «.— English.— By Dnap- 

per 4' Jones. Oxf. 1722. 1751. 8. See Ameilhon, sur le peche des Anciens, as cited P. IV. § 58. 

§ 76. Nonnns, of Panopolis in Egypt, flourished probably in the 
beginning of the 5th century; originally a pagan, afterwards con- 
verted to Christianity. Little or nothing is known of his history. 

lu. Two works by him are extant ; one, the Jiowciay.u, on the deeds of Bac- 
chus, in forty-eight books, of various contents, without much order or connec- 
tion, in a style not generally easy or natural; the other, a poetical, or as he terms 
it, epical paraphrase of the Gospel of John, prolix and bombastic. 

2. The Dionysiaca of Nonnus has been ranked among epic poems, but per- 
haps not with strict propriety, (cf. § 20.) It is a store-house of mythological 
traditions. Some learned men. as Falckenburg and Julius C. Scaliger, have 



POETS. NONNUS. COLUTHUS. QUINTUS. 197 

highly praised, while others, as Nicholas Heinsius and Joseph Scaliger, have 
as strongly condemned it. 

Scholl, vi. 79.— J. A. Weichert, de Nonno Panopolitano. Viteb. 1810. 4. — JVic. Schow, Comment, 
de indole carminis Nonni, etc. Havn. 1807. — Omcaroff, Nonnus der Dichter. Petrop. 1317. 4. 

3. Editions. — (a) Of the Diony siaca .— B. — Fr Grdfe. Lpz, 1819-26. 2 vols. 8. containing 
the text. A 3d vol. is expected, with a version, and full commentary. A part of the 15th btu 
was published by F. Grdfe, with the title of Hymni et Nikeia (Gr. & Germ.) Petropol. 1813.. 8. 

F. — Princeps, by G. Falckenburg, from a manuscript now at Vienna. Antw. 1569. 4. Repr. 

by Wechel (with a poor trans, by Lubin). Hanov. 1605. 8. ; to this edition was afterwards joined 
(with a new title-page, 1610) a volume published by Cunaus including a dissertation by D. Hein- 
sius, and conjectures by J. Scaliger. — G. H. Moscr published 6 books (8-13) with notes, and ar- 
guments of all the books of the poem. Heidelb.1809. 8. cf. Class. Journ. vii. 345. (b) Of the 

Metaphrasis, or Paraphrase of John. — The first edit, by Aldus. Ven. 1501. 4. — jF. Nansius. 
Leyd. 1589, 1599. 8. — F. Sylburg. Heidelb. 1596. 3.— D. Heinsius, in his Aristarchus Sacer, sive 
ad Nonni etc. Lug. Bat. 1627. 8. 

§ 77. Coluthus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, was a poet of a later period, 
probably about the beginning of the 6th century. His poem, called 
'EUvt]q UoTcayl n or Rape of Helen, has many defects, and but little real 
poetry. The whole is without plan, dignity, or taste, with many traces 
of too close imitation. 

1. He is said to have lived in the reign of the emperor Anastasius, who ab- 
dicated A. D. 518. He wrote a poem in six cantos, entitled Caledoniacs ; this, 
with other pieces by him, is lost. The Rape of Helen consists of 385 verses, 
in imitation of Homer. This poem was found by cardinal Bessarion, along with 
that of Quintus (cf. § 78) ; and Scholl remarks that it is ascribed to Coluthus 
without certain evidence. " The word rape (in the title) must not be taken 
in the common acceptation ; for Paris was more courtly than to offer, and Helen 
more kind-hearted than to suffer, such a violence. It must be taken rather for 
a transporting of her, with her consent, from her own country to Troy." 

Scholl, vi. p. 106. — Harles, Super Coluthi carm. de raptu Helena?. Erlang, 1775. fol. — C, J. 
Grdfe, Conjecture in Coluthum, Tryphiodorum, &c. Petrop. 1818. 4. 

2. Editions. — B. — L Dan. de Lennep. Leovard, 1747. 8. — * G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1825. 8. with 
notes of de Lennep, and additions. — Imm. Bekker. Berl. 1816. 8. — A. Stan. Julien. Par. 1823. 8. 
This has the text of Bekker, with translations in Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, English and 
German, and a fac simile of two manuscripts of the poem (of the 15th and 16th centuries), rep- 
resenting not only the letters, but the color of the ink and paper. — — F. — Princeps, by Aldus, 
along with Quintus and Tryphiodorus, without date, but supposed 1504. (Schaoll, vi, p. 103.) — 
H. Siephanus, in the Poet.princ. heroic, cited Q 47t, also in his Homer. Par. 1604. 12,— M. JYeander, 
Opus Aureum. Bas. 1559. 4. — A. Th. Villa'. Milan, 1753. 12. Gr. & Ital. — Scio de San. Miguel. 
Madrid, 1770. 4. Gr. Lat. & Span.— Bodoni. Parma, 1795. 4. Gr. Lat. & Ital. 

3. Translations. — German.— K. A. Kvttner, in his Callimachus. Alt. 1784. 8. English— 

W. Beloe. Lond. 1736. 4. Meen, in Cooke's Hesiod, cited § 51. 6. 

§ 78. Quintus, or Cointus, lived probably in the first part of the 
6th century. He was called Smyrnceus from his native place Smyrna, 
and received the surname Calaber from the circumstance that his 
poem was found in a convent in Calabria. 

\u. The poem ascribed to him, termed LTuqaZsiTtoutva f Oiu'iQto, Things omit- 
ted by Homer, is drawn from the Cyclic poets (§ 21). It consists of 14 books, 
giving the history of the siege of Troy from the death of Hector to the depart- 
ure of the Greeks. 

2. Cardinal Bessarion found, in a convent at or near Otranto in Calabria, a 
manuscript copy of this poem, and also of that of Coluthus. And there is in 
manuscript another poem ascribed to Quintus, on the twelve labors of Hercules, 

in the library of St. Mark, and in that of the king of Bavaria at Munich. 

Studious imitation of Homer is apparent everywhere in the Paralipomena. 
Some have considered it a sort of amplification of the Little Iliad of Lcsches, 
one of the early cyclic poets, or a compilation gathered from various poets of 
that class. 

Srh'dll, vi. 91. where is a pretty full analysis of the poem. — Tourlct, in his translation, and 
Ti/chsen, in his edition cited below (3). — K. L. Struve, in his Abh. u. Reden meist. philol. In- 
halts. Konigsb. 1822. 8. 

3. Editions. — B. — Th. Or. Tychscn. Strassb. 1807. 2 vols. 8. F. — The first by Aldus, 

with Coluthus, cited § 77. 2. — Rhodomann, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1604. 8. — J. C. de Pauw, Gr. 8c 
Lat. Leyd. 1734. 8. 

4. Translations. — French.— R. Tourlet. Par. 1800. 2 vols. 8. "not faithful." (Fuhrmann.) 

5. In connection with the imitations of Homer in the poems ascribed to Coluthus and Q,uin- 

15* 



198 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

tus, we may notice another imitation of a singular kind, the r Oi/>;o6*£»'T(Ja, Homcrocentra. 
This is a Life of Jesus Christ, in 2343 hexameter lines, formed by verses and hemistichs selected 
from Homer. It is ascribed by some to a Pelagius, who lived in the 5th century ; by others to 
Eudocia, wife of the emperor Theodosius 2d. "It was probably the work of both, having been 
commenced by the former and finished by the latter. — The latest edition is that by L. H. Tea- 
cher. Lpz. 1793. 8. Gr. & Lat. 

§ 79. Tryphiodorus, a native of Egypt, of whose history nothing 
is known, lived in the 6th century, and was the author of a poem, 
entitled "ittov alwoig, the Destruction of Troy. It is marked by 
bombast and affectation of ornament. 

1. He is said to have written other poems, as the Marathoniaca, the Hippo- 
dameia, and the Odyssey called Lijjogrammatic, ?.£inoy(juu tutrix};, because some 
particular letter of the alphabet was excluded from each of its 24 books; or, 
according to others, because the letter 2 was excluded from the whole poem. 
The Destruction of Troy consists of only 681 verses, and is perhaps merely a 
sort of argument of a more full work contemplated by the author. — Scholl, 
vi. 109. 
2. Editions. — B. — F. A. Wernicke (completed by Znmpf). Lpz. 1819. 8. — Thorn. Northmore, 

Camb. 1791. and Lond. 1804. 8. Gr. & Lat. with excursuses. F. — Princeps, by Aldus, as cited 

$ 77. 2. — Ft. Jamot, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1537. 8. — J. Merrick, Gr.. & Lat. Oxf. 1741. 8. with a 
dissertation on the life and writings of Tryph. and an English metrical version in a separate vol- 
ume. — Bodoni, 1796. fol. — G. H. Schafer (pr. Tauchnitz). Lips. 1808. fol. 

§ 80. Theodorus Prodromus lived at Constantinople in the first 
half of the 12th century. There are several works by him yet re- 
maining in manuscript, from which it appears that he followed the 
various pursuits of theologian, philosopher, grammarian and rhetori- 
cian. He is mentioned here on account of his erotic poem in 9 books,, 
styled the Loves of Rhodanthe and Dosicles. (Cf. § 33.) 

1. He enjoyed high reputation among his contemporaries, and the epithet 
Cyrus (Kvnog for Ki'qioq) often joined to his name, is said, to have been given 
to him in token of respect. On embracing monastic life, he assumed the name 
of Hilarion. His poem above mentioned is but an indifferent performance. 

There is only one edition of it ; G. Gaulmin, Par. 1625. 8, — A French) translation is found in 
the Bibl. d. Romans Grecs. vol. xi. as cited $. 152. 2. — CfJ. Schall, vi. p. 121. — Huct, Traite de 
l'origine des romans. Par. 1711. 12. p. 118. 

2. Various other poetical pieces were composed by Mm ; as the Oaleomyomachia, or Galeoma- 
chia, mentioned §, 50. 3. ; a poem, styled Poverty gives wisdom ; another sty Ted Friendship banished; 
and some epigrams in honor of eminent Christian Fathers, Basil, Clirysostom, and others. 

Other pieces remain in manuscript. The Galeomachia, by F. Morell, Gr. & Lat. Par. 

1608. 8.— best, by K. D. llgen, as cited § 50. 3. Poverty #e. by G. Morell (pr.), Gr. &. Lat. 

Par. 1549. 4. Cf. Koraifs Atakta. Par. 1828. 8. 1st vol. Ep-igrams , by J. Erard.. Lpz. 

1598. 8. 

3. Many works in prose were also; written by him, of a character which places them in the 
class of grammatical and rhetorical works. — Schall, vi. 215, 265- — Harles, Brev. Not. Lit. Gr. 
p. 591. 

4. Two other authors were mentioned (§33) in speaking of erotic poetry, Nicetas Eugenianus 

and Constantine Manasses. These were first published by ./. F. Boissonade.. Par- 1819. 2 vol's, 

12. Gr. &. Lat. 

§ 81. Tzctzes or Tzetza (John) was a grammarian of the 12th 
century, at Constantinople. From the works and fragments of other 
poets, and without taste, he compiled what were called his Ante- 
homerica (T'tcnoo'OLniiiov^ Homerica ( r ' u ' r °,"'<"5 0U ) > and Posthomerica 
(ra usd' "Olivary To these he also furnished scholia or comments. 

1. The three pieces form a whole of 1665 hexameters, and are together called 
'I?.iaxa. The first contains events from the birth of Paris to the tenth year of 
the Trojan war, with which Homer's Iliad opens; the second consists of an 
abridgment of that poem ; the third, like the poem of Quintus, refers to what 
occurred between the death of Hector and the return of the Greeks. Tzetzes 
also wrote a work in political verse, called Biplog [aroQtxi' n treating of topics of 
history, mythology, and literature, in a veiy miscellaneous and disconnected 
manner : the work is more commonly called Chiliades, from a division of the 
verses into several suites of 1000 lines each. He also composed an Iambic 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 199 

poem, on the education of children. Several other works in verse by him are 
vet in manuscript. The most considerable is the ^Yno&tcig rov ^Oui'^ov, ex- 
plaining the fables of Homer. — Scholl, vi. p. 125. 

2. The first edition of the pieces constituting the Iliac a; G. B. Shirach. Hal. 1770. 8. very 
imperfect. — The next, and improved, Fr. Jacobs. Lpz.1793. 8. — Last, and best text, S. Bekker. 
Berl. 1816. 8. — The Chiliades ; by JV. Gerbelius. Bas. 1546. fol. — J. Lectins, in Poetae Gr. 
etc. in unum redacti corpus. Colon. Allobr. 1614. 2 vols. fol. — Best, t T. Kiessling. Lips. 1826. 8. 

3. Tzetzes holds a higher rank as a grammarian and scholiast. He wrote commentaries on 
Homer's Iliad and on Hesiod. His commentary on Lycophron, by some ascribed to his brother 
Isaac Tzetzes, has been mentioned § 67. 1. — Schwll, vi. 265, 269. 



II. — Oratory and Orators. 

§ 82 m. Prose was cultivated later than verse, and oratory later than other 
branches of prose composition, of which the earliest form was historical. But 
although oratory, in form and as an art, did not exist at so early a period, yet 
even in the heroic ages there was actual eloquence. There was practical skill 
in moving the feelings of assembled numbers in civil and military affairs. We 
have evidence of this in the addresses made by the warriors of Homer, which, 
although doubtless the productions of the poet, are yet a proof of the existence 
and the success of a sort of oratory. 

§ 83 u. The example of those historical writers, who were not indifferent to 
the beauties of style, seems to have first suggested to the Greeks the advan- 
tage of careful attention to the language and manner of their spoken addresses. 
From the time of Solon (B.C. 594), political eloquence was much practiced at 
Athens, and by the emulation of great speakers was ere long advanced to high 
perfection. Rhetoric and oratory soon became objects of systematic study, 
and were indispensable in the education of such as wished to gain any public 
office, or any influence in the affairs of the state. 

§ 84. It may be remarked, then, that Grecian oratory was not of early or 
sudden growth, It was not till after Greece had adopted the popular forms of 
government, not till after the works of her Homer had been collected and be- 
gun to be studied, and after her general prosperity and independence allowed 
her citizens to attend to speaking as an art, that Greece exhibited any very 
eminent orators. At the time of Solon, beyond which the history of Grecian 
eloquence cannot be carried back, several of the states had existed much longer 
than Rome had at the time of Cicero. While eloquence made its first appear- 
ance thus late, and gradually rose to perfection under the peculiar circum- 
stances of the nation, it continued in power and splendor only for a short pe- 
riod. Its real history must be considered as terminating with the usurpation 
of Philip and the supremacy of Macedon over southern Greece ; so that the 
whole space of time, during which Grecian oratory particularly flourished,, 
includes less than three hundred years. This space coincides with the third 
of the periods into which we have divided the history of Greek Literature, 
from Solon (about 600 B.C.) to Alexander (B.C. 336). It is, however, the 
brightest period in the annals of Greece'; a glorious day, at the close of which 
her sun went down in clouds and never again rose in its native splendor. 

§ 85. It is also worthy of remark, that whatever glory has redounded to the 
Greeks for their eloquence, belongs almost exclusively to Athens. In the other 
states it was never cultivated with success. The orators, of whose genius any 
monuments are still preserved, or whose names have been recorded as distin- 
guished, were Athenians. So that Cicero in his Brutus inquires, who knows 
of a Corinthian or Theban orator, unless you except Epaminondas ? Out of 
Greece, however, the study flourished, both in the islands and in the settle- 
ments in western Asia. The Sicilians were the first who attempted to form 
rules for the art, and the Rhodians had orators that might be compared with 
the Attic. 

On Epaminondas, see Gcdoyn, La vi ; d'fpiminondas, Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol.xi v. pil83. 

§ 86. To one who traces the history of Grecian oratory through the period 
which has been mentioned, it will present itself under three different aspects 



200 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

successively. It exhibits one characteristic appearance from the time of Pisis* 
tratus to the close of the Persian war ; another from the close of the Persian to 
the close of the Peloponnesian ; and a third from the close of the Peloponnesian 
war to the supremacy of Macedon. A glance at the peculiar character of the 
eloquence of these three portions, will give us perhaps the best general view 
of the whole. 

See Cicero's Brutus.— Heeren's Greece by Bancroft, p. 257. where some of the views touched 
upon in the following sections are beautifully developed. 

§ 87. Of the first portion no monuments or fragments of the oratory remain. 
Its character must be drawn altogether from the testimony of later periods and 
from circumstantial indications. It was in this age, that the poems of Homer 
were collected and published; which gave a new impulse to Grecian mind, 
and unquestionably exerted an influence on the language and oratory of the 
times. As the models of language and style were all in poetry and not in prose, 
the speeches and the composition of this age were marked by a poetical struc- 
ture, by something of the rhythm and measure of verse. Such indeed was the 
preference for metrical composition, that Parmenides taught his philosophy in 
verse, and Solon published his laws in the dress of poetry. Solon is ranked 
among the distinguished orators of the period; and the first circumstance 
which brought him into notice, was a poetical harangue to the populace of 
Athens. 

§ 88. Oratory as an art was now scarcely conceived. The orators were only 
the favorite leaders of the people ; chiefly such as had been brave and success- 
ful in war, who gained popular influence by military enterprize, and were per- 
mitted to be powerful statesmen because they were fortunate generals. Their 
speeches were brief, simple, bold ; adorned with few ornaments (cf. Anacharsis 
ii. 257), accompanied with little action. Such was Pisistratus, whose valor in 
the field aud eloquence in the assembly raised him to an authority utterly in-; 
consistent with the republican principles of his country. Such too was The- 
mistocles. In him predominated the bravery and art of the military chieftain. 
It was his policy and energy that saved Greece from the dominion of Persia. 
He acquired unlimited sway as a statesman and orator ; because, in proposing" 
and urging the plans which his clear and comprehensive mind had once formed, 
he could not but be eloquent; and because he never offered a plan, which he 
was not ready and able to execute with certain success. His eloquence, like 
his policy, was vigorous, decided, bordering on the severe, but dignified and 
manly. It was altogether the most distinguished of the age ; and the name of 
Themistocles is therefore selected to mark this era in the history of Grecian 
eloquence. 

§ 89. Of the second portion of the period in view, as well as the first, we 
have no remains which are acknowledged to be genuine, if we except the 
harangues of Antiphon. The number of eminent public speakers was, how- 
ever, increased ; and there began to be more preparation, by previous study 
and effort, for the business of addressing the popular assemblies. In this age, 
the orators were men who had devoted their early years to the study of phi- 
losophy, and whose attainments and political talents raised them to the place 
of statesmen, while this elevation still imposed on them the duties of the sol- 
dier and the general. 

The most celebrated among them were Pericles, who flourished first in order 
of time, and after him successively Clcon, Alcibiades, Critias, and Theramenes. 
Pericles and Alcibiades exerted the greatest influence upon the condition and 
interests of the Athenians. The latter, ambitious of glory and fearless of dan- 
ger, ardent and quick in feeling, and exceedingly versatile in character and 
principle, was able, in spite of a defective pronunciation (Anach. i. 305) and a 
hesitating delivery, so perfectly to control a popular assembly and mold their 
feelings by his own will, that he was regarded as one of the greatest of orators. 

§ 90. But to Pericles must be granted the honor of giving a name to'this era 
of eloquence. His talents were of the highest order, and he qualified himself 
for public influence by long and intense study in private. He disclosed his 
powers in the assemblies with caution, and whenever he spoke, impressed the 
hearers with new convictions of his strength and greatness. His information 
was various and extensive, his views always liberal and elevated, his feelings 



ORATORY AND ORATORS. 201 

and purposes in general highly patriotic and generous. Cicero remarks of him, 
that even when he spoke directly against the will of the populace and against 
their favorites, what he said was popular ; the comic satirists, while they ridi- 
culed and cursed him, acknowledged his excellence; and so much did he 
shine in learning, wisdom, and eloquence, that he ruled Athens for forty years 
almost without a rival. 

Pericles pronounced a funeral eulogium over those who fell in the first bat- 
tles of the Peloponnesian war. This oration Thucydides professes to give us 
in his history (ii. 35) ; but most probably we have the fabrication of the histo- 
rian, and not the actual production of the orator. The piece, however, may 
indicate the peculiarities of Pericles and the other speakers of the age. 

§ 91. The distinguishing qualities of their eloquence were simple grandeur 
of language, rapidity of thought, and brevity crowded with matter to such an 
extent even as to create occasional obscurity. They had very little of artificial 
plan, or of rhetorical illustration and ornament. Their speeches are seldom 
marked by any of the figures and contrivances to produce effect, which the 
rules of sophists brought into use among the later orators. They have less of 
the air of martial addresses than the harangues of the first period we have no- 
ticed, but far more of it than appears in the third. Their character is such as 
to show, that while the orator was a statesman of influence in the civil council, 
he was also at the same time a commander in war. Such was the eloquence 
of the era which is designated by the name of Pericles. 

§ 92. But the third is the most glorious era, and is marked by a name which 
has been allowed to stand pre-eminent in the history of human eloquence, that 
of Demosthenes. It was an age fruitful in orators, of whose talents there still 
remain rich and splendid monuments. The orator was no longer necessarily 
united with the general ; but was able to control the deliberations of the peo- 
ple, although he never encountered the perils of the camp. 

It was now that oratory became a regular study, and numbers devoted them- 
selves to the business of teaching its rules. These teachers, known by the 
name of Sophists and Rhetoricians, made the most arrogant and ridiculous 
pretensions, professing to communicate the art of speaking copiously and flu- 
ently on any point whatever. But we must not affix to all, who went under 
this name, the idea of a vain and pompous declaimer. There were some hon- 
orable exceptions ; e. g. Isocrates, who taught the art, and whose influence 
upon the oratory of this period was so great, that Cicero gives him the honor 
of forming its general character. His school was the resort of all who aimed 
at the glory and the rewards of eloquence. 

Isocrates, Lysias, Isasus, iEschines, and Demosthenes, are the bright names 
in the constellation which marks this era. Andocides, EHnarchus, Hyperides, 
and Lycurgus, are also recorded as eminent speakers. These, with Antiphon 
of the preceding era, form the illustrious company of the ten Athenian orators. 
They could have been, however, only a small part of the number in the pro- 
fession in this period, as we might judge, even had no names been recorded? 
from the fact that at its very close there were at least ten, and according to 
some thirty, whom the Macedonian conqueror demanded to be delivered up to 
him as hostile to his supremacy. — SchOll, ii. p. 265. 

§ 93. In the age before us, the general characteristics are to be found in the 
state and circumstances of the profession, rather than in the form or nature of 
the eloquence. Each of the more eminent orators had his distinguishing pecu- 
liarities, which makes it difficult to mark the prominent traits, which might be 
stamped upon all. It is easy, notwithstanding, to notice the influence of the 
system of art, to which the speakers of this age thought it necessary to attend. 
There is in their orations too little of the plain and direct simplicity of former 
times, and much, often far too much, of the ambush and artifice of logic, the 
flourish and sound of mere rhetoric. You discover also, frequently, the orator's 
consciousness of influence arising from his skill in speaking. It was an age, 
when the populace flocked to the assemblies and the courts of justice for the 
sake of hearing and being affected ; when even the unprincipled demagogue 
.could, by the spell of his tongue, raise himself to the archonship of Athens. 

§ 94. This period furnished a greater number and variety of occasions for 
the display of oratorical talents- Numerous state prosecutions, similar to that 



202 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



in which Lysias engaged against Eratosthenes, grew out of the disturbances 
and revolutions connected with the Peloponnesian war, and these necessarily 
drew forth the genius of opposing advocates. Public discussions, likewise, 
became frequent upon different subjects relating to war, politics, and govern- 
ment, which opened a wide field not merely for harangue, but for studied and 
labored composition. 

At the close of the period, the encroachment of Philip on the Grecian rights 
afforded an ample theme both for the ambitious demagogue and the zealous 
patriot. This circumstance was perhaps the cause of the peculiar energy and 
warmth of feeling, which distinguished much of the oratory of the period. Al- 
though the writers and speakers differed in opinion as to the true policy of the 
Greeks, their orations breathe a common spirit of national attachment and na- 
tional pride and confidence. Indeed the patriotism and the genius of Greece 
seem to have exhausted themselves in the efforts of this last day of her indepen- 
dence and her glory. In Demosthenes she heard the last tones of her favorite 
art, as she did the last remonstrance against her submission to servitude. 

§ 95. Such is a glance at the rise and progress of eloquence in Greece. 
Late in its origin, confined chiefly to Athens, flourishing only for a compara- 
tively short time, marked successively by the eras of Themistocles, Pericles, 
and Demosthenes, it ended its career when the country lost its independence, 
but with a glory that is gone out into all lands, and will survive through all 
ages. -It should be observed, however, that Cicero and other writers speak of the 
eloquence of the period immediately subsequent to Philip and Alexander \ 
and here is the place for a few words respecting it. 

§ 96. True eloquence, says Scholl (iii. 239.), that which speaks to the heart 
and passions of men, and which not merely convinces but carries away the 
hearer, ceased with the fall of liberty. Under the successors of Alexander, 
not finding any object worthy of its exertions, it fled from the scenes of politics 
to the retreats of the schools. Athens, degraded from her eminence, no longer 
was the exclusive residence of an art, which had once thrown such lustre over 
her name and history. From this time, instead of the orators of Attica, we 
hear only of the orators of Asia. In reality, however, instead of orators at all, 
among the Greeks anywhere, we find, after this time, only rhetoricians. 

The most famous of the schools just alluded to, was that of Rhodes, founded 
by iEschines. In these institutions the masters gave out themes, on which the 
young pupils exercised their talents. These were frequently historical sub- 
jects. Often the questions, which had exercised the great orators of the pre- 
vious aga, were again debated. But such performances had not for their ob- 
ject to convince judges, or force an assembly to action. The highest aim now 
was to awaken admiration in hearers, who wished not to be moved, but to be 
entertained. The noble simplicity of the old orators was exchanged for a style 
■overcharged with rhetorical ornaments. 

Hegesius of Magnesia is regarded as the father of the new style of eloquence 
and composition which now appeared, and which, as has been already men- 
tioned, was termed Asiatic. His discourses are lost. 

§ 97. But the principal name worthy of notice after the time of Alexander 
is Demetrius Phalereus, who was appointed governor of Athens, by Cassander 
king of Macedonia. He was the last of the great orators of Greece. Cicero 
speaks of Demetrius with considerable commendation, as the most learned and 
polished of all after the ancient masters. But he describes (Brutus, 9) his in- 
fluence as substituting softness and tenderness instead of power ; cultivating 
sweetness rather than force ; a sweetness which diffused itself through the soul 
without stirring the passions; forming an eloquence which impressed on the 
mind nothing but its own symmetry, and which never left, like the eloquence 
of Pericles, a sting along with the delight. ' 

§ 98. We pause here in our general glance at Grecian oratory, because 
everything pertaining to the subject, in the periods after the capture of Corinth 
(B. C. 146), will be more properly introduced in speaking of the Sophists and 
Rhetoricians. 

But it is important to allude to the three branches, into which Grecian oratory 
was divided by the teachers. They were the deliberative, the legal or judicial, 
,-and the demonstrative or panegyrical. Demosthenes is the unrivaled master 



ORATORS. ANTIPHON. ANDOCIDES. 203 

in the first. Lysias and Isseus present rich specimens of the second. The best 
performances of Isocrates belong to the third. But no orator was confined to 
either branch ; according to preference, he might thunder in the assembly of 
the people, argue in the court of justice, or declaim before the occasional and 
promiscuous concourse. 
On the legal oratory of Greece, see Quart. Rev. vol. xxix ; the panegyrical, same, vol. xxvn. 

§ 99t. We now proceed, according to our prescribed plan (§ 8), to 
notice invividually the principal orators, of whom there are existing; 
remains. 

But it will be proper to give first some references to sources of information 
respecting them, and to the printed collections of their performances. 

1. The chief original sources of information are the fragments of a treatise of Dionysius Hali- 
earnasseus, in which Lysias, Isocrates, Isagus, and Demosthenes were critically examined, and 
the Lives of the ten orators, ascribed to Plutarch. — Of modern works, we mention the following. 
* Ant Westermann, Geschichte der Griechischen Beredsamkeit. Lpz.1834. 8. — Ruhnken, His- 
toria critica oratorum Grasc. in his edit, of Rutilius Lupus. Leyd. 1768. 8. — Hardion, Sur l'orig. 
et les progres de la rhet. chez. les Grecs, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. ix. 200 ; xm. 97 ; 
xv. 145 ; xvi. 378 ; xix. 203 ; xxi. &c. — Manso, uber die Bildung der Rhetorik unter den 
Griechen, in his Vermischten Abh. u. Aufs. Bresl.1821. 8. — Schmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii. 197. 

2. The following collections may be named. — ftldus Manutius. Ven.1513. 3 vols. fol. very rare. 
— H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par.1575. fol. Isocrates and Demosthenes not included. — J. J. Reiske, 
Oratorum Graec. qua? supersunt monumenta ingenii, etc. Lips. 1770-75. 12 vols. 8. comprising 
what is most valuable in the labors of the preceding editors ; the contents are detailed by jrchcell, 
ii. 260. — J. Bekker, Oratores Attici. Lips. 1822. 7 vols. 8. without explanatory notes. Repr. Berl. 
1824. 5 vols. 8. Cf. Dibdin, I. 483. — W. S. Dobson, Oratores Attici et quos sic vocant Sophistae, 
Lond.1828. 16 vols. 8. Gr. & Lat. very valuable, although not perfect in critical skill. — T. Mitchell, 

Oratores Attici (ex recens. Bekkeri). Oxf. 1822-28. 10 vols. 8. A useful help in study of the 

Attic orators, is the Lexicon of Harpocration. Cf. $139. 

§100. Antiphon, of Rhamnus in Attica, was born about B. C. 480. 
In the year 411 or 410 B. C. he was condemned and put to death as 
a traitor. He was celebrated at Athens as an orator and a teacher 
of eloquence. 

1m. The ancients ascribed to him a treatise on rhetoric, Ti/vy] 'qijtoqi y\, said 
to have been the first written on the subject. He also prepared orations or 
speeches to be used by others, for which he received payment. Of the fifteen 
which are still extant, three belong to criminal cases actually occurring and 
brought to trial ; the other twelve seem rather to be imaginary speeches adapted 
to supposed cases. 

2. Antiphon was a pupil of the sophist Gorgias, and is said to have been the 
first to apply the art of rhetoric to judiciary proceedings. Thucydides was in- 
structed in his school. During the Peloponnesian war, Antiphon repeatedly 
had the command of Athenian troops. He was a member of the council of the 
400, the establishment of which was, in a great degree, owing to his influence. 
He is said to have been the first who, for money, composed orations to be read 
or spoken by others : this became afterwards a frequent practice and a source 
of great emolument. — Cf. Cicero, Brutus. 12. — Thucydides, viii. 68. 

3. His orations are given in Reiske, cited § 99, vol. vii. p. 603. — Bekker, vol. i. See P. v. 

Spaan (really Ruhnken), Diss, de Antiphonte. Lugd. Bat. 1765. 4. also in Reiske, vii. 795. and 

in Ruhnken's Opusc. orat. phil. et crit. Lug. B. 1807. 8. French translation of some parts, in 

Augers GEuvres completes d'Isocrate, avec &c. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 101. Andocides, an Athenian of illustrious birth, later than An- 
tiphon, about B. C 468. He was distinguished as a statesman and 
orator, but too restless in his political character. He suffered many 
vexations, and finally died in exile, B. C. about 396. We have four 
speeches from him, which commend themselves by their simplicity 
and force of expression, and which are of much value in illustrating 
the history of the times. 

1. One of the discourses of Andocides is against Alcibiades, Kara : 'Al.y.tfiia- 
6ov; another respecting the peace with Sparta, Zftoi Ent^vyg ; the other two 
were in self-defence; Zfcoi r.u86dov } treating of his second return to Athens, 
after having fled from the prison into which he was thrown by the 400, and 
Jlsql uvart^ivj v } relating to the mysteries of Eleusis, which he had been accused 
of violating. 



SQ4 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

2. His discourses are in Reiske, vol. iv. — Belcher, vol. i. — Dohson, vol. i. — Cf. J. O. Sluiter f 
Lectiones Andocideae. Lug. B. 1804. 8. — Hauptmann de Andocide, in Reiske, vol. viii. p. 535, 
See Quart. Rev. vol. xxix. p. 326. — Mitford's Greece, ch. xxii. $ 2. (vol. 4. p. 96. ed. Bost. 

1823.) 

§ 102. Lysias, a native of Athens, son of Cephalus from Syracuse, 
lived between 458 and 379 B.C. He was a teacher of rhetoric. Many 
years in the early part of his life he spent at Thurium in Magna Grae- 
cia. Above 200 discourses are said to have been written by him, all 
in advanced life ; only 34 of them are extant. These justify the repu- 
tation he enjoyed on account of the beauty of his style and his power 
in convincing and persuading. Cicero {'Brut. 9) gives him the praise 
of having almost attained the ideal of a perfect orator; yet he is infe- 
rior to Demosthenes in simplicity and energy. 

1. The father of Lysias removed to Athens on the invitation of Pericles, and belonged to the 
class of inhabitants termed iitTOwtoi, metics, or foreign residents. At the age of 15, Lysias went 
out with the colony established by the Athenians at Thurium. Here he remained 30 years 
studying and practicing oratory. He then returned to Athens, and in partnership with his 
brother Polemarch us vested some of his property in a manufactory of shields, in which above 
a hundred slaves were employed. The wealth of the brothers became so great, that they were 
included among the 300 richest men of the city, on whom was cast the burden of paying all the 
expenses of the state. Their wealth at last exposed them to the lawless avarice of the thirty 
tyrants. Polemarchus was condemned to drink hemlock. Lysias escaped by flight. On the 
overthrow of the thirty, he returned to Athens and spent the rest of his days in the employment 
of a rhetorician. He lived to the age of 81. 

For the life of Lysias, see Taylor's edit, cited below. — Mitford, vol. vi. p. 46. — J. Franz, Dis- 
sertatio de Lysia. Norimb. 1828. 4. 

2. His orations were written for the use of others, and he is said to have spoken 
but one himself, that against Erathosthenes. The Joyog tTciruapiog, ox funeral 
oration over the Athenians who were slain under the command of Iphicrates, 
is considered his chef-d'oeuvre. 

3. Editions. — B.— J. Taylor, Gr. and Lat. Lond. 1739. 4. The Princeps, by Aldus, cited 

<S 99. Given in Reiske, 5th and 6th vols. — Bekker, 1st vol. — Dobson, 3d. Separately, Au- 
ger, Gr. and Lat. Par. 1783. 2 vols. 8.— Alter. Vien. 1785. 8. 

4. Translations. — English.— J. Gillies. Lond.1778. 4. French.— .tfi^er. Par. 1783. 8. 

J. Franz, Monarch. 1831. 8.—C. Fortzch. Lpz.1829. 8. German. — Some of the orations, in 

Wieland's Att. Mus. Th.L— Cf. Harles, Brev. Not. p. 139. 

§ 103. Isocrates was born at Athens about B. C. 436, and died 
B. C. 338. He was a scholar of Gorgias and Prodicus. From his 
diffidence and the weakness of his voice he rarely or never spake in 
public. But he acquired great honor by giving instruction in elo- 
quence, and contributed thereby to the perfection of the art. More 
than other rhetoricians, he encouraged attention to the harmony of 
language. In this lies the greatest excellence of his own discourses, 
which are distinguished rather for accuracy and polish, than native 
ardor and warmth. Yet his school marked an epoch in Grecian elo- 
quence. He wrote partly as a master for his scholars, and partly for 
the use of others. There are extant 21 orations ascribed to him. 

1. In youth he was a companion of Plato, and like him was a great admirer 
of Socrates. He is said to have died, by voluntary starvation, in grief for the 
fatal battle of Chseronea. 

There is an anonymous life of Isocrates, found in the 2d vol. of J. C. Orelli, Opuscula grsec 
vet. sententiosa ac moralia. Lips. 1819. 2 vols. 8. — G. B. Schirach, 2 Diss, de vita et genere scri- 
bendi Isocratis. Hal. 1765. 4. — F. G. Freytag, Orator, et rhetor, greec. quibus statu® honoris 
causa positas fuerunt, decas. Lips. 1752. 

2. The most finished of his pieces is that styled IIavyjyvQiy.bg, i.e. a discourse 
before all the assembled people ; it was pronounced at the Olympic games ; ad- 
dressed to all the Greeks, yet exalting the Athenians as entitled to the first 
rank among the states. This oration, with five of the others, may be placed 
in the class of deliberative, ovuftovlevrixoi. Four may be termed encomiastic, 
iyxoiuiaariy.bi ; among these is the JJava& rjvdiy.bg, a eulogy on the Athenians, 
one of the best pieces of Isocrates, but imperfectly preserved. Eight belong to 
judicial cases, ?.6yoi tiixuvixoi ; one of these, n^ql ryg avridoosuig, De permuta- 
Hone, or on the exchanging of property, relates to his own personal affairs. — 



ORATORS. ISOCRATES. ISyEUS. LYCURGUS. 205 

The remaining three are parcenetic, naoaivEXiyoi. One of these, Jloug Jvjiq- 
viy.ov, is by some critics ascribed to another Isocrates. That styled Nty.oy.h'jg, 
and sometimes ICvtiijioc; >.6yoc, written for the use of Nicocles king of Salamis 
in Cyprus, is said to have procured from the prince in return a present of 20 
talents. Besides these orations, there is a discourse against the Sophists, Kara 
z<ov aoipiOTcov. An art of rhetoric, T'i/vtj, is also quoted by Quintilian. Ten 
epistles, likewise (cf. § 156. 2), are preserved as having been written by Isocrates. 
Scholl, ii. 208. — Mitford, vii. 212. — Abbe Vatry, Les Ouvrages d'Isocrate, Mem. Acad. Inscr* 
xiii. 162. — J. O. Strang, Krit. Bemerk. zu den Reden des Isokrates. Coin. 1831. 8. — P. J. A. 
Schmitz, Animadv. in Isoc. Panathenaicum. Marb. 1835. 4. 

3. Editions.— B.— TV. Lange. Halle, 1804, 8. — Corny, Par. 1807. 2 vols. 8. entirely in Greek, 

vitli a preface in modern Greek, on the language and education of the Greeks. F. — 

Princeps, of Demtr. Chalcondylas. Mediol.1493. fol."— In Aldus, Rhet, Gnec. cited § 99.— Hieron-. 
Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1570. fol. — P. Stephanus, Gr, & Lat. Genev. 1604. 8. — W. Battle, 
Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1740, 2 vols. 8.— Auger, Gr. &. Lat. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. not very highly esti- 
mated by the critics.— Given also in Bekker, 2d vol. and Dobson, 3d vol. Separate portions. 

— Panegyricus; Morns. Lips. 1787. 8. impr. by Spohn. Lips. 1817. 8. — G. Dindorf. Lips. 
1826. 8. — De Perm u tat ion e (incomplete until the discoveries of a modern scholar, Mus- 
ruxydes. Cf. Scholl, ii. 263) ; J. C. OrellL Zur. 1814. 8. — De Pace; P, J. Lelovp. Mogunt, 
1826.8. — Are opagiticus & Evagoras; Q. E. Benseler. Lpz. 1832, 34. 8. — Select 
orations. § J. H. Brcmius, in RosPs Bibliotheca. 

4. Translations. — English. — J. Gillies, in the Work cited § 102. 4. — S. Toulmin. The oration 
to Demonicus, in Sermons to Youth. Lond. 1770. 8, — Youncr, The Orations and Epistles. Lond, 
i752. 8. French. — Auger. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. German.— W. Langc. Bed. 1798. com- 
menced. — A. H. Christian, in the Coll. of New Translations, ed. by Osiandcr, Schwab, and TafeL 
(Prose) Stuttg. 1837. 

§ 104. Isceus, a native of Chalcisin Eubaea, but resident at Athens, 
was a scholar of Lysias and Isocrates, and the teacher of Demosthe- 
nes. Born about 400 B. C. he probably died in the former part of the 
reign of Philip. He took Lysias for his model, but excelled him 
particularly in dignity and elevation. 

1. Of 50 orations by Iseeus extant in the time of Photius, only eleven now 
remain. They all relate to the subject of inheritances (Aoyot y.f.r^iy.ol), and 
contain much information respecting the laws of heirship at Athens, the cus- 
toms relative to the adoption of children, to testaments and bequests, and 
almost everything connected with the transferring of property. They present, 
also, a melancholy picture of the fraud and cruelty frequently indulged by 
guardians, executors, and contending heirs. The style is full of nerve. De- 
mosthenes is said to have chosen him as a master in preference to Isocrates, 
on account of this trait. — Cf. Quart. Rev. vol. xxvi. 

2. Editions, — G\ F. Schomann, Isasi Orationes XL Gryphisw, 1831. 8. Ten of the ora- 
tions are in Reiske, vol. vn. ; one of them, however, the inheritance of Cleonymus, was first pub- 
lished in full by A. Mai. Mil. 1815 ; the eleventh, the inheritance of Meneclcs, Was published by 
Tyrwhitt. Lond. 1785. & — They are given in Bekker, 3d vol, — Dobson, 4th vol. 

3. Translations. — French. — Auger (with Andocides and Lycurgus) Par. 1783. 8. Eng- 
lish. — Sir Wm. Jones. Oxf. 1779. and in his Works, 4th vol. with valuable notes. 

§ 105. Lycurgus, descended from an ancient Athenian family, died 
at an advanced age, B. C. about 330, He was a pupil of Isocrates 
and Plato, and a friend of Demosthenes. He was warmly devoted to 
the interests of the commonwealth, and was rewarded with the honors 
of the state. Of his orations, 15 remained in the time of Plutarch; 
but only one has been preserved to us, that against Leocratcs for his 
deserting Athens in her distress, after the battle of Chaeronea. His 
oratory was marked by strong moral feeling and patriotism, without 
much effort to be eloquent. 

1. He fearlessly resisted all the claims of Philip and Alexander, and was 
one of the orators demanded by Alexander after the capture of Thebes. His 
children, to whom he left no property, were educated by the state. It is sup- 
posed that one of the inscriptions, which Fourmount caused to be copied at 
Athens, is an account of the administration of Lycurgus, in which he received 
nnd expended, according to the inscription, 13,900 talents. 

Cf. P. I. § 90, 7 (c).-ScIibU, ii. 219. — Auger, Stir Lycnreue, Mem.. Acad* Inscr. vol. xlvi. 364, 
18 



206 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Q. The oration is in Reiske, 4th vol.— Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol.— Separately, Haupl- 

mann. Lpz. 1753. 8. R.— A. G. Becker. Magd. 1821. 8. — $ C. F. Heinrich. Bonn, 1821. 8. — 

4; G.Pinzger, Gr. & Germ. Lpz. 1824.8. with valuable notes.— F.G.Kiesslincr, Lycurgi Reliquiae. 
Hal. 1834. 8. — E. Matzner. Berl. 1836. 8. 

§ 106. Demosthenes was born B. C. 385, in the Attic borough Psea- 
nia, and died B. C. 322, in the island of Calauria, by poison self-ad- 
ministered, in order to escape the vengeance of Antipater. Isseus was 
his master in rhetoric, but he received instruction also from Isocrates 
and Callistratus. 

1 u. His celebrity was much greater than that of any other Grecian orator, 
on account of the fire, vehemence, and strength of his eloquence, which he 
especially exerted in rousing the Athenians to war with the Macedonians, and 
in defeating his rivals bribed by the latter. We have 61 orations of Demos- 
thenes, and 65 introductions, which are probably not all genuine. The charac- 
teristics of this orator were strength, sublimity, and a piercing energy and 
force, aided by an emphatic and vehement elocution. His peculiarities, how- 
ever, sometimes degenerated into severity. 

2. At the age of seven he lost his father. His guardians wasted his property ? 
and at the age of 17 he appeared before the courts against them, and urged his 
own cause successfully. Thereby encouraged to speak before the assembly of 
the people, he failed entirely. He retired and studied and toiled in secret for 
many years. At the age of 25, he came forward again and commenced his 
brilliant career. 

At the age of 63, having been driven from Athens by the hostility of the Macedonian Anti- 
pater, and pursued to his retreat in the island of Calauria, he terminated his own life by poison. 
It is worthy of notice that Demosthenes and Aristotle were born and died in the same years. 
- — The life of Demosthenes is given by Plutarch; and also in the Lives of the ten Attic orators, 
ascribed to him. There are also two other Lives, anciently written, and a eulogy by Libanius, 
(cf.§128.) — For a good view of his history, see Schbll, ii. p.224; and Heercn, transl. by Bancroft, 
p. 276. — Cf. A. G. Becker, Demosthenes als Staatsmann und Redner. Hal. 1816. 2 vols. 8. Qnedl. 
1833. — P. A. Zimmermann, De Demosthene reip. Athen. administratore. Berl. 1828. 8. — A. 
Boullee, Vie de Demosthene, &c. Par. 1834. 8. very good. — But Ranke, in the Encyclopiidie of 
Ensch &. Grtiber, Halle, 1818 ss. said to be better. 

3. Seventeen of the orations belong to the class of deliberative ; 12 of these 
relate to the contests between Philip and the Greeks, 3 styled Olynthiacs , and 4 
called Philippics, the rest of the 12 bearing different titles ; the whole 12 were 
spoken between B. C. 351 and 340. Forty-two are judicial speeches; 30 of 
these relate to private or individual interests, where the case was termed Siy.yj ; 
among them are the 5 pronounced against his own faithless guardians, show- 
ing plainly the hand of Isseus in their style : the other 12 relate to public or 
state affairs, where the case was termed xarr,yoqia ; among these was the ora- 
tion ZZeoi anjcpuvov, in which Demosthenes defends Ctesiphon against the ac- 
cusation of iEschines, and in making the defence justifies his own policy in 
reference to Philip, notwithstanding the disastrous issue of the battle of Chas- 
ronea; it is considered as the best of his orations, and a master-piece of elo- 
quence. Only two of the extant orations of Demosthenes belong to the kind 
called demonstrative, both of them probably spurious ; one is the eulogy (Itti- 
rucp iog) upon those who fell at Chseronea. — We have also six letters of De- 
mosthenes, five of them written during his exile, to the people of Athens. 

Sclwll, ii. 231. — Mitford, vol. vn. p. 107. ed. Bost. 1823. — Rochefort, Oratory of Demosth. in 
the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vols, xliii. 1. and xlvi. 66. 

4. Editions. — B. — G. H. Schdfer, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1822-27. 9 vols. 8. vol. i— n. Text, 
Reiske's ; vol. m. Wolfs Lat. version ; vol. iv — vur. Apparatus criticus et exegeticus &c. ; 
this is highly commended by the best judges, and forms the most valuable part of the work ; 
may be procured separately, vol. ix. Indices. — The best text is said to be in G. Dindorf. Lips. 
1825. 3 vols. 12. (Teubncr's Coll.) — W. S. Dobson, Demosthenis et iEschinis, qus extant om- 
nia. Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1828. 10 vols. 8. with the scholia of Ulpian, and prefaces of various editors. 

F. — Princcps, by Aldus. Ven. 1504. fol. — Hervagius. Basil, 1542. with the Commentaries 

of Ulpian.— H. Wolf, Gr. & Lat. (containing also zEschines) Basil, 1549. fol. ; and better, Fran- 
cof.1604. fol. — Taylor, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1748-57. 4.; 2d and 3d vols, only; 1st never 
appeared — Auger, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1790. 1st vol. only ; usually purchased to complete Taylor's. 

■ There have been many editions of particular orations ; of de Corona, some of the best are, 

HaTles, Greek & Lat. Alt. 1769. repr. Lpz. 1814. 8. — Stock, Gr. & Lat. Dubl. 1769. 2 vols. 8. — 

Wolf, Gr. & Lat. 1798. 8.— Bekker. Hal. 1815. 8. repr. Lond. 1824. 8. Philippics ; § C. A. 

Ruolio-er. Lips. 1829. 8. — J J. Vomel. Frank. 1829. 2 vols. 8. Select as ; E. H. Barker, 

with°English notes. Lond. 1830. 8. — * J. H. Bremi. Gothfe,1834. 2 vols. 8. 

5. Translations. — German. — Reiske. Lemgo. 1764-09. 5 vols. 8. — F. Jacobs. Lips. 2d ed. 
1833. 8. including 13 orations & Philip's Letter, with notes. — A.G.Becker. Hal. (2d ed. improved) 



ORATORS. DEMOSTHENES. ^ESCHINES. D1NARCHUS. 207 

1826. 2 vols. 8. the Philippics. French.— A. Auger. Par.1777. 1804. 6 vols. 8. English.— 

Ph. Francis. Lond. 1775. 2 vols. 4.-7%. Leland. 1802. 2 vols. 8. 

6. Illustrative. — C. O. Oersdorf, Synopsis repetitor. Dem. locorum. Alt. 1833. 8. — J. Held, 
Prolegomena ad Dem. &c. Vratisl. 183 1-33. — E.Schaumann, Prolegom. ad Demosth. &c. Primisl. 
1829. 8. — * F. Winiewiski, Comm. in Demosth. or. de Corona. Monast. 1829. 8.—0. F. Eysell, 
Demosthenes a suspicione accepts ab Harpalo pecuniae liberatus. Marb.1836. 8. — * A. Wester- 
viann, De fontibus historian Demosth. Lips. 1837. 8. — Same, Quaestiones Demosthenic®. Lips. 
1834. 8. 

§ 107. JEschines lived at Athens at the same time with Demosthe- 
nes, and was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato. He became the most dis- 
tinguished rival of Demosthenes, although by no means equal to him 
in powerful eloquence. 

1 u. Demosthenes obtained a complete triumph over him by the oration 
concerning the crown in the trial of Ctesiphon ; and iEschines retired to Rhodes, 
where he gave instruction in rhetoric. He died in the island Samos. In the 
judgment of Quintilian, he deserved the first rank among Grecian orators, 
next to Demosthenes. His great merit may readily be seen in the three ora- 
tions preserved to our time. 

2. iEschines was 12 or 13 years older than Demosthenes, being born B. C. 
395, and lived a year or two later, dying at the age of 75. In early life he does 
not appear to have enjoyed much success or reputation. His opposition to 
Philip first brought him into notice; yet he afterwards became a partizan for 
him in opposition to Demosthenes. — The most important of his orations is that 
against Ctesiphon, xara JCrtjOKpoivTog, to which Demosthenes replied in his ora- 
tion upon the crown. 

Vatry, Recherches sur la vie et sur les ceuvrages d'Eschine, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. 
torn. xiv. — Scholl, ii. 215.— Matthim, de ^Eschine oratore, in Reiske, vol. iv. — F. Passow, Life 
of ^Esch. (excellent) in Ensch fy Oruber, as cited § 106. 2. 

3. The remains of iEschines are given in Reiske, vol. 3d and 4th. — in Bekker, vol. 3d. — Dob- 
son, vol. 12th.— Also in H. Wolf, cited $ 106. 4. Separately. Reiske's. Lpz. 1808. 2 vols. 8. 

— J. H. Bremi. Ziir. 1824. 8. — The oration against Ctesiphon, often published with Demosthe- 
nes on the crown ; Stock, &c. cited §106. 4. — Alex.Negris. Bost.1829. 8. with a preface in modern 
Greek, and English notes. 

4. Translations. — German. — Reiske, with Demosthenes, cited §106. 5. — F. V. Raumer (iEsch. 

and Dem. in the case of Ctesiphon). Berl.1811. 8. French. — Auger, with Dem. cited § 106. 5. 

English. — Andrew Portal. (iEsch. and Dem. concern. Ctes.) Oxf. 1755. 8. 

5. Hyperides, a native of Attica, was a contemporary of Demosthenes and 
iEschines, and next to these in rank as an orator. He was a pupil of Plato in 
philosophy and of Lycurgus and Isocrates in rhetoric. He was proscribed by 
Antipater, and put to death B. C. 322. Of 52 orations by him, not one remains 
which is indubitably his ; although two of those usually ranked among the 
orations of Demosthenes have, by some, been ascribed to Hyperides ; viz. the 
one entitled ITeQi rcov jtqog 3 A?.i$avd()ov avv&^xav, and the first of the two 
against Aristogeitom 

6. Dinarchus was a native of Corinth, but passed his youth at Athens. He 
studied philosophy under Theophrastus, and became celebrated after the death 
of Demosthenes and Hyperides. He acquired wealth by composing orations 
for others. Of 64 orations, only three remain ; one of these is entitled Kara 

They are given in the collections cited § 99. 2. Separately. C. E. A. Schmidt. Lips. 1826. 8. 

Cf. Ruhnken, as cited § 99. 1. — Scliiill, n. 221. — C. Wurm, Comm. in Dinarchi orationes. No- 
rimb. 1828. 8. 



III. — Sophists and Rhetoricians. 

§ 103. The term Sophist, as has been mentioned (§ 92), was originally ap- 
plied in Athens to those who taught the art of speaking. One of the earliest 
that attained eminence in this profession, was Gorgias of Leontium in Sicily, 
about 430 B. C. Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis, flourished in the same 
period. "All these," observes Mitford, " are said to have acquired very con- 
siderable riches by their profession. Their success therefore invited numbers 
to follow their example ; and Greece, but especially Athens, shortly abounded 



208 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

with those who, under the name of sophists, professors of wisdom,, undertook 
to teach every science. The scarcity and dearness of books gave high value 
to that learning, which a man with a well stored and a ready and clear elocu- 
tion could communicate. None without eloquence could undertake to be in- 
structors ; so that the sophists in giving lessons of eloquence were themselves 
the example. They frequented all places of public resort, the agora, the gym- 
nasia, and the porticoes, where they recommended themselves to notice by an 
ostentatious display of their abilities in disputation with one another, or with 
any who would converse with them. In the competition thus arising, men of 
specious rather than solid abilities would often gain the most extensive esti- 
mation. Many of them would take either side of any question, and it was gen- 
erally their glory to make the worse appear the better cause." 

§ 109. Ibis easy from this account to see how the name of sophist should 
soon become a term of reproach, as it did, more particularly after the time of 
Socrates. The term rhetorician was also applied to the same class of teachers. 
But a distinction has been made between the two words, which seems to have 
a just foundation. The term rhetorician is applied to those who simply gave 
precepts in the arts of composition and oratory ; the term sophist to those who 
actually practiced the art of speaking. In this sense the name of sophists is- 
given to all the speakers we read of after the decline of oratory as already ex- 
plained (§ 96). After the supremacy of Rome over Greece, and especially 
under the emperors, there was a great number of these. Their talents were 
confined to a limited sphere, to the exercises in the schools, or discourses, lec- 
tures, and declamations before promiscuous assemblies, which formed a part 
of the public amusements. Some of them traveled from city to city, like 
modern lecturers, and received a liberal pay for their services. The various 
performances in which they engaged, were distinguished by different names, 
applied for the purpose ; e. g. iis?Artj, a declamation carefully written, in which 
the writer bears an assumed character ; ovaraoic, a little discourse or address, 
in which the writer recommends himself to another; ayzdlaaua, an extempo- 
raneous speech ; Sialtiic, a sort of dissertation, &c. 

§ 110. Between Augustus and Constantine there were several distinguished 
authors, who may be properly classed among the sophists, as Dio Chrysosto- 
inus, Lucian, and Athenaeus. Lesbonax and Herodes Atticus belong to the 
same class. The emperor Adrian often exercised his talents in such perform- 
ances as employed the sophists of the age. Polemo, iElius Aristides, and 
Flavius Philostratus, may also be mentioned ; the latter is spoken of as an 
eloquent speaker. 

In the time of Constantine, and afterwards, there were also numerous au- 
thors, whom we must refer to this class. Among them Themistius, Himerius, 
and Libanius, are the most distinguished. The emperor Julian may be properly 
ranked here. Subsequent to these are found many names, but none of much 
celebrity, except such as are known by writings of another class, as Basilius 
Procopius, Theophylactus, and Theodoras Prodromus. (§ 80). — ScholL, livre vi. 
c. 77. 

§ 111. By rhetoricians, in distinction from sophists, are meant, as has been 
stated (§109), those who gave precepts on eloquence rather than attempted to 
practice it. Rhetoric, or instruction in the art of eloquence, originated in. 
Greece later than eloquence itself, as Cicero has justly remarked : eloquen- 
iia non ex artijicio, sed artificium ex elcquentia natum. Empedocles is 
commonly considered as the first Greek rhetorician who taught the rules of 
oratory orally. His scholars Corax and Tisias, about 400 B. C. are said first to 
have committed such rules to writing. Gorgias the Sicilian, and those termed 
sophists generally in the flourishing age of Greek letters, taught the art of 
oratory. Isocrates a pupil of Gorgias, and generally classed among the orators, 
was a distinguished teacher of rhetoric, and had the honor of forming in his 
school the greatest orators of Greece. Antiphon, also ranked among the ora- 
tors, was a teacher of rhetoric, and wrote a treatise which is quoted by the 
ancients. 

Gamier, Sur l'art oratoire de Corax, Mem. de PInstitut Royal, C 1 a s s e (PHist. et Lit. JLnc* 
vol. i] . p. 44. 

§ 112. in glancing at the list of Greek authors on the subject of rhetoric, 
we find Aristotle, the philosopher, and the teacher of Alexander, one of thft 



RHETORICIANS. GORGIAS. ARISTOTLE. DEMETRIUS. 209 

earliest. Demetrius Phalereus occurs next. (cf. § 97.) After him we find none 
important to notice until the time of Augustus, when we meet the names of 
Gorgias, who taught a school of rhetoric at Athens (but must not be con- 
founded with the Sicilian above mentioned), and Apollodorus and Theodorus, 
who had rival schools, the former at Pergamus, the latter at Rhodes. What- 
ever they wrote is lost. The principal author was Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 
known also as a historian. 

After Augustus the eminent writers were Hermogenes and Longinus. 
Many other names occur, as Aphthonius,Theon, Numenius, Menander, Minu- 
cianus, and Aspines, who all wrote on some of the topics of rhetoric; only in- 
considerable fragments, however, now remain. Of the vast mass of composi- 
tions by the ancients on the art of speaking and writing, but a small portion 
has come down to us. 

§ 113. Before noticing more particularly individuals of the class 
now before us, we will give some general references. 

1. On the Sophists.— Enfield, Hist. Philos. bk. ii. c. 4.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. 13.— L. Cre- 
sollii, Theatrum vet. Rhet. declam. i. e. Sophistarum, de eorum disciplina ac discendi docen- 
dique ratione. Par. 1620. 8. and in Gronovius, Thes. vol. x.— G. JV. Krlegk, Diss, de Sophista- 
rum eloquentia. Jen. 1702. 4. — The Protagoras of Plato. — Hardion, as cited § 99. — J.G. Walch, 
Diss, de Praemiis vet. Sophistar. Rhetor, et Oratorum. Jen. 1719. 4. 

2. Collections of the remains of the rhetoricians. — Aldus, Rhetores Grceci. 1508. 2 vols. fol. — 
Leo Allatius, Excerpta greec. Sophistarum et rhetorum declamationes. Rom. 1641. 8. — H. 
Stephanus, Polemonis, Himerii, et alior. declamationes. Par. 1567. fol. — Th. Gale, 
Rhetores Selecti, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1676. 8. repr. (ed. J. F. Fisher) Lpz.1773. 8.— Ch. Wah, Rhe- 
tores Gr<eci. Stutt. 1831-36. 9 vols. 8. The most important precepts of rhetoric, drawn from 

Greek and Roman authors, in F. A. Wiedeburg, Prrecepta rhetorica. Brunsw.1786. 8. — Cf. J. Ch. 
Th. Ernesti, Lexicon technologic Grtecorum rhetorics. Lips. 1795. 8. — See also Sulzer's Allg. 
Theorie, vol. l v. p. 45. 

§ 114£. Gorgias, of Leontium in Sicily, a philosopher, statesman, 
orator and rhetorician, nourished at Athens about B. C. 430, as a 
teacher of eloquence. Cicero celebrates his oratorical talents, but 
charges him with too great attention to the rounding of his periods. 
We have two declamations (u^f-mi) ascribed to him; a eulogy on Helen, 
and an apology for Palamedes. 

Gorgias was greatly admired, and honored with a golden statue at Delphi. 
He is said to have died B. C. 400, aged 108. Eschenburg, in the original of 
the above, represents him as known at Athens in the Persian war ; the trans- 
lation is conformed to the more common statements. 

Cf. Mitford, ch. xviii. § 1. — Barthelemy, Anacharsis, ch. vii. — H. E. Foss, De Gorgia Leont, 

Hal. 1828. 8. The declamations are given in Reiske, cited § 99. vol. vm.— Bekker, vol. v. — 

— Dobson's Oratores Attici. vol. iv. 666. 

§ 115. Aristotle, born at Stagira in Macedonia, B. C. 385, went to 
Athens while young, and became one of the most distinguished pupils 
of Plato. He was subsequently the instructor of Alexander the Great, 
after which returning again to Athens he founded the Peripatetic 
sect in philosophy. He died in Chalcis, B. C. 322. 

lu. His name belongs especially to the history of philosophy (ef.§191), but 
is introduced here on account of his treatise on rhetoric. This consists of three 
books, and is a work of much merit. His treatise on poetry, also, may be 
properly mentioned here ; it is a fragment of a large work. 

2. Editions. — The Rhetoric, in Aldus, cited above, $ 113. 2. — Rhetoric & Poetry, in the edi- 
tions of Aristotle's whole works (cf. $ 191).— Also I. Bekker. Berl.1832. 8. good. Rhetorica; 

Goulston, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1619. 4.' — Battle, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1728. 8. repr. Oxf. 1809. 8. — 
T. Gaisford, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — De A r t e P o e t i c a ; Harles, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 
1780. 8. — Tyrwhitt, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1794 & 1827. S.—Grafenhan. Lpz. 1821. 8. 

3. Translations. — French.— Mbe Batteux, Poetics, in Les Quatres Poetiques, d'Aristote, 
d'Vida, de Despreaux, avec remarques. Par. 1771. 8. — E. Gros, Rhetoric, Gr. & Fr. Par, 

1822. 8. English. — Poetics; H.J. Pye. Lond. 1788. 8. — Th. Twining. Lond. 1789. 4. 

1812. 2 vols. 8. — Rhetoric; Crimmin. Lond. 1816. 8. 

§116. Demetrius Phalereus, of Phalerum, one of the harbors of 
Athens, nourished B. C. about 300. He was a pupil of Theophrastus, 
and by his eloquence rose to distinction. Driven by Antigonus from 

18* 



210 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

the authority at Athens, which he received from Cassander (§ 97) 
and had enjoyed for several years, he retired to Alexandria, where he 
was patronized by Ptolemy Soter. But being banished by the next 
king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, to a distant province, he put an end to 
his life by the bite of an asp, B. C. 284. Many works were composed 
by him, which are lost. 

1. Demetrius is said to have suggested to Ptolemy Soter the ideaof founding the Library and 
Museum of Alexandria. The displeasure of Philadelphus was incurred by his having favored 

the claims of an elder brother to the throne. Boncimy, sur la vie Demetrius de Phalere, in 

Mem. de PAcad. des Insc. tom.vm. p.157. 

2u. There is.extant a treatise on elocution, LTsqL hQutfvsiag, which has been 
ascribed to him ; but its real author was perhaps a later Demetrius, who lived 
at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Marcus Antoninus. It contains 
many ingenious and acute remarks on the beauties of composition, particularly 
on the structure of periods. 

3. Among the lost works, are a treatise on the lonians, one on the laws of 
Athens, and another on Socrates. A little piece on the Apothegms of the seven 
Sages, is preserved in Stobmis, as having been written by Demetrius. Sch&ll, 
in. 241. 

4. The treatise Ileal sQuyvsiag is given in Aldus, Gale, and Fischer, cited § 113. — Sepa- 
rately ; J. 6. Schneider. Altenb. 1779. 8. with a commentary. — F. Goiter. Lips. 1837. 8. 

§ 117. Dionysius Halicarnasseus, in the time of Augustus, cele- 
brated as a historian, was also a rhetorician. He wrote several trea- 
tises, which may be properly classed in this department. 

lu. Two particularly merit notice here : a work Ileal owQeoewc orouurwr, 
de compositionc verborum, on the arrangement of words; and another styled 
Tkxv*] QtjroQiitij, art of rhetoric, which has come to us in a very defective state. 

2. Two other rhetorical pieces of Dionysius were T(ov rcalaiwv XaoazTijosg, 
Characters of the ancients, still extant, and Ileal twv * Arrivon- qijtuqwv VTruuvij- 
uariauo L, Memoirs of the Attic Orators, in three parts, of which we have only 
the first and a fragment of the second. There are also several letters, in which 
he criticises the style and writings of different authors. 

Scholl, iv. 316. — Ck. Leuschner, Pro Dionysio Halicarn. ejusque in rhetoricam promeritis. 
Hirschb. 1752. 4. 

3. Editions. — For those of his Works, see § 247. The pieces on the arrangement of words, and 

on rhetoric, were first published by Aldus, as cited §1 13. — De Compositione verborum; J. Up- 
ton. Lond. 1702. 1748. 8. ; better, G. H. Schdfer. Lpz. 1809. 8. — Fr. Goller. Jen. 1815. 8. — in 
French translation, with remarks, Abbe Batteux. Par.1788. 12. — Ars R h e t o r i c a ; H. A. Schott, 
Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1804. 8. — Characters of the Ancients ; first in II. Stephanus, Dion. Hal. 
scripta qusedam critica. Par. 1554. 8. — Holwell, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1778. 8. with a dissertation on 
the use of the middle verb.— On the Attic Orators; E. R. Mores. Oxf. 1781. 2 vols. 8. — The 
Letters, in Ch. G. Kruger, Dion. Hal. historiographica. Hal. 1823. 8. 

§ 118. Dion, surnamed on account of his eloquence Chrysostomus 
(xQvooCTouog^ Jived in the 1st and beginning of the 2d century after 
Christ. His birth-place was Prusa in Bithynia. After following the 
pursuits of a sophist, he became at length a stoic philosopher. He 
fled from the cruelty of Domitian into Thrace, but under Nerva and 
Trajan lived again at Rome, enjoying particularly the favor of the 
latter. Of his writings, we have 80 dissertations or declamations on 
various topics, displaying much rhetorical ability. He is, however, 
often deficient in simplicity, and his style wanting in brevity and 
clearness. 

1. The titles of Dion's discourses are given in Sch&Ws History of Greek 
Literature. That styled r Fodiuy.bg is pronounced his chef-d'oeuvre ; it con- 
demns the custom practiced by the Rhodians of using ancient statues with 
new inscriptions in honor of their contemporaries. — Scholl, iv. 210. 

2. The best editions are C. Morel (printer), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1504, 1623. fol. With a Com- 
mentary of I. Casaubon, and notes of Fred. Morel. The translation is that of Kirchmayer or 

JSTaogeorgus, also published Basil, 1555. fol.— J". J. Reiske. Lpz. 1784, 1798. 2 vols. 4. A Ger- 

mantranslationof 13 of the discourses is given in Reiske's Hellas. Mitau. 1778. 8. — English, 
some of the discourses, G. Wakefield, Lond. 1800. 8. 



RHETORICIANS. DION. HERODES. iELIUS. LUCIAN. 211 

§ 119. Herodes Atticus, a native of Marathon in Attica, was a 
distinguished sophist in the age of the Antonines. He was appoint- 
ed consul at Rome, A. D. 141. We have from him only a single 
discourse and some fragments. 

1. The full name was Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes. After obtaining 
his education and traveling abroad, he gave public lectures at Athens on elo- 
quence. Such was his reputation, that he was invited to Rome as teacher to 
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He died at Marathon, A. D. 185, at an 
advanced age. His life is given by Philostratus. — SchOll, iv. 228. 

2. The remains of Herodes are given in Reiske, vol. vm. — In Dobson, vol. iv. p. 555. — Sep- 
arately, R. Fiorillo, Lpz. 1801. 8. — The inscriptions of Herodes have been already mentioned 
(P. I. $ 92. 4). 

§ 120. JEilius Aristides, of Hadrianopolis in Bithynia, lived at 
Smyrna in the second century, and was held in great estimation as 
a speaker. 

1 u. There remain from him 54 declamations (uiZeral), which evince a suc- 
cessful imitation of the ancient masters in Greek eloquence, but betray also 
in the author too high an idea of his own excellence. We have also from 
him some letters, and a treatise in two books, entitled Ileal no).iriy.ov r.ul ctips- 
Zovg ?.uyov, li Du style politique et du style simple.'' 

2. His contemporaries considered him as equal to Demosthenes, and he 
was honored with many statues. Some unedited pieces of Aristides were 
discovered by Mai in a palimpsest or rescript manuscript of the Vatican. — 
SchOll, iv. 234. 

3. Editions. — works ; S. Jebb, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1720-30. 2 vols. 4.—* G. Dindorf. Lips, 
1829. 3 vols. 8. With notes and scholia. — The Prmceps by E. Boninus (print. Ph. Junta), Flor. 
1517. fol. containing 52 of the u«AfTui, with the anonymous scholia termed vno&iasig. — 

Canter, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1604. 3 vols. 12. The two books on style, in Aldus, Rhetores Grsec- 

cited § 113. — Separately, L. Normann. Upsal, 1688. 8. The discourse against Leptines ; first 

by J. Morell. Ven. 1788. 8.— F. A. Wolf. Halle, 1789. 8.— G. H. Grauert. Bon. 1827. 8. with 
the oration of Demosthenes on the same subject. 

§ 121. Lucian, of Samosata in Syria, nourished in the second cen- 
tury. He at first engaged in the business of an advocate at Antioch, 
but renounced it for the more congenial employment of a sophist, 
and finally professed to embrace philosophy. He is said to have been 
procurator of Egypt under JMarcus Aurelius. He was neither a pa- 
gan nor a Christian, nor did he espouse any sect in philosophy. He 
was distinguished by acumen, lively wit, and a power at ridicule and 
satire, which he often indulged too freely and wantonly, against men 
and gods alike. 

1 u. Most of the numerous pieces which we have from him are in the form 
of dialogues. His Dialogues of the Gods and Dialogues of the Dead are the 
most remarkable. His pure Attic and tasteful style is the more praiseworthy 
from the circumstance, that he was not a native Greek. 

2. Leaving Antioch, Lucian traveled in Asia, Greece, Gaul, and Italy, de- 
livering his discourses in various places, and afterwards settled at Athens. It 
was in advanced life, that he was put in office under Aurelius. " One of the 
chief characteristics of Lucian," says Scholl, " is that species of originality 
which the English term humour." — It has been supposed by some, probably 
without foundation, that Lucian once embraced Christianity and afterwards 
apostatized. In the pieces styled TIbqI rijg Uzotyoivov Ta?.svr?Jg and <t>0.oTia- 
roig, he makes unsparing attacks upon Christians ; the genuineness of the 
latter piece has been doubted. 

Scholl, iv. 248, where is a brief analysis of his several pieces ; given also in Anthon's Lem- 
priere. — G. Wetzlarc, De eetate, vita, scriptisque Luciani. Macb.~1832. 8. — Cf. J. M. Gessjier, 
De tetat. et auctore Dialogi, qui Philopatris inscribitur. Lips. 1730. 4. — Widand, Geschichte 
des Philosophen Peregrinus. Lpz. 1791. 8. 

3. Editions.— B.—Hcmsterhuis (with J. M. Gessner fy J. Reitz), Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1743. 3 
vols. 4. To which is added as a 4th vol. the Lexicon Lucianciun (not perfect) of C. R. Reitz- 
Ultraj. 1746. 4. (The edition of Schmid, Mitau, 1776-80. 8 vols. 8. is a reprint of Hemsterhuis, 



212 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

with a brief selection of notes ; the Bipont edition, 1789-93. 10 vols. 8. a reprint of the same,, 
without the Lexicon. — /. 6. Lehmann, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822-31. 9 vols. 8. Another vol. con- 
taining a Lexicon has been expected. F. — Princeps, (neither printer nor editor known.) 

Flor. 1496. fol.— Second, Aldus. Ven. 1503, 1522. fol.— Between this and that of Hemsterhuis 
were several. Cf. Sciwll, iv. 280 R.— Fr. Schmieder. Halle, 1810. 2 vols. 8. A good edi- 
tion of Greek text ; a promised commentary has never appeared. — F. V. Fritische. Lpz. 1826. 
ss. 8. The Dialogues of the Gods, and several other pieces have appeared. This promises to^ 

be an excellent edition. Of editions of select parts we can name but few Seybold. Go- 

tha. 1785. 8.—F. A. Wolf. Halle, 1791. 8.— Gehrich. Gottine. 1797. 8.— Dialogues of the Dead,. 
by J. Gail. Par. 1806.—/. G. Lehmann. Lpz. 1813, 1826. 8.— Dialogue of the Gods, by Lehmann., 
1815. 8.—E. F. Poppo. Lpz. 1817. 8.— Lucius, or the Ass, by Courier. Par. 1818. 12.— §F. A. Ch. 
Graujf, Somnium. Berne, 1836. 8. — K. F. Hermann, Quomodo Historiam scribere oporteat. 
Frankf. 1828. 8.—K. G. Jacob, Toxaris. Halle, 1825. 8. and Alexander, Cologn. 1828. 8. with 
notes. 

4. Translations.— German.— C. M. Wieland. Lpz. 1788. 6 vols. 8. French.— J. N. Belin 

de Balla. Par. 6 vols. 8. English. — Th. Franklin. Lond. 1780. 2 vols. 4.— J. Carr. Lond, 

1773-98. 5 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative.— Jortin, Remarks, in his Tracts, philological &.c. Lond. 1790. 8.—R. Porson, 
in his Tracts &c. by T. Kidd. Lond. 1815. 8. — J. C. Tiemann, Versuch iiber Lucians Philos. 
und Sprache. Zerbst. 1804. 8. 

§ 122. Hermogenes, of Tarsus, lived about the middle of the 2d 
century. He left a celebrated work on rhetoric, consisting of five 
parts, which was written when he was about 17 years old. At the 
age of 25, he lost memory, language, and understanding. 

1. Hermogenes lived to advanced age in this state, a striking and melan- 
choly example both of the power and of the weakness of the human intellect. 
The account we have of him is drawn from Philostratus, Suidas, and Hesy- 
chius. — The parts of his Ti^vr] QtjroQiy.tj were 1. HQoyvuvixauara, Preparatory 
Exercises ', 2. LTsol otuosojv, On the states of the question; 3. LTeqI svQtosvjv, On 
invention, the most valuable part of the work; 4. JZeoI l§ecov, De Formis ; 5. 
JJeql us&6dov SaivorrjTog, De effectu. This work was long used as a text-book 
in the schools of rhetoric, and several commentaries were written upon it. 

2. Under the title which the first part of Hermogenes bears, there exist two 
separate rhetorical works of two later authors ; viz. the LTQoyvuvuOuara of 
Jiphthonius, based upon or extracted from Hermogenes, and the Uqoyvuvao- 
uara of Theon, explaining the principles of both the preceding. — SchOll, iv. 
322, ss. 

3. The 1st part of Hermogenes was published first by Heeren in the Bill, der alten Lit. u. 
Kunst. vnr. and ix. — Afterwards in Class. Journal (v.-viii.), 1812. — Separately; G. Vesen- 

meer. Nuremb. 1812. 8,—Ang. Krehl, (with works of Priscian.) Lpz. 1819. 2 vols. 8. The 

other 4 parts were printed first by Aldus, as cited § 113. The best editions are J. Sturmius, Gr. 

& Lat. Strasb. 1570, '71. 4 vols. 8.— and G. Laurentius, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1614. 8. The 

Progymnasmata of Aphthonius and Theon were published together, by J. Schaffer. Upsal, 
1680. 8. 

§ 123. AthencBus, a grammarian and rhetorician, may be placed 
perhaps as well here as in any department, although he was properly 
an encydopcedian compiler. He was a native of Naucratis in Egypt 
and lived at the beginning of the 3d century. 

1 u. His JEiTvvooocpioral,ov Banquet of the Sophists or Learned, in 15 books, 
is a treasure of various and useful knowledge. It is a rich source of inform- 
ation on topics of philosophy, history, poetry, and antiquities, and preserves 
many interesting fragments and monuments, which the stream of time must 
otherwise have borne away from us. It is to be regretted, that the work has 
several lacunce, or places wanting or defective, especially in the last book. 
The first two books, also, and the beginning of the third, are extant only in 
an abridgment or epitome, made by some grammarian at Constantinople. 

2. The work is in the form of a dialogue. A number of learned men, above 20, lawyers, 
physicians, poets, grammarians, sophists and musicians, meet at a banquet given by a rich cit- 
izen of Rome named Laurentius, and, in noticing the different instruments, materials, and 
preparations of their feast, remark upon almost every thing pertaining to the knowledge or 
customs of the ancient Greeks Schbll, iv. 297.— Edinb. Rev. vol. in. 

3. Editions.— B.—Schweighaiuser, Gr. & Lat. Argent. (Strasb.) 1801-7. 14 vols. 8. Vol. 
i-v. Gr. text, better than in any previous ed. ; vol. vi-xm. Commentary, exceedingly valua- 
ble ; vol. xiv. Index. An Index Gracitatis promised. Cf. Scholl, iv. 300. Dibdin, i. 335. 
Month. Mag. Jan. 1803. Moss, i. 194.— | G. Dindorf. Lips. 1827. 3 vols. 8. Containing the Gr. 
text. Two vols, of Comment. &c. promised. F. — There have been but iew editions. Prin- 
ceps, by Aldus (Musurus assisting as ed.) Ven. 1514. fol. — Bedrotus (8f Herlinus). Bas. 1535. 
fol. — Is. Causaubon, Gr. & Lat. 1597-1600. 2 vols. fol. Very celebrated. The Latin version 



RHETORICIANS. LONGINUS. THEMISTIUS. HIMERIUS. 213 

bv Dalccampius (Ddlechamp), first printed 1583, at Lyons : the 2d vol. printed 1600, contains 
Causaubon's Commentary. — Same, repr. Lyons, 1612-21, and 1657-64. — G. H. Schdfer. Lips. 
1796. 8. Only 1st vol. published. The plan contemplated three parts, each consisting of 3 
volumes ; comprising the text, the commentary of Causaubon with notes, and the French ver- 
sion of Villcbrunc, which was first printed Par. 1789. 4 vols. 4. 

4. Illustrative S. Weston, Conject. in Athenaeum. Lond. 1784. 8. — Jacobs, Addit. Animad- 

vers. in Athenaeum. Jen. 1809. 8.—R. Fiorillo, Observ. Crit. in Ath. GStt. 1802. 8.— A. Mei- 
necke, Curse crit. in Comicorum fragm. ab Athen. servata. Berl. 1814. 8. 

§ 124. Longinus (Dionysius Cassius), a rhetorician and critic, 
who embraced the Platonic philosophy, and nourished in the 3d cen- 
tury. His birthplace was probably Athens, although it is not cer- 
tain. Little is known of the circumstances of his life, excepting 
that he was a teacher and counsellor to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 
and was put to death by order of her conqueror, Aurelian. 

1 u. Many works, now lost, were written by him. The treatise Ileal fxi'ovc, 
on the sublime, which has come down to us only in a defective state, is a cele- 
brated production. It does great honor to the judgment and fine critical 
powers of the author, and well illustrates, by principles and examples, the na- 
ture of the sublime in thought and composition. 

2. Longinus spent a considerable part of his life as a teacher of rhetoric 
and criticism at Athens, before he became preceptor to Zenobia. He was born 
about A. D. 213, and died A. D. 273. — Of the various works, of which we 
have merely the titles, with a few fragments, the most important was that 
styled {pil.o7.6yoi, or q>u.o7.Lyoi ouiliai, consisting of 21 books, containing criti- 
cisms upon authors of his own and more ancient times. 

Ruhnken (under the fictitious name Schardam), Diss, de vita et scriptis Longini. Lug. Bat. 
1776. and in Wciske, cited below. Cf. Scholl, iv. p. 329. 

3. Editions.— B.—B. Weiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1709. 8. Repr. Lond. 1820. F.—Princeps, 

of Robortellus. Basil, 1554. 4.— P. Manutius. Ven. 1555. 4. — Wlnu Partus. Gen. 1589. 8. Ba- 
sis of all subsequent till that of Pearce.— G. de Petra, Gr. &. Lat. Gen. 1612. 8.— Tollius, Gr. 
& Lat. Traj. Rhen. 1694. 4.— Pearce, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1724. 4. Much valued and often 
reprinted ; best, Amst. 1733, with a commentary of F. Portus. — Tumermann fy Konio-, Gr. 
Lat. Gall. & Ital. Veron. 1733. A.—F. JV. Moms, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1769. 8. Valued for the 
superior Latin version ; containing also a tract entitled Libellus Animadv. in Long, and an ele- 
gant essay De notione Sublimitatis.— Toup, Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 1778. 4. and 8. Celebrated. Re- 
printed 1806. 

4. Translations. — German.— J. G. Schlosser. Lpz. 1781. 8. French. — Boileau, contain- 
ing the Reflexions Critiques. Amst. 1701. 8. and in Tumermann cited above. English. — W. 

Smith. Lond. 1739. 8. Often reprinted. 

§ 125. Themistius, surnamed Euphrades, was a celebrated orator 
and sophist of the 4th century, a native of Paphlagonia. He ac- 
quired great reputation at Constantinople by his philosophy and his 
instructions in rhetoric. He enjoyed also the favor of several em- 
perors, especially Constantine. Besides several commentaries, or 
paraphases, illustrating Aristotle, we have from him 34 discourses, 
marked by clearness, order, and richness of expression. 

1. He was highly regarded by Julian and his successors, down to Theodosius the Great, who 
entrusted him, although a pagan, with the education of his son, Arcadius. He was the master 
of St. Augustin, and a friend of Gregory Nazianzen, who styled him Buoilsvq kuyior. He 
resided for some time at Rome. He must not be confounded with Themistius, a deacon at Al- 
exandria in the 6th century, and founder of the sect of Agnoetw. 

The titles and arguments of his discourses are stated by Scholl. — The Paraphrases are/owr in 
Greek, and two extant only in Latin versions. — Scholl, vi. 141 ; vn. 121. 

2. Editions. — The first, the Aldine, under the title, Omnia Themistii Opera (cm. V. Trincavel- 
li). Ven. 1534. fol. Containing the 4 Greek Paraphrases, and 8 Discourses. — The Latin Para- 
phrases were printed Ven. 1558 and 1570. Of the Discourses, subsequent editions, H. Sle- 

phanus, Par. 1652. 8. (14 Disc.)— Diouys. Pctavius. Pai. 1618. 4. (19 Disc.)— J. Hardoain. Par. 
1684. fol. (33 Disc. Cf. Sclioll, vi. 159; Harles Brev. Not. 479.)— A discourse found and pub- 
lished by Mai, Milan, 1816. 4.— G. Dindorf, Themistii Orationes. (Gr.) Lips. 1832. 8.— A 
complete edition of Themistius is wanting. Cf. J. I. G. Roulei, Obs. crit. in Themistii Ora- 
tiones. Lov. 1828. 8. 

§ 126. Himerius, a native of Prusa in Bithynia, nourished at Ath- 
ens, as a sophist and speaker, under the emperor Julian in the 4th 
century. He was an imitator of ^Elius Aristides. 

1. Like other sophists he traveled about, pronouncing discourses and harangues. After- 
wards he was established at the head of a school in Athens. Basil, Gregory, and Nazianzen 



214 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

were among the his pupils. He died A. D. 386 ; leaving above 70 discourses ; of which we 
have only 24 entire and 10 imperfect. One of the most interesting is that in honor of Julian 
and the city Constantinople. His style is affected, and loaded with erudition. — Schbll, vi. 182. 

2. The only complete edition is that of Oottl. (Theoph.) Wernsdorf. Gott. 1790. 8.— Werns- 
dorf, a professor at Dantzig, had spent many years in preparing this work, accompanied with 
a version and commentary, but died, 1774, without having found a publisher. In 1783, Har- 
les published a specimen of the work, which induced a bookseller to publish the whole. 

§ 127. Julianus (Flavius Claudius), more commonly known by 
the name of Julian the Apostate, became emperor of Rome on the 
death of Constantius, A. D. 361. He possessed undoubted abilities, 
and a philosophical turn of mind, yet was by no means free from 
sophistry and bigotry. He wrote discourses, letters, and satires. 
One of the most celebrated of his pieces is the satire called the Ca- 

Sars, Kaioaqtg, or 2vf.i7io0iov. 

1. The epithet Apostate (" ArtooraTyg) was given to Julian on account of his 
openly renouncing the Christian religion, in which he had been educated by his 
uncle, Constantine the Great. He made great exertions in various ways to 
overthrow Christianity. He intended by rebuilding Jerusalem to disprove the 
predictions of the sacred scriptures, but his efforts were all defeated by the 
most signal disasters. He died in consequence of a wound received in battle, 
in an expedition against Persia, A. D. 363, at the age of 32. Gibbon has very 
speciously and artfully drawn his character. 

Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiii, xxiv. — Cf. Warburton's Discourse entitled Julian. Lond. 1751. 
— For the life of Julian, Ammianus Marcellinus is considered good authority. — His life written 

in French, by Ph. C. de La Bletterie. Amst. 1735. 12 Same, transl. by A. V. Desvmux. Dubl. 

1746. 8. — Also, in French, by Tourlet, as cited below. — The best probably ; A. JVeander, iiber 
den Kaiser Julianus und sein Zeitalter. Lpz. 1812. 8. See also his Kirchengeschichte, (1829) 
B. ii. Abth. i. p. 51.— And Ullmann's Gregory of Nazianzus, p. 72.— Cf. Murdochs Mosheim, 
vol. i. 265. 

2. Among the most singular of his discourses are the two with the follow- 
ing titles ; Etg rbv paoi?Ja" HZiov, to the monarch, the sun ; and Eig ri/v uj,t*p« 
■&so)v, to the mother of the gods (Cybele) ; they exhibit his bigoted or hypocrit- 
ical attachment to the grossest pagan absurdities. — Of the letters, one pecu- 
liarly interesting is addressed to a pagan priest, instructing him how to sus- 
tain the cause of paganism against the Christians. — SchoU, vi. 186. Cf. Ch. 
Spect. vol. v. p. 539. 

3. Julian composed a work expressly against the faith of Christians. It is lost, and most 
that is known respecting it, is learned from a refutation written by Cyrill of Alexandria. — In 
the last century a French author, the Marquis D'Argens, undertook to restore the work of Ju- 
lian, and published his performance, Berl. 1764. 8. It was soon refuted by G. F. Meir, Beur- 
theilung den Betrachtungen des Marq. v. Argens iiber den Kaiser Julian. Hal. 1764. 8 ; and by 
W. Crichton, Betrachtungen iiber des Kaiser Julian Abfall von der Christlichen Religion &c. 
Halle, 1765. 8. 

4. Editions. — Of his wobks there have been three. — Martinius # Cantoclarus. Par. 1583. 8. 

—Dion. Petavius (Petau). Par. 1630. 4. B.— JEz. Spanheim. Lpz. 1696. fol. With the work 

of Cyrill mentioned above. — But neither of these contains all the letters. Several, not in Span- 
heim, are given by Muratori, Anecdota Grseca. Patav. 1709. 4. and some others in Fabricius, 

Lux salutaris Evangelii. Hamb. 1731. 4. Of separate pieces, we notice the following. — The 

CcEsars. Amst. 172S. 4. With plates by B. Picart, and French translation by E. Spanheim. — 
Best, by J. M. Heusinger, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Gotha, 1741. 8.— The Cmsars and Misopogon, by H. 
I. Lasius. Greifsw. 1770. 8.— The Eulogy on Constantius, by G. H. Schafer. Lpz. 1802. 8. 
With D. Wyttenbach's notes.— Of the Letters, by H. L. Heyler, Gr. et Lat. Mayenne, 1828. 8. 
With commentary. Good. 

5. Translations*.— English.— Casars 8rc. in J. Duncombe, Select Works of the Emp. Julian. 
Lond. 1784. 2 vols. 8. French.— Whole works, by R. Tourlet. Par. 1821. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 128. Libanius, of Antioch, lived also in the 4th century, and 
mostly at Constantinople. He belonged to the profession of sophists, 
and was distinguished beyond all his contemporaries in eloquence. 

1m. His writings were various. Besides a treatise styled llQoyvuvaouuTwr 
7rctQad£iyuuTu, Examples of rhetorical exercises (or prceexercitationes) , and nu- 
merous Letters, we have also many of those pieces which were called Ms?.t- 
ral, Harangues or Declamations. We may observe in the style of these dis- 
courses an affectation of Attic purity and elegance, by which the charms of 
natural ease and freedom are often lost. 

2. Libanius suffered from the envy of rivals, by whose influence he was 
banished from Constantinople. A. D. 346. He retired to Nicsea and then t.o ; 



GRAMMARIANS, 215 

Nicomedia, but was afterwards recalled to Constantinople. Subsequently, 
however, he withdrew, and passed the remnant of his days at Antioch, his 
native city. He was admired and patronized by Julian the Apostate, and in 
common with the latter cherished the hope of restoring the reign of paganism 
in the Roman empire. He has left an auto-biography, styled Aiyog ttsqI t>Js 
savrov rv/tjc, which is placed among his discourses. 

Scholl, vi. 159. — See also Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiv. — Tillemont, Hist, des Empereurs, 
tome iv. p. 571. — Lardner, Heathen Testimonies, vol, iv. p. 576. 

3. Scholl gives the Greek titles of above 60 of the Declamations. In the 
Rhetorical Examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a separate 
kind. The Letters are about 2000 ; some of them to Christian Fathers ; Basil 
and Chrysostom both were pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to 
the Orations of Demosthenes, which are usually given in the editions of this 
orator. 

4. There is no edition of the whole works of Libanius, The most complete edition of the 
Declamations is that of J. J. Reiske, Altenb. 1791—97, 4 vols. 8. published after his death by 
his widow. It contains the Rhetorical Exercises. — Two additional discourses have been since 
published, one by Ch. Siebenkees, in his Anecdota Grceca, Norimb. 1798. 8 ; the other by A. Mai, 

in his Fronto, Milan, 1815. 8 ; Rome, 1823. The most complete edition of the Letters is that 

of J. Ch. Wolf. Amst. 1738. fol.— In the libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other 
writings of Libanius hitherto unpublished. There is a German translation of 5 of the Die- 
courses, by the wife of Reiske, in the Hellas, Lpz. 1791. 



IV »— ' Grammarians. 



§ 129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called 
grammarians, JTQauuarixoL This class included Hot only such as treated 
of the subjects now comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted 
themselves to any of the various branches of philology. (P. I. § 71.) This 
department of study began to be more specially cultivated in the period after 
Alexander, and particularly at Alexandria. It was in this period that cata- 
logues were first formed of authors regarded as classical ; these catalogues 
were called canons. 

§ 130. The works of these grammarians were of various kinds. Among 
them were the following; Jiu()6wo~sig, revisions of the text of classical au- 
thors ; ' Ynouvt]f.iara and 3 JEfci/yj^ms, commentaries ; 2-/o?.ia, explanatory notes", 
ZiiTt' t uara, Avoeig, investigations and solutions of particular difficulties ; D.wo- 
aai and Ai'isig, which treated of dialectic and peculiar forms and single words ; 
Svfiuixra, collections of similar phrases and passages from different authors. 
Some wrote upon the subject of grammar in the most limited sense ; some 
upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, metre, dialects, and 
the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable influence upon the 
language and literature of their own and subsequent times ; and their works 
are of value to us, as containing much information respecting earlier periods 
and authors. 

§ 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the fall of Corinth, 
B. C. 146, were Zenodotus, founder of the first school of grammar at Alex- 
andria, Aristophanes of Byzantium his disciple, and Aristarchus of Samo- 
thrace, a disciple of Aristophanes. The latter was especially celebrated, (cf. 
Hor. Art. Poet. 450) ; so that his name became a common designation for an 
eminent critic. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus, and Sosibius are names 
which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been preserved as a com- 
mon name for a severe and captious critic ; he made himself notorious, in an 
age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations 
against that poet, and thus gained the epithet Homeromastix. Whatever the 
grammarians of this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scat- 
tered fragments. — Scholl, livre iv. ch. xxxv. 

In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Au- 
gustus, the list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can 



316 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

here be given. Of those who may be called lexicographers, Apollonius sur» 
named the Sophist, Erotianus, Timaeus, and Julius Pollux are the principal. 
Tryphon, son of Animonius, Phrynicus the Arabian, and JElius Moeris wrote 
on dialects. Among the scholiasts and commentators maybe mentioned Pto- 
emy VII., Didymus, Apion, and Epaphroditus. Of the writers on different 
topics of grammar, we may select Dionysius Thrax, Tryphon above named, 
Apollonius Dyscolus, and his son Herodianus, Arcadius of Antioch, author 
of a treatise on accents, and Hephsestion, whose Manual on Metres comprises- 
nearly all that is known on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will 
be noticed separately. — Scholl, livre v. ch. lix. 

§ 132. After the time of Constantine letters continued to be cultivated by the 
grammarians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition. A sort of Uni- 
versity was founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge were 
professedly taught. The teachers or professors were styled Oly.ovutviy.oL A 
valuable library was also established. Philology in its various parts was among 
the sciences taught by the oecumenical professors. These studies were not re- 
nounced with the destruction of the library and the decline of the royal college, 
but were continued with more or less attention until the final capture of the 
city by the Turks. The writers during this long period were very numerous ; 
only a few have acquired celebrity ; while many of their productions yet re- 
main in manuscript. The names and works of the most important authors will 
be given below. 

It may be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled from 
Constantinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on 
the study of Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to 
the class denominated grammarians. Their labors, in their new asylums in 
the west, were chiefly of a philological character. Cf. § 7. 2. 

§133£. We shall place here some general references, and then pro- 
ceed to notice separately a few of the Grammarians. 

Lexicographical Collections. — Aldine, Dictionarium Graecum, &c. Ven. 1497. fol. — 
Dictionarium Graecum, <fcc. Ven. 1524. fol. — H. Stephanus, Glossaria duo e sinu vetustatis &c. 
1572. fol. — Vulcanius, Thesaurus utriusqve linguae Sec. Lug. Bat. 1600. fol.— Cf.C.F. Matthia:, 
Glossaria graeca minora &c. Rig. 1774. 8. — J. A. Emestl, cTe gloss, grsec. vera indole et recto 
usu. Lips. 1742. 8. — Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. vi. 141. — Sclioll, Hist. L. G. vi. 281 ss. Gram- 
matical. — Aldine, C. Lascaris Erotemata &c. Ven. 1494. 4. — Theod. Gazm Introd. Gram. 
&c. Ven. 1495. fol. and 1525. 8. — Thesaurus Cornucop. et Horti Adonidis. Ven. 1496. fol. — 

Erotemata Chrysolera>, &c. Ven. 1512 and 1517. 8. Respecting the Aldine collections, see 

Fabricius, Bibl. Graeca. lib. v. c. 7, in the ed. of Harles, lib. iv. c. 39. — Also Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. 
as cited §7.9. Introduc. p. xliv. xlviii. — and Renouard, Annales de l'Imprimerie des Aides, &c. 
Par. 1803. 2 vols. 8. Supplem.1812. — H. Stephanus, in the Appendix to his Thesaurus (§7. 3). 
— Phil. Giunta or Junta, Enchiridion grammat. Introd. &c. Flor. 1514, 1517, 1540. fol. — ■ 
Ber. Junta, Theod. Gaza;, grammat. &c. Flor. 1526. 8. — M. Vaoosanus, Thomce Magistrl et 
Moschopull Eclogw, &c. Lut. 1538. — Villoison, Anecdota Graeca &c. Ven. 1781. 2 vols. 4. — 
J. Bekker, Anecdota Graeca. Berl. 1812-21. 3 vols. 8.— W. Dindorf, Grammatici Graeci. Lips. 
1823. 8. — See C. D. Beck, Commentarii de Uteris et auctoribus Graec. atque Latinis. Sect. I. 
p. 47. — Cf. J. Harris, in his Miscellanies. Lond. 1781. 8. 4th vol. p. 247 ss. — Harles, Introd. in 
Histor. Ling. Graecae. Proleg. §10. — Sclioll, Hist. Litt. Gr. Introd. p. lxii. — On the value of the 
scholiasts ; Jo. Mart. Chladcnius, Opusc. Academ. Lips. 1741. 8. 

§ 134. HepJimstion, of Alexandria, lived about the middle of the 
2d century, He is to be distinguished from the mythograpliical wri- 
ter, who had the same name. 

1 u. His Manual on Metres, ^Ey/s'ioiSiov tcsq'i uirqtav, contains almost every 
thing which is known respecting the rules and principles of the ancient critics 
on this subject. 

2. The first edition was in B. Junta, cited §133.— A. Toumebouf, Par. 1533. 4. with scholia. — 
Best edition, Gaisford. Oxf. 1810. 8. & Lips. 1832. 

§135. Apollonius Dyscolus was also of Alexandria, and nourished 
in the 2d century under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. 

lu. He has left us four grammatical treatises, viz. Ilsql (rvvTa'Zswg, Of Syntax; 
ITsqi avTvovvuiag, Of 'the pronoun ; IIso'l owdiouiav, Of conjunctions ; and IlioL 
3 E7ci(jQ7)uuTvn>, Of adverbs. We have also a compilation styled c IoroQiai&av- 
ftuoiai, or Wonderful Histories. 

2. The treatise on Syntax was published by Aldus, in Thesaurus Cornuc. cited §133.— Sylburg. 
Francf. 1590. 4. — J. Belcher. Berl. 1817. 8. — That on the Pronoun, by J. Bekker,' in the Museum 



GRAMMARIANS. POLLUX. HARPOCRATION. HESYCHIUS. 217 

I 

^■iniiquitatis Studiorum, Berl. 1808. vol. i. p. 225. — The other two, by the same, in his Anecdota, 
cited § 133. — The historical compilation, by Teuchen. Lpz. 1792. 8. 

3. We have a work on Grammar from an earlier author, the Tiyvi] rqauuanxyj of Dio- 
nysius Thrax, who lived at Alexandria, B. C. about 60. — published in Fabricius, Bibl.Gr. (Har~ 
ies ed. vol. vi.) — in Villoison, and Bekker, as cited $ 133. 

§ 136. JElius Herodianus was a son of the Apollonius just men- 
tioned. He enjoyed the favor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius An- 
toninus. There was another person of the same name, who was a 
historian, and must not be confounded with the grammarian. 

la. Of many works written by the latter, the treatise IIsqI uovi'iqovq ?.i%£wg 
appears to be the only one that has been preserved entire. 

2. This treatise is found in Dindorf, as cited §133. — The titles of several other treatises are 
given by Scholl, v. 28. Fragments of some of which are given in Bekker, and Villoison, as cited 
§ 133. and in G. Hermann, fie emendanda ratione gram. Gr. Lips. 1801. 8. — The piece styled 
s ETCiueQiOuoi was published by Edw. H. Becker. Lond. 1819. 8. — Cf. Scholl, v. p. 27. 

§ 137. Julius Pollux (for Polydeuces, ,no?.vdsvxtjg^ } of Naucratis in 
Egypt, flourished in the 2d century, at Athens. He was in profession 
a sophist, but is chiefly known by his Greek Dictionary. 

1m. It is entitled y Ovouaonxbv. This work is divided into 10 books, accord- 
ing to subjects. It is very useful, not only in illustrating Greek words and 
phrases, but also in explaining many subjects of general antiquities. 

2. The following are some of the topics of the books respectively. 1. Gods, 
Kings; Commerce, Mechanic Arts ; Houses; Things relating to War ; Agri- 
culture. 2. Age of Men ; Members and parts of the Human Body. 3. Fam- 
ily Relations, Friends ; Travels ; Roads, Rivers. 4. Sciences. 5. Animals ; 
the Chase. 6. Repasts; Crimes. 7. Of various Trades. 8. Things relating 
to the administration of Justice. 9. Cities, Edifices, Money, Games. 10. Fur- 
niture, Utensils, &c. 

3. Editions. — B TV. Dindorf. Lpz. 1824. 2 vols. 8. " The 4th & 5th volumes comprise the 

entire body of notes by the preceding editors." — — F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. fol. — 
Junta. Flor. 1520. fol. — Seber. Francf. 1608. 4. with the Latin version first published by Walther., 
Bas. 1541. 8. — T. H. Lederlin 8f T. Hemsterhuis. Amst.1706. 2 vols. fol. with a valuable Preface 
by the latter, on the use of the' Dictionary. 

4. We have before named (§131) as lexicographers, in the period of Greek 
literature designated by the epithet Roman (§9), three authors besides Pollux : 
Apollonius Sophistes, in the time of Augustus, from whom we have a (a) Ho- 
meric Lexicon, Jitsig c OuijQixai ; Erotian, in the time of Nero, from whom we 
have a (b) Glossary to Hippocrates ; Timceus, who lived later, in the end of the 
3d century, and from whom we have a (c) Platonic Lexicon, At^eig W.arcovixai. 

(a) Published by Villoison. Par. 1773. 2 vols. 4.— by H. Tollius. Leyd.1788. 8. — (b) Published 
by Franz. Lpz. 1780. 8. — (c) Published by Ruhnken. Leyd. 1754. 8. impr. repr. by TV. A. Koch, 
Lpz. 1828. 

§ 138. JElius Mceris, surnamed the Atticist, flourished about A. D. 
190. His work, styled Jk^sig' Amxwv xal' EUi\vwv, is preserved. 

1. Editions.— B TV. A. Koch. Lips. 1830. 8. with useful notes. — -F.— The first, by J. Hud- 
son. Oxf. 1712. 8. — next, J. Fischer. Lpz. 1756. 8. with the Lexicon of Timeeus. — J. Pierson* 
Leyd. 1759. 8 J. Bekker (with Harpocration). Berl.1833. 8. mere text. 

2. Tryphon and Phrynicus the Arabian were mentioned (§131) in connec« 
tion with Maeris, as having also written on dialects. There are some remains 
from them noticed by Scholl (v. 11). The principal is the Uqonaqaay.svii ao- 
<piori%l n 'Apparatus sophistique,' of Phrynicus, in the latter part of the 2d cen- 
tury ; published by Bekker, as cited § 133. vol. i. 

§ 139. Harpocration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a con- 
temporary of Libanius, in the 4th century. He was the author of a 
Lexicon entitled ^itsig tmv Ssxa ^tooojv, useful in reference to the 
Greek language generally, and the Attic orators in particular. 

Published by Aldus (with Ulpian's Comm.) Ven. 1503. fol. — Blancard. Leyd. 1683. 4. — Bel- 
ter, by J. Gronov. Leyd. 1696. 4. — A new edition, Lips. 1824. 2 vols. 8. — Later, by J. Bekker. 
Berl. 1833. 8. 

§140. HesycMus lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, to- 
wards the close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon or 

19 



218 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

Glossary, from the more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his se- 
lections by examples from the best Greek authors. Additions were 
made to this work by later hands, among which are probably the nu- 
merous theological glosses (glosses sacrce). Perhaps, in its present 
state, it is the work as enlarged by some Christian author. 

Editions. — B.—J. Alberti (completed by Ruhnken). Leyd.1774-76. 2 vols. fol. A kind of Sup- 
plement is the work of Nic. Schow. Lips.1792. 8. exhibiting the results of a collation of Albert? s 
edition with the only existing manuscript, that in the library of St. Mark at Venice. — A new 

edition has been expected from Oaisford. F. —Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1514. fol. (ed. M. 

Musurus). — Junta. Flor. 1520. fol. — Schrevelius. Leyd. 1688. 4. — The glossce sacra were collected 

by J. C. O. Ernesti. Lpz. 1785. 8. with a Supplement, 1786. 8. See Schleusner, Observ. in 

Suid. et Hesychium. Wittemb. 1810. A.—Scholl, vi, 282. 

2. The author of the Lexicon must not be confounded with Hesychius of Miletus, in the 6th 
century, under Justinian, from whom we have some remains not very important. Published 
by J. OrellL Lpz. 1820. S.—Sclwll, vi. 404. vn. 75. 

§ 141. Ammonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter part 
of the 4th century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, and 
to have fled from Constantinople on the destruction of the pagan tem- 
ples. He was the author of a work entitled UsqI ouoiwv xai <?iayuocov ; /*|«u)v. 
It is a work of some value in the criticism of words. 

It Was published in Aldus, in the Dictionarium etc. cited § 133. — H. Stcphanus, in Append, to 
his Thesaurus, cited $ 7. 3. — Given also in Scapula's Lexicon, cited § 7. 3. — The best edition 
is Valckenar. Lug. Bat. 1739. 4. Repr. (ed. Schafer). Lpz. 1822. 8. — A good abridgment of 

Valckenar's, by C. F. Amnion. Erlang.1787. 8. A French translation, by A. Pillon. Par.1824. 8. 

There is a treatise by Ammonius, Ueql 5 Ay.vqo7.oy lag, On improper use of words, never printed. 

§142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D. 891. He 
may be placed in the class of writers now under notice, although he 
was a man of letters in general, rather than a grammarian. 

1 u. His Mvqibfiip.ov, Bibliotheca, or Library, is in many respects valuable. 
It contains critical notices of about 280 works of ancient writers, accompa- 
nied with extracts. Of a number of these works we should otherwise have 
scarcely known the titles. His Lexicon, Ai^stav away my i], although in a muti- 
lated state, is useful in the study of the historians and orators. 

2. The life of Photius presents a series of interesting incidents. His char- 
acter was not without some blemishes, and he experienced great vicissitudes 
of fortune. From a layman he was raised to the office of patriarch. He was 
deposed and banished ; after ten or eleven years recalled and reinstated ; but 
again deposed, and confined in a monastery, where he died. — Gibbon, Roman 
Empire, ch. ix.—Milner, Ch. History. 

3. Besides the works above named, we have also from Photius a work styled Nomocanon, a 

collection of canons of the church, and a number of letters, homilies, and dissertations. For 

a particular account of the Myriobiblon, see Sch'dll, vi. 305. — Fabricius, in Bibl. Gr. X. 678. 
ed. Harles. — Cf. Editib. Rev. No. xlii. — Lond. Quart, vi. 218. — J. H. Leichii Diatribe in Photii 
Bibliothecam. Lips. 1748. 4. 

4. There is no edition of the whole works of Photius.— Of the Library, there have been, until 
recently, but three editions. — D. Hceschel. Augsb. 1601. fol. — P. Stephanus. Genev. 1611. fol. with 
the version of A. Schott, first publ. Augsb. 1696. — Same, repr. by Berthelin. Rouen, 1553. fol. — A 

new edit, was commenced by Bekker. Berl. 1824. 4. The Lexicon was first published by G. 

Hermann, with the Lexicon of Zonarus. Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. (by Tittmann fy Hermann.) Photius, 
the 3d vol.— Better, R. Porson. Lond. 1822. 8. (ed. by Dobree.) — Cf. J. F. Schleusner, Animadv. 

ad Photii Lex. Lips. 1810. 4. — Same, Curce noviss. in Phot. Lex. Lips. 1812.4. The Nomo- 

canon was printed Par. 1620. fol. with Balsamon. The Letters (248), by Montacutius {Mon- 
tague). Lond. 1651. fol. 

§143. Suidas probably lived about A. D. 1000, although it cannot 
be made certain. He was the author of a Lexicon, compiled from 
various authors, grammarians, commentators, and scholiasts. It is 
not executed with much judgment, accuracy, or skill in arrangement. 
Yet it is of considerable value on account of its store of literary and 
antiquarian information ; and many of its defects, especially in the 
apparent want of method, may be owing to interpolations and addi- 
tions made by transcribers and others. 

Editions. — Princeps, by Dem. Chalcondylas. Mil, 1496- fol. — Aldus. Ven. 1514. fol. — Frobe- 



GRAMMARIANS. SUIDAS. EUSTATHIUS. GREGORIUS. 219 

nius. Bas. 1544. fol. — &m. Portus, Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1619. 2 vols, fol.— L. Kuster, Gr. & Lat. 
Camb. 1705. 3 vols. fol. This is altogether superior to any preceding edition ; yet not without 
defects. Some severe criticisms of J. Gronovius, called forth an answer from Kuster in his Di- 
atribe Anti-Gronoviana. Amst. 1712. 8. — T. Gaisford. Lond. 1833. a greatly improved ed. — G. 
Bernhardt, Gr. & Lat. Halle, 1836. 2 vols, (post Thorn. Gaisfordum) with notes. The fol- 
lowing works further illustrate Suidas. — Toup. Emend, in Suid. Lond. 1760-75. 4 vols. 8. ; 
also in his Opusc. crit. Lpz. 1780. 2 vols. 8. and ed. by Burgess. Lond. 1790. 4 vols. 8. — Schweig- 
kauser, Emend, et Obs. in Suidam. Argent. 1789. 8. — Reinesii Observ. in Suidam (ed. C. G. 
Muller). Lpz. 1819. 8. 

§144. In this connection we ought to notice the work of an un- 
known author, who lived about A. D. 1000. It is a Greek Glossary, 
styled 'ETvuoioyiy.oi tdya, the Etymologicum magnum. Besides its 
value as a grammatical work, it is still more useful because it has pre- 
served many passages of ancient authors, and furnished solutions of 
many difficulties in history and mythology. 

1. Editions of the Etymologicum. — Princeps, bv Z. Calliergus (ed. M. Musums). Ven. 1499. 
fol.— P. Manutius (ed. Torrisani). Ven. 1549. fol.— Commelin (ed. F.Sylburg). Heidelb.1594. fol. 

— Panagiota (of Sinope). Ven. 1710. fol. — Schdfcr. Lpz. 1816. 4. a repr. of Sylburg's. To this 
last edit, the following works may be viewed as the 2d and 3d vols. ; F. TV. Sturtz, Etymologi- 
cum ling. Gr. Gudianum, &c. Lpz. 1818. 4. — By same, Orionis Etymologicum. Lpz. 1820. 4. 

— Cf. Scholl, vi. p. 277, 294. — Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. vol. xlvii. p. 105. Remarques crit. 
sur l'Etymolog. Magnum. 

2. In the libraries of Europe are several Lexicons, or Glossaries, still remaining in manu- 
script, particularly in the Royal library of France. — We may also mention here one first pub- 
lished by Villoison in his Anecdota, cited ^ 133 ; the 3 Iwviu^x Violarium, by Eudocia, wife of 
the Emperor Constantine Ducas, and his successor for a short time, but soon after placed in a 
convent. In this retreat she wrote her work, a sort of historico-mythologic compilation, sup- 
posed to be of much value before Villoison published it. — Scholl, vi. p. 296. 

§ 145. Eustathius, of Constantinople, nourished in the 12th cen- 
tury, and became finally bishop of Thessalonica. 

1 u. He is particularly celebrated for his copious and learned Commentary 
on Homer, entitled, IIaQsx§o?.al dg ri t v c Ouiqov 3 11 tud a, and IIaQsx§o /.a l tic 
T/,r 'Odvoaeiav. We have also from him a less valuable commentary on Dio- 
nysius Periegetes. 

. 2. The Comm. on Homer was first published, Rome, 1542-1555. 3 vols. fol. containing the in- 
dex of Devarius. (Cf. $ 50. 5.)— This repr. Bas. 1560. 3 vols, fol.— An ed. commenced by Po- 
liti, Flor. 1730, but never finished. — Extracts from the Comm. often published with Homer. — 
J. Behker, Eust. Comm. ad Horn. Odysseam. Lips. 1825. 2 vols. 4. — Same, Eust. Comm. ad 

Horn. Iliadem. Lips. 1829 ss.— Cf. Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, vol. iv. p. 337. A com,- 

mentary by Eustathius on Pindar is lost.— Scholl, vi. 269. 

3. John Tzetzes may be named in connection with Eustathius ; he was a grammarian at 
Constantinople in the same century (cf. § 81). 

§ 146. Gregorius, surnamed Pardus, and afterwards Corinthius 
from being the Bishop of Corinth, lived about the middle of the 
12th century. Of his many works two only have been published ; 
one is a treatise on the Greek dialects, zzeoJ Jia?Jxv&v % and the other 
a Commentary on the last part of the Rhetoric of Hermogenes 
(§131. 1). 

The treatise on dialects, edited by G. Koen, Leyd. 1766. 8. better than any ed. previous. — By 
G. H. Schdfer, Lpz. 1811. 8. still better. — The Commentary is given in Reiske (cited § 99), vol. 

VIII. 

§ 147. Thomas Magister or Theodulus may be mentioned here. 
He lived in the beginning of the 14th century (about 1310). After 
holding the place of the Magister offieiorum under the emperor An- 
dronicus Palseologus, he became a monk with the name of Theodu- 
lus. A work by him is extant, called 'ExXoyai ovouurwv 'Amxcov. 

1. First published by Calliergus, Rome, 1517, 8.— Best by J. S. Bernard, Leyd. 1757. 8. and /.• 
G. S. Schteabe, Altenb. 1773. 8. — Cf. G. Hermann, Prog, de praeceptis quibusdam Atticistarum 
Lpz. 1810. 4. 

2. Here might be mentioned Emmanuel Moscliojmlus Cretensis, Manuel 
Moschopulus Byzantinus, Emmanuel Chrysoloras, Theodorus Gaza, and other 
grammarians, whose labors were connected with the revival of classical 
learning in Europe. See § 7. 2. and P. I. § 85. 1. 



220 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 



V. — Writers of Epistles and Romances. 

§148w. We shall next introduce the class of writings called Letters or 
Epistles. There are many extant, ascribed to distinguished men of ancient 
times. But a great portion of them are spurious, being the productions of the 
sophists and grammarians of later periods. Some of them, however, are un- 
questionably genuine ; as e. g. those of Isocrates, Demosthenes, and Aristotle. 
In these (the genuine), there is generally a noble simplicity of manner, en- 
tirely free from the art and labor which are betrayed in the epistles fabricated 
in the age of the later sophists. The latter class were composed with de- 
signed reference to publication, and treat of various subjects, particularly 
subjects of a historical and romantic character. We shall mention below 
some of the principal authors of Greek epistles, either real or supposed. 

§ 149. As the form of epistles was so often adopted by the sophists and 
others in composing pieces which were, properly speaking, works of fiction, 
we shall mention the names of the principal writers of romance in the same 
connection. The species of composition termed romance was unknown in the 
most flourishing periods of Greek literature. A modern writer has pointed 
out the reason. " In the most refined ages," says he, " the whole empire of 
fiction was usurped by the ingenious polytheism of the Greeks. This filled 
every imagination and satisfied the love of the marvelous so natural to man. 
Every festival renewed the tale of some god's singular adventures. The the- 
atre owed its charms, in great measure, to the strange union of the heroic 
daring of mortals, and the intervention of deities. In a nation so happily 
adapted for the elegant arts, fiction naturally assumed the garb of poetry, and 
the beautiful fables so well sung by the poets left no place for recitals in 
prose, composed as it were of vulgar dreams. The people, it must also be re- 
membered, were all engrossed in public and active life. Retirement and sol- 
itude were almost unknown. The state, so to speak, made it a business to 
amuse its citizens in public. While such was the publicity of the master's 
life, the universal prevalence of domestic slavery, and the degraded and im- 
mured condition of the female sex, rendered private life a uniform and mo- 
notonous scene. Thus, while there was no opportunity to imagine any won- 
derful adventure, or very singular character and destiny, without violating 
probabilities, there was at the same time but little scope for the passion of 
love, which holds so important a place in modern romance." — (Villemain, 
quoted by Scholl, iv. p. 304.) 

§ 150. It was not until the fifth period of our outline (§ 9), that works of 
this description made their appearance, and scarcely any thing of the kind is 
earlier than the time of Augustus. These works are called in general erotic 
tales. But we may include in the same class, not only romances properly so 
ealled, or formal love stories, but also amatory letters, Milesian or magical 
tales, and imaginary voyages. 

Of imaginary voyages one of the first authors was Antonius Diogenes, 
whose work, Tix imi{) Oovlijv arciora, The incredible things beyond Thule, is 
quoted by Photius. It seems to have contained a tissue of absurdities in 
forty-four books. Lucian also wrote an imaginary voyage, entitled 3 A7.ifiy\g 
taroQla, in two books ; a satire upon voyagers who relate marvelous stories; 
full of grotesque representations, with malignant allusions to the miracles of 
the sacred Scriptures. 

Milesian tales are so called because a certain Aristides of Miletus, of whom 
little is known, wrote a series of stories, the scene of which was Miletus. A 
specimen of this sort of tale is found in the piece of Lucian styled Jorjy.sog ?/ 
"Ovog (cf. § 121. 2). The Latin work of Apuleius, styled the Golden Ass (cf. 
§ 471. 2), belongs to the same class of fictions. 

Of amatory letters the only specimen, before the time of Constantine, is 
given in some of the letters of Alciphron. In the next period, not long after 
Constantine, we find a work of this class, entitled 'EnioroKa.l tqwrix.ai } as- 
cribed to Aristsenetus. 



EPISTOLIZERS AND ROMANCERS. 221 

§ 151. A work of Parthenius (§ 226), in the age of Augustus, may be con 
sidered as a precursor of the formal romance, being a collection of amatory 
tales, entitled LTsqI iqtorix&v JJa^turtav\ chiefly of a melancholy cast. But 
the most ancient writer of the proper romance was Jamblichus- of Syria, in 
the reign of Trajan. His work styled c Iotoqiul Ba%v7.onr/.al, or the Loves of 
Rhodane and Sino?iis, is quoted by Photius. The next author in order of time 
is probably Xenophon of Ephesus, to whom is ascribed a Greek romance, 
called 'Eysoiaxa. 

In the period after Constantine, we find several romancers. Three, whose 
works were in verse, have already been named (§ 33). Besides these, there 
were at least four prose writers, whose romances are extant; Heliodorus, 
Achilles Tatius, Longus, and Eumathius. The romance ascribed to Chariton 
also was probably written in the same period. Xenophon, already named, is 
by some likewise placed here. Heliodorus is considered by many as the best 
writer of the whole class, and his work is said to have been the model, not 
only of the Greek romances, but also for the early French romances of the 
16th century. (Cf. § 259. 2.) Others pronounce Longus to be decidedly the 
first among the Greek romancers. 

§ 152 t. The following are references on the class of authors and 
works now under notice. The principal names will be given in the 
following sections ; the real or supposed writers of epistles first, and 
the romancers after them. 

1. On the epistles attributed to ancient Greeks. — Scholl, ii. 273. — Sclwnheyden, in the JV. 

Biblioth. d. sch. Wiss. vol. v. Collections of Greek Epistles. — lldus, Epistolarum graecarum 

collectio. Ven. 1499. 2 vols. 4. — Reprinted, Gen. 1506. fol. With Latin version ascribed to 
Cujacius.—Camerarius/EyJ.oy) t Siacptytav lniovoh7>v etc. Tubing. 1540. 8,—Steph. Prevo- 
teau, Ttov i-Zs.tpiy.coi> irriOTO/.on' Avtjoloyla. Par. 1583. 4. —Eilh. Lubinus, Gr. et Lat. 
Heidelb. 1609. 3 vols. 8. Rarely found complete. — L. Allatius (Allazi), Socratis et aliorum 
Epistolae, Gr. &. Lat. Par. 1637. A.— J. C. Orelli, collectio epist. grsec. Gr. & Lat. 1815. 8.— 
Savage, Letters of the Ancients. Lond. 1703. 8. 

2. "On the Greek roman ce.— Villemain, Essai litteraire surles Romans Grecs (in the Collect, 
des R. Gr. &c. cited below). — Chardon la Rochette, Melanges de crit. et de philol. — Meiner^s 
Gesch. d. Kiinst. u. Wissensch. in Griech. u. Rom. vol. i. p. TtQ.—Ramdohr''s Venus Urania, 
Th. 3. Abth. 1. — Manso's Abhandl. liber d. griech. Romane, in 2d Bd. of his Vermisch. SchrifL 
Lpz. 1801. 2 Bde. %.— Warton>s Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. ii. p. 183.— Dunlop, History of Fiction. 
Lond. Quart. Rev. xm. 384.— .For. Quart. Rev. vol. lx.— Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. iv. 304, iv. 228. 

On the origin of romance ; D. Huet, de Origine Fab. Romanensium. Has. Com. 1682. 8. 

Trans. French. Par. 1693 and 1711. (Cf. $80.) lS.— tVarton's Diss, on Orig.TFiction in Eu- 
rope ; pref. to Hist. Eng. Poetry. Collections of Greek romances ; Ch. G. Mitscherlich, 

Scriptores erotici giffici. Gr. & Lat. Bip. 1792. 4 vols. 8. Containing A. Tatius, Heliodorus, 
Longus, and Xenophon.— Biblioteca de' Romanzieri greci, tradotti in Italiano. Flor. 1792. — 
Biblioth. des Romans Grecs. Traduits en Franc. Par. 1797. 12 vols. 12.— Colled, des Romans 
Grecs, trad, en Franc, avec des notes par Courier, Larcher §c. Par. 1822-28. 14 vols. 16. 

§ 153. Anacharsis, a native of Scythia, resided some years at 
Athens in the time of Solon, B. C. about 600, and was celebrated 
for his wisdom. There are nine letters ascribed to him, but they 
are not genuine. 

1. These Letters are given in most of the collections above named. — Separately, Par. 1581. 4. 
Gr. & Lat. — One of them (5th) is translated by Cicero (Quaest. Tusc. v.) ; another (9th) is con- 
tained in the life of Anacharsis by Diogenes Laertius. — He is said to have written a work on 
the laws of the Scythians, and a poem on war, which are lost. 

2. The name of Anacharsis is applied to a fictitious personage, imagined by the Abbe Bar- 
thelemi, as the basis of a sort of plot for a very interesting work ""on the history, literature, and 
arts of Greece, called the Travels of Anacharsis the Younger. The author imagines the Scyth- 
ian to arrive in Greece some years before the birth of Alexander, to reside in Athens, making 
occasional excursions and journeys in different parts of Greece, until after the conquests of 
Philip, then to return to Scythia and give an account of his observations.— One of the best edi- 
tions of this work is Travels $c. translated from the French, Lond. 1806. 7 vols. 8. with a vol. 
of Plates, 4. 

§ 154. Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, respecting whose age 
there is uncertainty, probably lived B. C. about 560. To him are 
ascribed 148 letters. 

1 u. Were they really his, they would show him to have been, not only far 

removed from the cruelty with which common tradition has charged him, but 

a man of the noblest feeling. But they are undoubtedly the work of some 

sophist of later times. On this point there is no longer any dispute ; the ve- 

19* 



222 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

hement and ill-natured controversy between Bentley and Boyle respecting it 
gave the inquiry an importance, which the subject in itself did not possess. 

2. The wits and scholars at the time of the famous controversy were generally against Bent- 
ley, who wholly denied the genuineness of the letters ; but his arguments have been consid- 
ered by all since that time as perfectly conclusive. For an account of the controversy, see 

Monk's Life of Bentley, Lond. 1830.— Lond„ Quart. Rev. No. xci .—North Amer. Rev. Oct. 1836. 
— Cf. Bentleifs Diss, on Phalaris, cited Q 63. 3. 

3. The letters were first published in" Latin, without date ; the 2d ed. 1470.— In the origina? 
Greek first, 1498. 4. Ven. — In Aldus, 1499. as cited <5 152. 1. also in the other collections there 
named.— C. Boyle, Gr. &Lat. Lond. 1695. 8. repr. 1718. 8.— J. D. V. Lennep $ L. O. Valckenar. 
Groning. 1777. 2 vols. 4. The 2d vol. containing a Latin translation of the tracts of Bentley. 
— G. H. Schafer. Lpz. 1823. 8. A re-impr. of the 1st vol. of the preceding ; and is probably 
the best edition. — Scholl, n. 977. 

§ 155. Themistocles, the Athenian general and orator (§ 88), 
nourished B. C. about 480. There are 21 letters extant, ascribed 
to him. They purport to have been written during his banishment, 
and their contents are chiefly of a historical nature. Their genu- 
ineness is very questionable ; it was fully examined and controverted 
by Bentley. 

The letters of Them, published first by J. M. Caryophilus, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1626. 4.— E. 
Ehinger. Frankf. 1629. 8.— Ch. Schbttgen. Lpz. 1710. 8 — J. C. Bremer. Lemg. 1776. 8.— 
Cf. Bentley on Phalaris, above referred to. 

§ 156. Socrates, the most distinguished sage of Greece, was born 
B. C. 469, and drank the cup of hemlock under judicial sentence, 
B. C. 399. He committed nothing to writing, and probably had not 
the least agency in the composition of the 7 letters which are as- 
cribed to him. Like most of the letters, which are called Socratic, 
professing to come from Antisthenes and other followers of Socrates, 
they are the production of some of the sophists. 

1. The letters termed Socratic are 41 in number ; among them, besides the 7 ascribed to So- 
crates, are 7 of Xenophon, and 12 of Plato. Cicero quotes one of the latter (Quaest. Tusc. V). 

Letters of Antisthenes and iEschines the philosopher are also included. They are found in 

the collections of Matins and Orelli, cited § 152. 1.— Cf. Scholl, n. 280, 361, 414. 

2. The letters ascribed to Isocrates (103. 2) and Demosthenes (§ 106. 3) are genuine ; and most, 
if not all, of the 12 attributed to JEschines. — The latter were published separately, J. S. Sam- 
met. Lpz. 1771. 8. — Those of Isocrates, C. F. Matthicc. Mosc. 1776. 8.— Respecting those as- 
cribed to Euripides, see § 63. 3. 

§ 157. Chion, of Heraclea on the Pontus Euxinus, a contempora- 
ry and scholar of Plato, having slain Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, 
was himself put to death, B. C. 353. He was probably not the au- 
thor of the 17 letters which bear his name. They treat particularly 
of the benefits of philosophical culture, and are inspired with ardent 
political enthusiasm, but not without merit as to thought and style. 

Published by J. Caselms. Rost.1583. 4.—Fr. Morel. Par.1600. 4.— J. OottLCober. Dresd.1765. 8. 
— A. O. Hoffmann, joined to J. C. OrelWs fragments of Memnon. Lpz. 1816.8.— This is the best 
edition. 

§158. Aristcenetus, of Nicaea in Bithynia, was a sophist of the 4th 
century, who perished in an earthquake at Nicaea, A. D. 358. His 
letters, in two books, are of the erotic class (§150), and in a manner 
of writing rather light and sportive. They have, however, only the 
form and superscription of letters, being without that peculiar vivacity 
and interest, which is imparted to personal correspondence. Possibly 
they are the work of a sophist of a still later age. 

1. All the editions have been taken from a single manuscript, still existing at Vienna; first 
published by J. Sambucus, (printer Plantin) Antw. 1566. 4. — Better than any previous edition, 
F. L. Abrcsch. Zwoll,1749. 8. a vol. styled Lectionum Aristametearum libri duo ; and another enti- 
tled Fir. crud. ad Arist. Epist. conjectures Amst. 1752. 8. — The most recent and complete, Bois- 
sonade. Par. 1822. 8. — Scholl, vi. 249. 

2. German translation, /. F. Herel. Altenb. 1770. S. — Harles (Brev. Not. p. 471) cites a French 
transl. Lond. 1739. 12. — Fuhrmann (Kl. Handb. 522) cites an English, Lond. 1771. 8. 

§159. Alciphron was a contemporary of Aristsenetus, and a writer 



ROMANCERS. HELIODORUS. TATIUS. LONGUS. 223 

of the same class. Many of the letters are of the amatory kind. The 
style is agreeable, but too much ornamented, and showing too much 
of sophistic affectation. They reveal, however, many little peculiari- 
ties, otherwise not made known, in the private life of the Greeks. 

1. Scholl places Alciphron much earlier, in the same age with Lucian in the 
2d century; because, in the letters of Aristoenetus, Alciphron and Lucian are 
represented as corresponding with each other. The letters are 116 in number, 
and styled y E7iioro7.ai uluvriv.ai y.al sraiqixal. 

2. Editions. — The first bv Aldus, cited $152. l.—Bergler. Lpz. 1715 8. with a commentary, 
repr. Utrecht.1790. 8.—/. A. Wagner. Lpz.1798. 2 vols. 8. — There are materials for a better edi- 
tion Schwll, iv. 314. 

3. Translations. — German. — /. F. Herel. Altenb. 1767. 8. French. — Abbe de Richard. 

Par. 1785. 3 vols. 12. English.— PA. Munro and W. Beloe. Lond. 1791. 8. 

§ 160. Heliodorus, of Emesa in Syria, bishop of Tricca in Thes- 
saly, lived at the close of the 4th century. In early life he wrote his 
iEthiopica, ^ii6io7tixa i in 10 books, respecting the love of Theagenes 
and Chariclea. It is very meritorious as as a narrative, and still more 
so on account of its pure morality. Yet its diction has traces of the 
artificial taste and false eloquence of the sophists. 

1. Editions. — Princeps, by V. Obsopceus (printer Hervagius). Bas. 1534. 4. from a manuscript 
obtained from a soldier who took it at the pillage of the library of Matthias Corvinus, at Buda, 
in 1526. (Scholl, vi. 229.) — J. Commelin. Heidelb. 1596. 8. with the Latin version of a Pole 
named Wurszeioicki, first printed Bas. 1552. fol. — J. Bourdelot. Par. 1619. 8. erroneous. Repr. 
without correct. Lpz. 1772. 8. ed. Schmid. — The edition of Mitscherlich, Gr. & Lat. in 2d vol. of 
the Scriptores Erotici, cited § 152. 2. is better. — The best is said to be by D. Coray. Par. 1804, 
2 vols. 8. with notes, <fcc. all in Greek. Repr. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. 

2. Translations. — German.— Meinhard. Lpz. 1767. 2 vols. 8.—K. W. Gmttling. Frankf. 1822. 8, 

French. — Mercier, in the Biblioth. des Romans, cited $152. 2. English, — (Anonymous), 

Lond. 1791. 2 vols. 12.— On Heliodorus, cons. Scholl, vi. 228. For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. 

§ 161. Achilles Tatius was a native of Alexandria, but of an un- 
certain age, although commonly placed in the 3d century, before He- 
liodorus. His history is almost entirely unknown. 

1 u. He composed a romance, in 8 books, entitled Ta y.aia Asvy.ircTcijv y.al 
JG.iiToipcTnra, or the story of Leucippe and Clitophon. It is not without inge- 
nuity and invention, and the style is agreeably animated, although its excel- 
lence is marred by frequent affectation of beauty and ornament. 

2. Editions. — Princeps, by J. Commelin (ed. Bonnvitius). Heidelb. 1601. 8. with Latin version 
of Croce (Cruceus) that had been previously published, and Longus. — Salmasius. Leyd.1640. 12. 
—B. Gottl. L. Boden. Lpz. 1776. 8.— Mitscherlich, as cited $152. 2.— Fr. Jacobs, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 
1821. 2 vols. 8. the best edition. 

3. Translations. — German. — Ast fy Oilldenapfel. Lpz.1802. 8. French. — Mercier, in 2d vol. 

of Biblioth. des Rom. cited $152. 2. — There are several others. English. — (Anonymous) Lond. 

1720. 12. — See Scholl, vi. 232. — For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. — Villemain, as cited $152. 2. 

§ 162. Longus was a sophist of the 4th or 5th century. He is the 
best erotic writer of the Greeks (§151). His romance in 4 books, 
commonly called the Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe, is an attrac- 
tive work, written with care, but sometimes too exact, and having 
some passages which are exceptionable on account of their freedom. 

1. The period when this writer lived is wholly uncertain; the name is not 
mentioned by any ancient writer, and is by some supposed to have originated 
in mistake. The celebrated manuscript, now existing at Florence, does not 
name the author of the work, but bears the title JeofiiaySiv towTtxcov ?.6yoi <f ; 
and it is possible that, by some copyist, the last word was taken for the name 
of the writer.— Scholl, vi. 238.— Cf. For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. 

2. Editions. — Princeps, by Columbanus (printer, Junta). Flor.1598. 4. — Three editions in the 
17th century. — Nealmus (Neaulme publisher). Par.1754. 4. with Latin version and plates. — Bo- 
den, Gr. &. Lat. Lpz.1777. 8. — Villoison, Gr. & Lat. Par.1778. 2 vols. 4. one of the best editions. 
Mitscherlich, as cited $152. 2. — * G. H. Schdfer. Lpz.1803. 8. a better text. — A splendid ed. with 
plates, printed by Didot. Par. 1802. 4. 

3. Translations. — German. — J. C. Krabingcr. Landsh. 1809. 8. — Fr. Passoic, with the 

Greek text. Lpz. 1811. 12. French. — T. Amyot. Par. 1559. 8. often reprinted. Par.1827. 12. Gr. 

&c Lat. & Gall. English.— G. Thornley. Lond.1617. 8. 



224 * HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§163. Xenophon ofEphesus, whose period of nourishing is unknown, 
was the author of the story of Anthia and Abrocomas, in 5 books. 

1. Some have placed this writer as late as the 5th century ; others suppose he musthave lived 
before the time of Constantine ; Peerlkamp, the latest editor of this romance, thinks that its au- 
thor was the earliest writer of the class, and that Xenophon is merely an. assumed name. — 
Schaoll, iv. 310. — Dunlop. Hist, of Fiction. 

2. Editions. — The first, by Ant. Cocchi, Gr. & Lat. 1726. 8. — Two next editions faulty. — 
(Fourth) Mitscherlich, cited §152. 2.— A. E. de Locella, Gr. & Lat. Vindob.1796. 4. good. — Best, 
P. H. Peerlkamp, Gr. & Lat. Harl. 1818. 4. — Schmll, iv. 311. 

3. Translations. — German. — /. 6. Krohinger. Miinch. 1820. 8 French. — Jourdan. Par. 

1748. 12. and in Biblioth. cited §152. 2 Italian.— Salvini. Lond.1723. 12. before 1st edition of 

the original. 

§164. Chariton, of Aphrodisia, is another romance writer of whom 
nothing is known. The work bearing his name is entitled T£v thqL 

Xaiqiav xat Ka?J.too6r t r iQwrtxiov dniYrjuurojv Xoyoi i\ the love-Story of ChdB- 

reas and Callirrlwe, in 8 books. 

1. This was first published by J. Ph. d'Orville (Doruillius). Amst. 1750. 3 vols. 4. with a Lat. 
transl. by Reiske, and a very learned commentary.— Repr. of same ed. C. D. Beck. Lpz. 1783. 8. 

2. Translations. — German.— Heyne. Lpz.1753. 8. — Schmieder. Ebend. 1806. 8. French.— 

Larcher. Par.1763. 8. English.— Lond.1764. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrmann, p. 528.) — Schcell. vi. 246. 

For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. 

§ 165. Eumathius, or Eustathins, of Egypt, also of an uncertain 
age, was a writer belonging to the same class. This person must not 
be confounded with Eustathius the celebrated commentator upon Ho- 
mer. He wrote the tale of Hysmine and Hysminias, To y.a& y 'Yafiivijv 

xai 'Yoiiiviav Sqciuu, in 11 books. 

1. This romance, of little value, has been printed but seldom. — O. Gaulmin, Gr. & Lat. Par. 
1617. 8. repr. Vienn. 1791.— L. 11. Teacher. Lpz. 1792. 8. (Gaulmin's, without notes.) 

2. Translations. — German. — Madam, Reiske, in the Hellas (Th.l. p.101). Lpz.1778. French ; 

in the Biblioth. and Collect, cited §152. 2.— Schmll, vi.247. 



VI. — Philosophers . 

§ 166 u. Grecian philosophy was not, properly speaking, of native origin ; 
but was introduced, by various colonists, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Thrace. 
It first appeared in the poets who treated, in their verse, of the nature of things, 
the origin of the world, the system of the gods, the principles of morals, &c. 
Linus, Musseus, Orpheus, and Hesiod, belong to this class ; and even Homer 
may be included. The poets of Greece, it may be truly said, were her first 
philosophers. Cf. P. I. § 40—42. 

See D. Tiedmann, Griechenland's erste Philosophen, oder Leben und Systeme des Orpheus, 
&c. Lpz. 1780. 8. — Tennemann, Hist. Phil. (Fr. vers, of Cousin, or Engl. vers, by Johnson, cited 
§ 183. 2. ; Sect. 75.) — Enfield, Hist. Phil. bk. ii. ch. 1. — La Bletterie, L'etude de la philosophie 
ancienne, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxvu. p.153. — Ritter, Theil i. p.137 — 174. as cited $183. 2. 
" This author maintains that the earliest Greek philosophy has no traces of an oriental origin." 

§167. It may be also remarked with propriety, that the next philosophers of 
Greece were her priests and legislators. Grecian philosophy had a religious 
aspect in its very beginnings, in the fanciful speculations of the poets respect- 
ing the origin of things, and the nature and offices of the gods. The notion 
of a multitude of supernatural spirits, having each an appropriate department 
in governing the world, could not but affect the philosophical reasonings of all 
embracing it. It was perfectly natural to inquire how these superior agents 
would make known their will, and predict to man the future, or warn him of 
danger. Thus was furnished a fruitful field of speculation upon the various 
subjects of augury, omeus, oracles, and the whole system of divination. The 
ideas, which became incorporated into the popular belief, were indeed but a 
mass of absurdities not deserving the name of philosophy ; yet it was about 
such ideas that the early Greeks expended much thought, or rather indulged 
in much imagination. Upon this foundation arose a curious fabric : divination, 
under the ingenuity of priests, who united to personal shrewdness and fore- 



PHILOSOPHY. , 225 

sight some knowledge of physical nature, grew into a sort of regular science. 
The institutions termed mysteries had, in their nature and design, some inti- 
mate connection with this early religious philosophy. (Cf. P. I. § 41. P. IV. 
§ 70—75.) 

When the progress of society demanded the care of the lawgiver, and began 
at the same time to furnish the talents and knowledge requisite to frame suc- 
cessful codes, then philosophy assumed a new aspect. The moral and social 
nature of man began to be studied more. Reflecting minds examined into the 
motives by which men may be actuated, and contemplated the nature, proper 
punishments, and preventives of crime, the theory of government and of edu- 
cation. In learning the character of this political philosophy, we must con- 
sider particularly the civil institutions of Lycurgus and Solon, and the char- 
acter and doctrines of those who are called, by way of eminence, the wise meit 

of Greece. A glance at the former shows us, that very particular reference 

was had to the training of youth for their future circumstances. The two legis- 
lators differed widely in their systems. The Spartan aimed to form a com- 
munity of high-minded warriors ; the other sought rather a community of 
cultivated scholars. The plans of education varied accordingly. Lycurgus 
enjoined abstinence and hardships ; Solon furnished books and teachers. It 
must not be forgotten, however, that the Spartan system was two hundred 

years earlier than the Athenian. The seven sages belong the age of Solon, 

who was indeed himself one of them. They were all actually employed as 
magistrates and statesmen ; but they were also the philosophers of the age. 
They were not merely speculative, like the disciples of the different sects af- 
terwards ; nor did they, like the preceding poets, indulge in fanciful dreams : 
they were rather men of shrewd practical observation. Hence the character 
of their philosophical fragments, which are wholly proverbial maxims, adapted 
for the conduct of life in manners and morals. Their precepts were not always 
given in formal statements, but sometimes clothed in symbolic expressions, 
which were understood only by those to whom they were explained. Fabu- 
lous tales were also sometimes employed for the same purpose ; such were 
those of iEsop, in which moral and political maxims are drawn out into alle- 
gory. 

On the political philosophy of the Greeks. Enfield, Hist. Phil. bk. ii. ch. 2. — Ritter, Theil. i. 
p.137. as cited §183. 2. — TVarburton, Div. Legation of Moses, bk. ii. sect. 1 — 3. — Chevalier Ram- 
say, Travels of Cyrus, bk. iv. & v. — De la Barre, Histoire de Lycurge, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
vii. 262. — La JVauze, Etat des Sciences chez les Lacedfemoniens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr, 
xix. p. 166. — C.O.Heync, De Zaleuci et Charonde legibus atque institutis, in his Opusc. Academ, 
torn. ii. — Is. de Larrcy, Histoire des sept sages (with rem. bv Beaimiarchais) Lahaye, 1734- 
2 vols. 8. 

§168. The next aspect in which we find Grecian philosophy, presents it as 
exhibited in the different schools, and sects. This aspect was not distinctly as- 
sumed until a little after the age of Solon, during our third period of Greek 
Literature (§ 9). The first origin of different schools is commonly ascribed 
to the clashing interpretations, which were put upon Homer by the Rhapso- 
dists (§ 21), who after rehearsing passages from the great poet and master, 
added their own explanations and comments. These interpreters disagreed 
in expounding the Homeric philosophy, and soon had followers or advocates 

among those not belonging to their particular profession. At length two 

very eminent men arose and became each the head of a school in philosophy, 
about the same period : viz. Thales and Pythagoras, who died, the former about 
540, the latter about 500 B. C. — Thales founded what is called the Ionic school^ 
and Pythagoras the Italic school. From these two original schools, all the sects 
may be derived. We will first slightly notice these two, and then briefly 
speak of the sects that subsequently grew out of each. 

§ 169. The Ionic was the earliest of the two schools. Thales, its founder, 
was a native of Miletus, possessed of wealth, and great talents. He traveled 
in Crete and Egypt. Ranked among the seven sages, he devoted much thought 
to political philosophy. But he also took up all the inquiries about the physi- 
cal and material world, which were agitated by the Rhapsodists. The precept 
yvw6i otavruv is attributed to him. 

Philosophy as studied in this school included in reality every branch of sci- 
ence, not only morals and politics, but rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, and 



226 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

all that is now comprehended under natural philosophy and natural history - 
— It was a grand point of inquiry among the disciples to ascertain what was 
the frst principle of all things in the universe. Some found it in one or oth- 
er of the material elements ; others recognized a divine mind, as prior to all 
other causes. The principal philosophers were Anaximander, Anaximenes. 
Anaxagoras, and Archelaus of Miletus. 

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. ix.—Cudworth's Intellectual System, ch. i. §22, and ch. iv. $20.— H. Ritter y 
Histoire de la Philosophie Ionienne, Beil. 1821. 8.— Same, Geschichte &c. Theil I. as cited 
Q 183. Q.—Abbe de Canaye, sur le philosophe Thales, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. tome x. — 
Johnson's Tennemann, sect. 85-87. 

§ 170. The Italic school was still more celebrated. Its founder, Pythago- 
ras, was a native of Samos. After traveling, especially in Egypt, he taught 
morals and politics at Samos. For some cause he afterwards went to Italy, 
and established his school at Crotona in Magna Graecia. The pupils, whose 
numbers soon amounted to 600, dwelt in one public building, and held their 
property in common. Their business for each day was very regularly planned. 
They were divided into two classes, probationers and initiated ; the latter on- 
ly were admitted to all the privileges of the order, and made acquainted with 
its highest knowledge. This establishment was at length broken up by pop- 
ular violence. 

Under philosophy the Italic school, like the Ionic, included every object of 
human knowledge. But Pythagoras considered music and astronomy of spe- 
cial value. He is supposed to have had some very correct views of astrono- 
my, agreeing with the true Coperican system. The beautiful fancy of the 
music of the spheres is attributed to him. The planets striking on the ether, 
through which they pass, must produce a sound; this must vary according to 
their different magnitudes, velocities, and relative distances} these differ- 
ences were all adjusted with perfect regularity and exact proportions, so that 
the movements of the bodies produced the richest tones of harmony; not 

heard, however, by mortal ears. One of his distinguishing peculiarities was 

the doctrine of emanations ; God is the soul of the universe, pervading all 
things, incorporeal ; from him emanated four different degrees of intelli- 
gences, inferior gcds, daemons, heroes, and men. Another was the doctrine 
of uBTsuxi'v^ojoic, or transmigration of the soul. General abstinence and self- 
government were strongly urged. — Some of his apophthegms and symbolic 

precepts are preserved. (Cf. § 58. 1.) Some of the principal disciples 

were Empedocles (§ 64), Ocellus, Archytas, and Philolaus. The latter is 
said to have sold to Plato the records and books of the Pythagorean school. 

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. xii.— H. Ritter, Geschichte der Philos. Theil I.— Ramsay, Trav. of Cyrus, 
bk. vi. — Hecren, by Bancroft, ch. xiv. p. 297. — J. Scheffer, de natura et constitutione philosophic 
Italics. Vitemb.1701. 8.— Dacier, La vie de Pythagore, ses symbols, &c. Par. 1706. 2 vols. 
12.— Th. Kiessling, Jamblichi de Vita Pvth. liber. Lips. 1815. 8.— Cousin's Tennemann, 
§ 88-95.— Good, Book of Nature, vol. i. lect. 2. 

§ 171. The first school, that drew its descent from the Ionic, was the Socrat- 
ic. This is so named from its founder, Socrates, who was a pupil of the last 
public teacher of the Ionic school. Socrates is entitled to the praise of being 
the best man of pagan antiquity-; the charges brought by some against his 
purity being without evidence. — He was first trained to the manual employ- 
ment of his father, a common statuary ; but was afterwards patronized by a 
wealthy Athenian, named Crito, and enjoyed the instruction of eminent 
teachers. He was several times eno-aged in war as a soldier ; in one engage- 
ment he saved Alcibiades when wounded ; in another, Xenophon. After he 
began to teach, most of his time was spent in public, and he was always 
ready and free to discourse. In the latter part of his life he was called to 
civil offices. His domestic vexations from his wife are proverbial, but very 

possibly exaggerated. The trial, condemnation, and death of Socrates, are 

themes of intense interest both to the scholar and the philanthropist ; and 
have fixed an indelible blot on the character of the Athenians. At trial he 
had no advocate, but made his own plea. Lysias had prepared an oration for 
his use, but he declined the favor ; Plato would have spoken, but the court 
forbade it. 

The Socratic mode of instruction has been mentioned before (P. I. § 73). 
One of the grand peculiarities of Socrates was, that he confined the attention 
of his pupils chiefly to moral science. He considered the other subjects in- 



PHILOSOPHY. 227 

■eluded in the studies of the old Ionic school as comparatively useless. He 
seems to have believed, but with some doubtings, the immortality of the soul, 
He left nothing in writing ; but we have an authentic source of knowledge 
respecting his views in his Memoirs, > A7couvr]uov£i'uara, by Xenophon. The 
writings of Plato cannot be so much depended on for this object, because he 
was himself the founder of a new sect. Those disciples of Socrates who ad- 
hered; to their master simply, without advancing notions of their own, are 
sometimes denominated pure Socratic. JEschines, Cebes, and Xenophon are 
the principal. 

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. iv.— Rollin, bk. ix. ch. iv. — Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xxiv. — Mitford, ch, 
xxii. §3. — J. G. Cooper, Life of Socrates, &c. Lond. 1771. 8.—G. Wiggexs, Socrate comme 
homme, citoyen et philosophe. Rost. 1807. — Fraguier, Demon de Socrates, Mem. de I' Acad, des 
Inscr. iv. 360.— Freret, Sur le condemnation de Socrate, in the same Mem. &c. xlvii. p. 209. 
— R. Nares, Essay on the Demon of Socrates. Lond. 1712. 8. — Cudworth, Intell. System, ch. iv. 
§23.— Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, § 113-118.— Cousin's Nouveaux Fragmens Philosoph- 
iques. Par. 1828. 8. p. 151.— Schweighduser, Theology and Morals of Socrates, in his Opusc. 
Jlcadem. — and transl. by F. M. Hubbard, in Bibl. Repos. July, 1838, and Jan. 1839. 

§ 172. The Socratic school was soon divided into numerous branches. No 
less than five sects appeared, headed by philosophers who had listened to So- 
crates, and two of these ere long gave birth each to a new sect, thus raising 
the number to seven. These may be divided into two classes, and perhaps 
well designated as Minor Socratic and Major Socratic sects, the original and 
proper school of Socrates being called Pure Socratic. 

The Minor Socratic were three ; the Cyrenaic, Megaric, and Eliac. 

The Cyrenaic had its name from Cyrene, in Libya, the native place of its 
founder, Aristippus. The peculiarities of this sect favored indulgence in 
pleasure. Its author was fond of luxury and ornament. The sect was of 

short duration. They were sometimes styled r HdovixoL. The Megaric 

took its name from the native city of its founder, Euclid, who was born at 
Megara. It was also called Eristic, from its disputatious character, and Dia- 
lectic, from the form of discourse practiced by its disciples. This sect was 
famous for its subtleties in the art of reasoning. Some of their futile soph- 
isms are recorded ; e. g. the Horned ; xohat you have never lost, you have ; 
horns you have never lost, therefore you have horns. These philosophers also 
agitated the controversy about universals and particulars ; the same substan- 
tially as that which was so acrimonious in the middle ages, between the nom- 
inalists a.nd the realists. The Eliac was so called from Elis, the place 

where its founder, Phasdo, was born and delivered his lectures. It is some- 
times called Eretriac, from the circumstance that Menedemus, a disciple of 
Phaedo, transferred the school to Eretria, the place of his own nativity. It 
opposed the fooleries of the Megaric philosophy, and the licentiousness of 
the Cyrenaic, but never acquired much importance. 

On the Cyrenaic sect ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. v. — Fr. Mentz, Aristippus philosophus Socraticus, 

Halle, 1719. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 121. On the Megaric ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. vi. — J. G, 

Hager, Dissert, de modo disputandi Euclidis. Lips. 1736. 4. — Cousin's Tennemann, $ 125, 
On the Eliac ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. vii. 

§ 173. The Major Socratic sects were four, viz. the Cynic and Stoic, Aca- 
demic and Peripatetic >* each of which was founded at Athens, and will de- 
serve a short notice. 

The Cynic originated with Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates. He maintained 
that all the philosophers were departing from the principles of that master. 
He assumed the character of a reformer ; severe in manners ; carefully neg- 
ligent of dress, so much so as to provoke the ridicule of Socrates. The 

Cynics were rather a class of reformers in manners, than a sect of philoso- 
phers. Their name is said by some to have been occasioned by their severity 
and sourness, which were such as to bring upon them the appellation of Dogs. 
They had two grand peculiarities ; one was that they discarded all specula- 
tion and science whatever ; the other, that they insisted on the most rigid 
self-denial. One of the most famous of this sect was Diogenes. He car- 
ried the notions of Antisthenes to extravagance. Made up of eccentricities, 
he was always a censor, and his opposition to refinement often degenerated 
into rudeness. He satirized the instructions of other philosophers ; having 
heard Plato define a man to be a two legged animal without wings, he stripped 
a cock of its feathers, and taking it into the Academy, exclaimed, " See Plato's 



228 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

Man*'" There are no writings of this sect except some fragments of 

Antisthenes. 

On the Cynics ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. x, — Barthelemy, Trav. of Anach. ch. vii. — Schb'll, Hist. 
Litt. Gr. ii. 360. — The remains of Antisthenes are tico discourses, given in Reiske (cited § 99), 
8th vol. ; and some sentences, given in J. Orelli, Opuscula &c. cited § 103. 1. The letters as- 
cribed to him are in J. Orelli, Collectio &c. cited § 152. 1. 

§ 174. The Stoic sect may be said to have sprung from the Cynic. Its 
founder was Zeno, a native of the island of Cyprus. Brought to Athens by 
the mercantile pursuits of his father, he was accidentally introduced to the 
school of the Cynics, and from them he borrowed many of the notions of the 
sect he established. Zeno, however, visited the other schools which then ex- 
isted and borrowed from all. The name Stoic was drawn from the Portico 
(P. 1. § 74) where he gave his lectures. 

The Stoics differed from the Cynics, in as much as the former devoted 
themselves much to speculative studies, which the latter wholly discarded ; 
but they resembled the Cynics in some degree in their general austerity of 
manners and character. Indifference to pleasure or pain, adversity or pros- 
perity, they inculcated as the state of mind essential to happiness. The doc- 
trine of fate was one of their grand peculiarities ; they considered all things 
as controlled by an eternal necessity, to which even the Deity submitted ; 
and this was supposed to be the origin of evil. — Their system of morals was 
in general strict and outwardly correct, but one which was based upon and 
which greatly fostered a cold, self-relying pride. It approved of suicide, 
which was perpetuated by Zeno himself. Yet it stimulated to heroic deeds. 
• — In logic they imitated the quibbles and sophisms of the Megaric sect. The 
story of the sophist Protagoras and his pupil well illustrates the absurd triflng 
of their dialectics. Their system of logic and metaphysics, however, pre- 
sents a classification which bears, in some respects, a striking resemblance to 
that of Locke. Things are divided into four kinds; substances, qualities, 

modes, and relations. The later Stoics are supposed to have borrowed 

some views from Christianity. They speak of the world as destined to be 
destroyed in a vast conflagration, and succeeded by another new and pure. 
One of them, addressing a mother on the loss of her son, says, " The sacred 
assembly of the Scipios and Catos shall welcome the youth to the region of 
happy souls. Your father himself (for there all are known to all) shall em- 
brace his grandson, and shall direct his eyes, now furnished with new light, 
along the course of the stars, with delight explaining to him the mysteries of 
nature, not from conjecture, but from certain knowledge." 

Among the most distinguished of the early disciples of this school were 
Cleanthes, immediate successor to Zeno (§ 72), and Chrysippus, who also be- 
came the public teacher in the school at Athens. The latter was celebrated 
as a disputant; " Give me doctrines," said he, " I will find arguments to sup- 
port them." His industry, it is said, produced many hundred treatises; of 
which nothing remains except a few scattered citations. — Nor have we any 
written productions from, Zeno, or any of the early stoics. The principal au- 
thors whose works remain are Epictetus and Antoninus, who lived after the 
Christian era. 

On the Stoics; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. xi. — Cudworth, Int. System, ch. iv. $25. — idam Smith, Th. 
of Moral Sentiments, pt. vii. sect. 2. ch. i. (p. 115, ed. Bost. 1817.) — Th. Brown, On the Philos. 

of the Human Mind, lect. xcix. (p. 547. 3d vol. ed. And. 1822.) On Epictetus and Antoninus ; 

cf. $ 193, 196.— J. C. F. Meyer, Commentatio in qua Stoic, doctr. eth. cum Christ, comparatur. 
Gcitt. 1823. 4. 

§175. The Academic sect originated with Plato, a native of Athens, descend- 
ed on his father's side from Codrus, and on his mother's from Solon. In youth 
devoted to poetry and painting, he wrote a poem, but, after comparing it with 
Homer, committed it to the flames. Captivated by the lectures of Socrates, 
he left poetry for philosophy. After much travel through the East and also 
in Magna Grsecia, he opened his school in a public grove, from which the sect 
derived the name of the Academy. (P. I. § 74.) Over his door was the in- 
scription Ovdsig ayiwuir^Toq hairvj ; so much did he value mathematical sci- 
ence as a foundation for higher studies. 

One of the peculiarities of the Platonic philosophy respected the relations 
of matter to mind. The system recognized a supreme intelligence, but main- 
tained the eternity of matter ; matter receives all its shapes from the will of 



PHILOSOPHY. 229 

the intelligence, yet contains a blind refractory force which is the cause of all 
evil. The human soul consists of parts derived from both these, the intelli- 
gence and the matter ; and all its impurity results from the inherent nature 
of the latter constituent. — A very striking peculiarity was the doctrine re- 
specting ideas. It was briefly this ; that there exist eternal patterns , or types, 
or exemplars of all things ; these exemplars are the only proper objects of 
science ; to understand them is to know truth ; on the other hand, all sensi- 
ble forms, the appearances made to the several senses, are only shadows ; the 
forms and shadows are addressed to the senses, the exemplars or types to the 
intellect. These exemplars were called ideas. — The doctrines respecting 
matter and ideas essentially controlled the system of study in this sect, and 
their practical morality. To gain true science, one must turn away from the 
things around him and apply his mind in the most perfect abstraction to con- 
template and find out the eternal original patterns of things. And to gain 
moral purity, he must mortify and deny the parts of the soul derived from 
matter, and avoid all familiarity with the shadows. Hence probably the read- 
iness to embrace the Platonic system manifested among the Christians of the 
middle ages, when the mystic notion of cleansing the soul by solitude and 
penance became so common. 

The Academic sect was very popular, and eminent philosophers succes- 
sively taught its doctrines in the grove. Some adhered closely to the views 
of Plato, and were called disciples of the Old Academy, while others depart- 
ed from them and formed successively the Middle and the New Ac?-demy. 
The Old was begun by Plato B. C, about 400 ; the Middle, by Arcesilaus, 
B. C. about 300 ; the JVew, by Carneades, B. C. about 180. — The distinguish- 
ing point of difference between the three branches was their opinion respect- 
ing the certainty of human knowledge. The Old Academy maintained that 
certain knowledge can be obtained, not of the sensible forms, but only of the 
eternal exemplars ; the Middle, that there is a certainty in things, yet it is be- 
yond the attainment of the human mind, so that positive assertion is improper ; 
the New, that man has the means of knozcledge, not infallible, but sufficiently 
certain for all his wants. 

On the Academic sect; Enfield, bk. ii. c£u i. — Middleton's Life of Cicero, sect. 12. — Sillies 
Hist. Greece, ch. xxxii. — J. F. Herbart, De Platonici Systematis fundamento. Gbtt. 1805. 8. — 
Ph. G. Van Heusde, Initia Philosophia) Platonics. Lpz. 1827-31. — Johnson's or Coicsin's Ten- 
nemann, § 128-138. — Edinb. Rev. July, 1837. Plato's Pfcilos. and Bacon's compared. 

§ 176. The Peripatetic sect grew out of the Academy, Aristotle its founder 
having been long a pupil to Plato. Having closed his labors as the teacher 
of Alexander, he returned to Athens, and his master, Plato, being dead, he 
•commenced his Lectures in the Lyceum. (P. I. § 74.) He taught for 12 
years. Accused of impiety by enemies and rivals, he retired to Chalcis, 
where he remained until his death. 

The Peripatetics, according to the established practice of the philosophers, 
had their public and their secret doctrine, or the exoteric and esoteric. 
(P.I. § 72.) In his morning walk, Aristotle imparted the latter to his par- 
ticular disciples ; in his evening walk, he proclaimed the former, his public 
doctrine, to a mixed crowd of hearers. Very contradictory accounts have 
been given of the essential principles of Aristotle and his sect. 3ut nothing 
perhaps was more distinctive than the system of syllogistic reasoning, which 
was introduced by the founder, and became so celebrated in subsequent ages, 
and for so long a period held the highest place in the plans of education. — Of 
the early disciples of this sect, Theophrastus and Strato were among the most 
eminent. They succeeded Aristotle as teachers in the Lyceum. Dicsearchus, 
the geographer, and Demetrius Phalereus, the rhetorician (§ 116), were also 
distinguished Peripatetics. 

On the Peripatetics; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. ix. — Gillies, ch. xl. — Cudworth, ch. i v. 24. — Smith, 
Theory Mor. Sentiment, pt. vii. sect. 2. ch. i. — Mitford, ch. xci. $ 1. — Edinb. Encyd. Aristotle. 
— Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, § 139—150. On the Logic of Aristotle ; Reid's Analy- 
sis of A.'s Logic. — SteicaH, Elements of Phil. Human Mind, vol. n. ch. iii. — J. Gillies, Analy- 
sis &c. in his" Translation of A.'s Ethics and Politics. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 4. — Th. Taylor, 
Diss, on the Philosophy of Aristotle. Lond. 1813. 4. 

§ 177. We will next notice the sects which were derived from the Italic 

20 



230 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

school (§168). They were four, the Eleatic, the Heraclitean, the Epicurean, 
and the Sceptic. 

The Eleatic was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, who early left his 
native country for Sicily, and thence passed over into Magna Grecia. Here 
he became a celebrated disciple in the Pythagorean school, but advanced new 
and different views in his own lectures. The sect derived its name from the 
place where some of his most distinguished followers belonged, Elea in Magna 
Graecia. — The doctrines of the Eleatic sect were atheistical. Matter is made 
up of infinitely small atoms, which have no property but a tendency to move. 
By the eternally varying motions of these atoms, every existence and every 
effect in the universe is caused. Yet there is no real change except in our 
senses. The soul of man is material — The most distinguished supporters of 
this sect were Parmenides, Zenoof Elea, Leucippus, who is said to have been 
the chief author of the atomic theory, and Democritus of Abdera, commonly 
called the laughing philosopher. Another eminent follower of this sect was 
Protagoras of Abdera, who acquired great power and wealth at Athens in the 
profession of sophist, but was finally banished, his writings having been pub- 
licly burned, on account of his impiety. 

The Heraclitean sect was instituted at Ephesus by Heraclitus,from whom it 
took its name. It is but little noticed as a separate sect. The doctrines were 
atheistic, and many of them more absurd than those of the Eleatic philosophers. 
One of the notions was, that all nature is full of souls or daemons. Fire is the 
principle from which all things are produced, and those souls are the best 
which have the least moisture, and approach nearest to the primary fire. — The 
most celebrated name among the Heraclitists was Hippocrates, who in some 
points agreed with this sect, but was not properly speaking a disciple. 

On the Eleatic sect, Enfield, bk. ii. ch. 13. — Cudworth, ch. i. $ 8. ch. iv. § 20. — J. O. Buhle, 
Comment, de ortu et progressu pantheismi inde a Xenophane primo ejus auctore usque ad Spi- 
nozam. Goett.1790. 4. — Cousin's Tennemann, § 97-102, 104, 105. — Fragments of their writings 
in H. Stephanus, Poesis Philosophica, cited § 47 1. — and in Ji. Peyron, as cited § 64. 2. — Schoell, 
li. 317.— Respecting Xenophanes and Zeno of Elea, Cousin Nouv. Fragm. (p. 9-95) cited $171. 

On the Heraclitean sect; Enfield, bk. ii. ch.14. — Cudworth, ch. i. $16. iii. 8. iv. 13. — Ch.Oottl. 
Heyne, Progr. de animabus siccis ex Heracliteo placito optime ad sapient, ac virt. instructis. 
Gott. 1781. fol. and in his Opusr. Acad. vol. 3d. — Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, §103. — 
Fragments of writings, Stephanus as just cited. — Letters ascribed to Heraclitus, in the collections 
cited § 152. 1. 

§178. The Epicurean sect had its name and origin from Epicurus, born near 
Athens. He first gave lectures at Mitylene, but afterwards opened his school 
at Athens in a garden, in which he lived, and often supported large numbers 
of young men, who flocked to hear him. 

The doctrines of this sect were derived from the atomic theory of the Eleatics, 
and were on the whole atheistic, although not so fully and formally. All happi- 
ness Was founded in pleasure. This principle opened the way for the great li- 
centiousness of the later disciples of this school. Epicurus explained and limited 
his language so as to recommend the practice of virtue. " It might have been 
his pleasure to be chaste and temperate. We are told it was so ; but others find 
their pleasure in intemperance and luxury; and such was the taste of his princi- 
pal followers." — The sect became popular, and existed to a very late period. 
Of the writings of the sect, only trifling fragments remain. Yet Epicurus alone 
is said to have written several hundred treatises. Hermachus, or properly Her- 
marchus, was successor to Epicurus, and inherited his books and garden. 

On the Epicureans ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. 15. — Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xl.— Smith, Theor. Mor. 
Sent. P. vii. sect. 2. ch. 2. — Brown, Intell. Phil. lect. 99. — Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, 
§ 151-157. — Fragments of Epicurus. J. O. Schneider, Epicuri physica et meteorologia duabus 
epistolis ejusdanTcomprehensa. Lps. 1813. 8. — J. C. Orelli, Epicuri fragmenta librorum ii et 
xi de natura, &c. Lpz. 1818. 8.— Cf. Schcell, in, 321. 

§ 179. The Sceptic sect was so named from its doctrines ; it was also called 
Pyrrhonic from its founder Pyrrho. He was educated in the Eleatic sect, and 
particularly admired the notions of Democritus, from whom he drew the ele- 
tments of his system. He was also instructed in the dialectic sophistries of 
phe Megaric sect, and seems to have been disgusted with their frivolous dis- 
puutes. 

The doctrines of this sect were very similar to those of the middle Academy 
(§ 175), and many real sceptics concealed themselves under the name of the 
Academy, as their own sect was rather unpopular, Their essential peculiarity 



PHILOSOPHY. 



231 



was, that nothing is certain, and no assertion can he made. Happiness they 
placed in tranquillity of mind, and this could be obtained only by absolute in- 
difference to all dogmas. They ridiculed the disputes and contradictions of the 
other sects, especially the boasted confidence of the Stoic, and the proud 
sophistries of the Megaric. But Seneca well remarked in comparing the 
Megaric and the Sceptic sects, " I prefer a man who teaches me trifles to him 
who teaches me nothing ; if the dialectic philosopher leaves me in the dark, 

the Sceptic puts out my eyes." One of the eminent disciples of this sect 

was Timon, already mentioned as a poet (§ 45). The sect had its professors 
and teachers, down to the time of Sextus Empiricus, whose writings are a 
principal source of information respecting the views of the Sceptics. 

On the Sceptics ; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. 16.— Gillies, ch. x\.—R. Bodersen, de philosophia Pyrrho- 
nia. Kil. 1819. 4. — Cousin's Tennemann, § 124. — Langheinrich, cited § 45. — Schcell, in. 342. 

§ 180. We have given a view of the sects as they grew one out of another. 
It may be remarked here, that four of them arose after the commencement of 
the 4th period in our division of the history of Greek literature (§ 9), viz. the 
Peripatetic and Stoic, descendants of the Ionic school, and the Epicurean and 
Sceptic, offspring of the Italic ; all the others existed before the time of Alex- 
ander. It was in the 4th period also, that the middle and the new Academy 
appeared. In the 5th period, i. e. a.fter the Roman supremacy, Grecian phi- 
losophy lost much of the dignity and importance it had enjoyed. Its professors 
were viewed more in the light of mercenary teachers. The spirit of honest 
inquiry gave place to the prevalence of scepticism. Visionaries and impostors 
assumed the garb of philosophers, and new sects were formed under the old 
names, the outward forms and technical expressions being retained, with al- 
most nothing else. — Such especially were the New-Pythagoreans. As emi- 
nent among these may be mentioned particularly, Sextius, in the time of Au- 
gustus, Sotion of Alexandria, under Tiberius, and Apollonius Tyanensis, the 
famous impostor. 

On the New-Pythagoreans ; Enfield, bk. iii. ch. 2. sect. 2. — Cousin's Tennemann, §184. — 
Schall, livre v. ch. 60. — Souchay, Des Sectes philosophiques, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xiv. 1. 

§181. The JYew-Platonists also appeared under the Roman emperors. These 
professed to disentangle the pure doctrines of Plato from the additions and cor- 
ruptions of the later Academicians ; but they themselves mingled much that 
was foreign to his system, and soon prepared the way for the Synchretistic, or 
Eclectic schools. 

The principle of the Eclectics was, to select whatever was true in the various 
conflicting doctrines of all the sects, and thus form a harmonious union. The 
first projector of this plan is said to have been Potamo, a Platonist of Alexan- 
dria. But Ammonius, of the same city, surnamed Saccas, is considered as the 
actual founder of the Eclectic school. Having been educated among Chris- 
tians, he endeavored to incorporate in his system some of the principles of 
Christianity. And this sect numbered among its disciples both Christians and 
pagans. The more eminent of the pagans, before the time of Constantine, were 
Plotinus, Porphyry, Proclus, and Jamblichus. 

On the New-Plato nists and Eclectics ; Enfield, bk. iii. ch. 2. sect. 3, 4. — Cousin's or Johnson's 
Tennemann, $185, 200-219.— Schccll, livre v. ch. 61, 62. 

§182. There were also during the same period, under the Roman emperors, 
followers and advocates of the principal ancient sects, as (besides the Academ- 
ic) the Peripatetic, the Cynic, the Stoic, the Sceptic, and especially the Epicu- 
rean. It is not important, in this glance, to notice them separately ; indeed 
the Eclectic principles held a great sway with the age, and under the preva- 
lence of these, on the one hand, and of a Christian philosophy on the other, the 
adherents to the old names had but a limited influence. After the time of 
Constantine, who died A. D. 337, the JVeio-Platonists, who were generally 
great enemies of Christianity, established their school at Athens. The most 
distinguished philosopher was Proclus. This school was at length suppressed 

by Justinian (P. I. § 82). Of the other systems the Peripatetic was the 

most in vogue among the Greeks, especially at Constantinople. Indeed it 
was not long after Constantine when all, who did not embrace Platonism, 
were included under the general name of Peripatetics. Manj* writers employed 
themselves in attempting to explain and enforce the system. In the 8th 



232 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

and 9th centuries the Peripatetic philosophy was introduced among the Ara- 
bians, and the works of Aristotle were translated into the Arabic language. 
By them it was propagated in the west of Europe in the 11th and 12th centu- 
ries. Here it gave rise to that scholastic philosophy, which exhibited such a 
singular union of acuteness and folly, and which reigned in Europe until the 
revival of letters. 

On the several sects above named, under the emperors before Constantine ; Enfield, bk. iii. 

ch. 2. sect. 5-9. — ScJueII, livre v. ch. 63-67. On the Christian philosophy, of the same period ; 

Schcell, livre v. ch. 38. — Enfield, bk. vi. ch. 2. Cf. § 288. On the JV'ew-Platonists after Con- 
stantine 5 Enfield, bk. iii. ch. 2. sect. 4. — Scha-ll, livre vi. ch. 93. — On the Peripatetics after Con- 
stantine ; Schcell, livre vi. ch. 94. — Cf. Hallani, View of Europe in Middle Ages, ch. ix. pt. 2, 
(p. 352. 2d vol. ed. Phil. 1824.) 

§183£. We shall now mention some of the principal sources of in- 
formation respecting the Greek philosophy, and then proceed to no- 
tice the more distinguished Greek philosophers, of whose written pro- 
ductions we still have remains. 

1. Original sources. — The first and most direct are the extant works of the philosophers themselves; 
these works are to be noticed in the subsequent sections. But we may properly put here also 
some ancient authorities which are indirect. — 1. Authors who composed memoirs of philoso- 
phers j Diogenes Laertius, cf. § 255a. ; Philo stratus, cf. § 255b. ; Eunapius, cf. § 255c. — 2. Au- 
thors who wrote compendiums'or sketches of philosophy ; Galen (cf. $ 273), to whom is ascribed 
a book on the History of Philosophy, which is given in the ed. of Chartier ; Plutarch (cf. § 248), 
to whom is ascribed (falsely, however) a work Deplacitis philosophorum, published by CD. Beck. 
(Cf. § 195. 3.) — 3. Authors who in their works have introduced, more or less fully, the doctrines 
and precepts of the philosophers ; e. g. JLthenceus, cf. §123 ; Cicero (cf. $ 408), a valuable source, 
especially in his De Finibus, and his Qucestiones Academics ; the information is collected in F. 
Geolike, Ciceronis Historia Philosophise antiquae. Berl. 1782. 3d. ed. 1815. 8. — 4. Christian au- 
thors, who wrote in controversy with the pagans ; Origcn, Eusebius, and others ; cf. § 287,288. 

2. Modern works on the History of philosophy. — Th. Stanley, YLxstoxy of Philosophy. Lond. 1655. 
fol.— 3d ed. 1701. 4. — J. Brucker, Historia Critica Philosophic, &c. Lpz. 1742-67^ 6-vols. 4. — 
By same, Institutiones hist. Philos. Lpz. 1756. 8. and (ed. Bo7-n.) 1790. 8. — W. Enfield, History 
of Philosophy, &c. (a translation and abridgment of Brucker) Lond. 1791. 2 vols. 4. Dubl. 1792. 
2 vols. 8. — H. Ritter, Geschichte der Phllosophie. Hamb. (I— V Th.) 1829-36. 8. — Ritter's 
History of Anc. Philos. Translated from German. Oxf. 1838. 4 vols. 8. Now considered as high 
authority. — TV. G. Tennemann, Geschichte der Philosophic Lpz. 1798-1819. 11 vols. 8. one of 
the best works in this department. — By same, Grundriss der Gesch. d. Phil. (3d ed. by TVejidt) 
Lpz. 1820. 8. Transl. into French by Cousin. Par. 1819. 8. Transl. into English by A.' Johnson. 
Oxf. 1832. 8. This is valuable for its full references on the subjects noticed. — J.G. Buhle, Lehr- 
buch der Gesch. d. Philos. und ihrer Literatur. Gbtt. 1796-1804. 4 vols. 8. — Degerando, Histoire 
Comparee ds systemes de la Philosophie. 2d ed. Par. 1822. 4 vols. 8. — TV. T. Krug, Geschichte 
der philosopheie alter Zeit, vernehmlich unter Griechen und Rb'mern. Lpz. 1815. 8. The fol- 
lowing abridgments may be added : F. Asi, Grundriss einer Geschichte der Phil. Landsh. 
1607. 8. — /. G. Gurlitt, Abriss der Gesch. d. Phil. Lpz. 1786. 8. — G. Socher, History of the 
systems of Philosophy from the time of the Greeks down to Kant. Mun. 1802. 8. (in German.) 
— TV. Andeison, Philosophy of Ancient Greece. Lond. 1791. 4. — Fenelon, Abridged Lives of the 
Philosophers. Par. 1795. 8. Transl. into English by Cormack. A new ed. of the French. Par. 
1820. 

3. We add here some references on the Philosophy of other nations. — E g y t i a n . — Enfield, 
Ritter, &x. as above cited. — Heercn's Ideen &c. cited P. I. § 171. — C. P. Moritz, Symbolical 
Wisdom of Egyptians, &c. Berl. 1793. 8. (in Germ.) — Prichard's Analysis, &c. cited P. IV. 

§12. 2. (/.) -"Persian & Chaldean. — T. Hyde, Hist, relig. vet. Persarum Oxon. 1700. 4.— 

Ang. Duperron, Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroaster &c..Par. 1711. 4. — The Dessatir, or sacred 
Writings of the ancient Persians. Bomb. 1816. 8. — J. G. Rhode, System of the Religion of the 
Medes^ Persians, &c. (in Germ.) Frankf. 1820. 8. — Fr. Munter, Religion of the Babylonians. 

Copenh. 1827. 4. Hind o o . — TV. Ward, History, Literature, and Keligion of the Hindoos. 

Lond. 1820. 4 vols. 8. — F. Schlegel, Language &c. of the Hindoos (in Germ.) Heidelb. 1808. 8. 
— N. Miiller. Opinions, Science^ &c. of ancient Hindoos, Mentz, 1822. 8. — J.G. Rhode, as 
eited P. IV. §18. 2.. (/.) Cf. Tennemann' s Manual. § 66-73. 

184. sEsop, a Phrygian, generally supposed to have lived B. C. at 
least 600, does not strictly belong to the class of Greek philosophers; 
yet he may properly be named here, on account of the principles of 
moral and political philosophy embodied in his Fables. 

lw. He was born a slave, and served different masters ; the last of whom, Iadmon of Samos, 
a philosopher, gave him his freedom. The other circumstances of his life are but imperfectly 
known, although they are detailed with considerable fullness in the biography of him ascribed 
to Maximus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople in the 4th century ; upon which, however, 
little reliance can be placed. — The same Planudes also collected and enlarged the fables of iEsop, 
never, probably, committed to writing by himself. They had been put into Choliambic verse 
by Babrius (improperly ea llecl Babrias, and Gabrias), who lived in the time of Augustus (§31). 
From this metre they were gradually reduced again to prose, and received their present form 
from Planudes.— Cf. Suiter's Allg. Theorie, JEsop<— Char, vornehmst Dicht. vol. v. p. 269. -^ 
Th. Tyrwhitt, Diss, de Babrio. Lond. 1776. 8. 

2. The editions of JEsop have been drawn from several different mauscript collections, con- 
taining different numbers of Fables, an account of which is given by Scholl, vol. i, p. 252 ss-. 



PHILOSOPHERS. .ESOP. XENOPHON. 233 

B.— J.M.Housinger, Gr. &. Lat. Lpz.1741,1799. 8.—F.D.Furia, Gr. & Lat. Flor.1809. 2 vols. 8. 

from an ancient Ms. at Florence in the library of the Cassini monks, and supposed to present the 
Fables as they were before the changes made by Planudes. Repr. Lpz. 1810. with additions ; 
Dibdin says, "this appears to be, upon the whole, the very best."- — R. — Coray. Par. 1810.8. 
with scholia, and plates ; good. — J. G. Schneider. Bresl. 1812. 8. after the Augsburg Ms. and 
containing 231 Fables of iBsop, with 50 of Babrius. — G. H. Schafer. Lpz. 1821. 8. 

3. Translations The most ancient was probably that of Hildebert, of Tours, 12th century, 

in Latin verse ; published Rome, 1743. 4. German.— J. C. Bremen. Q-uedl. 1788. 8. — /. F. 

W. Motz. Lpz. 1794. 8. French.— A. le Orand. Par. 1801. 8. English.— S. Croxall. Lond. 

1722. 8. 1788. 12. Sanscrit. — Published at Calcutta, 1803. 8. entitled Polyglot translation 

of JEsop ; in Persian, Arabic, Hindostanee, Sanscrit, &c. 

4. There is another collection of Fables in Greek, being a version of those Oriental tales com- 
monly ascribed to an ancient brahmin of India, named Pilpay. This version was made by Simeon 
Sethus of Constantinople, in the 11th century, under the title ^Tsyavirtjg y.al 5 I^vr]?.urt]g 
(le Vainqueur et V Investigateur). The Greek text has been published once, Starke. Berl. 1697. 8. 
— There are translation's of these Fables in the modern languages. — Scholl, vn. 187.— Suiter, 
Allg. Theorie, Fabel. 

§ 185. Ocellus Lucanus, a pupil of Pythagoras, lived B. C. about 
490. To him is ascribed an extant treatise, nsQl tj]c tov rcavrbg yvoewg. 
On the nature of things. If genuine, it must have been written in the 
Doric dialect, and been changed into the common by some gramma- 
rian of subsequent times. Notwithstanding all its errors, it evinces 
much acumen, and contains some very valuable precepts upon edu- 
cation. Yet it is quite probably the work of a later author. 

1. The question of the genuineness of this work has been much agitated. The conflicting 
opinions are examined bv Rudolphi, in a Dissertation in his edition of the work. He ascribes it 
to Ocellus.— Scholl, vol. n. p. 311. 

2. Editions. Best / Abbe Batteur, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1768. 3 vols. 12.— A. F. W. Rudolphi. 

Lpz. 1801. 8. Gr. only. Early ; Princeps. Par. 1539. 8.— L. JVogarola. Ven. 1559. 4. with 

version and notes. Repr. by Commelin, Heid. 1596. 8. — Th. Gale, in his Opuscula Mythologica. 

Cambr. 1571. 8. Later; Marquis d? Argons (Dargensius). Berl. 1762. With French version 

and Commentary. 

§ 186. Xenophon, an Athenian, was born B. C. 450, and died 
B. C. 356. Besides his great merit as a military commander, and 
as a historian, he is worthy of special notice as a philosopher, and 
one of the most excellent among the pupils of Socrates. The dis- 
crimination, solidity, precision, and mildness of manner so remark- 
able in his master, he acquired himself, and transfused into his writ- 
ings. From the writings of Xenophon especially, we may learn the 
true spirit of the Socratic philosophy (§ 171). 

1. He was born at the borough Ercheia. While a youth his personal comeliness attracted the 
attention of Socrates, who one day accidentally met him in the street, and invited him to his 
lectures. He accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian war, and was saved by his master 
in the battle of Delium (P. I. §90. 6). At the age of 43, he engaged in the service of Cyrus 
the younger, and after the disastrous battle of Cunaxa, conducted the famous retreat of the Ten 
Thousand. Four or five years after his return to Greece, he entered into the service of Agesi- 
laus, king of Sparta, as a warrior. Incurring by this the displeasure of the Athenians, he 
was accused for his former connection with Cyrus, and banished. He was received into pro- 
tection by the Spartans, and enjoyed a pleasant retreat at Scillus, where he composed most of 

his works, and died at the age of 90. Mitford's Greece, ch. xxiii. xxviii. sect. 9, (p. 273, 

vol. v. ed. Bost. 1823.)— J. B. Gail, La vie de Xenophon. Par. 1795. 2 vols. 8.— C. G. Kruger, 
De Xenophontis vita quasstiones critics. Halle, 1822. 8. — F. Delbruck, Xenophon ; zur Ret- 
tung seiner durch B. G. Xiebuhr gefahrdten Ehre. Bonn, 1829. 8. 

2. The works strictly belonging to the department of philosophy are 5 ; viz. 
^^dTTouvjjuovei'iiara 2w/.qutovc, Memoirs of Socrates; Sojy.ourovg 3 jJ.noXoyia 
ttooc rovg diy.uarug, Apology of Socrates, not so much a defence from the 
charges laid against him as a justification of the motives which induced him 
to choose death ; 5 Oiyovouoiy.bg Ibyog, Discourse on economy, & treatise on mor- 
als applied to rural life ; the last two have been considered by some to have 
formed originally parts of the Memoirs; Zvuriooiov yiloooywv, The Banquet 
of Philosophers, of peculiar excellence as to style, and designed to illustrate 
the purity of Socrates ; r Itqwv r] Tvqavvog, Hiero or The Prince, comparing 

public and private life, with remarks on the art of governing. There are 

6 other pieces, which may be mentioned here, although less strictly of a phi- 
losophical character; Ifsni c Irvjnyfjg, ' InnaQ/iy.bg, Kvryjyertybg, JJoqoi >] 
HsQt Tcqooddojv (On the Revenues of Attica), Juyadaiuoriojv jiu/.inivc, and 3 A6- 

20* 



234 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

tjvixiojv TtoXiTila. The last two, however, may not be the productions of Xen- 
ophon ; although the former of them seems to be a grateful return for the 
asylum furnished to him on his banishment from Athens. His intercourse 
with the king of Sparta was the occasion of a eulogy styled, Jvyog eig Ayr r 
Oit.aov. 

3. Editions.— whole works.— B — * J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1815. 6 vols. 8. Repr. 

Oxf. 1820-28. 6 vols. 8 B. Weiske. Lpz. 1798-1804. 6 vols. 8.— Gail, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Par. 

1814—16. 11 vols, small 4. to which must be added a 12th vol. styled Recherchez historiques &c 

Par. 1821. 4.— §* F. A. Bomemann. Gbtt. 1828. (commenced) in Rost's Bibliotheca. F.— The 

Princeps was Junta, Flor. 1516. fol. — Next, Aldus, Ven. 1525. fol. — Then Brubachius (with 
pref. by Ph. Melaiichthon), Hal. Suev. 1540. 3 vols. 8. the first which actually contained all. 
—H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1581. fol.— Leunclavius, Gr. & Lat. Par. 16*35. fol.— Wells, 

Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1703. 5 vols. 8.—Thicme, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1763. 4 vols. 8. memorabilia ; 

Best, Schneider, (ed. by Benwell.) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1804. 2 vols. 8.— Schutz. Halle, 1822. 8. 

—J. Greenwood, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1823. 8.— §A. Herhst. Halle, 1827. 8 apology, Zeune, 

(Zeunius.) Lpz. 1782. 8. With The Banquet, Hiero, Economy, and Agesilaus. — § T. A. Borne- 

mann, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1824. With the Convivium or Banquet. banquet, Dindorf. Lpz. 

1823. 8. polity of the Athenians and of the Lacedaemonians, Zeune. Lpz. 1778. 8. With 

the Revenues and the treatises on horses and the chaste — Of the Lacedaemonians,!-? 1 . Haase, Berl. 
1833. 8. with figures (rerum tacticarum figures). 

4. Translations.— German.— Whole works, by A. Ch. § K. Borheck. Lemg. 1788-1808. 6 Th. 

8. — Memorabilia, by 1. I. Hottinger. Ziir. 1819. 8. French. — Whole works, by Gail, cited 

above. English. — Memorabilia, by S. Fielding. — Banquet, by Wcllwood. — Hiero, by R. Greaves. 

Lond. 1793. 

5. Illustrative. — F. W. Sturz, Lexicon Xenophonteum. Lpz. 1801-4. 4 vols. 8. " Defec- 
tive." Hermann. — Rost, Wb'rterbuch iiber Xenophons Memorabilien. Gotha, 1819. 8. — L. Dis- 
sert, De philosophia morali in Xenophontis de Socrate commentariis &c. Gbtt. 1812. 8. — 
Schweighauser, on the Theology and Morals of Socrates &c. translated by F. M. Hubbard, in 
the Bibl. Repos. vol. xn. 47, and vol. i. sec. series, p. 161. 

§ 187. JEschines, the philosopher, is not to be confounded with 
the orator of that name (§ 107). He was born at Athens, and be- 
came a pupil of Socrates. 

1 u. We have under his name three philosophical dialogues, which are prob- 
ably the work of another. They are characterized by their clearness of style, 
ease of manner, and instructive contents. The titles are, UbqI ' Aqirijc, 
on virtue; 'EQvciag ?}' nsqi nlovrov, on riches ; and 'A'iloyog t)' Ilsqi -davurov, 
on death. 

2. These dialogues are found in many of the editions of Plato. They were published sepa- 
rately first by J. Leclerc. Amst. 1711. 8. — The best edition is J. F. Fischer. Lpz. 1796. 8. 

The Eryxias and Axiochus are given by Aug. Bockh, in the work entitled, Simonis Socratici di- 
ologi iv. &c. Heidelb. 1810. 8. — Cf. Ch. Fr. Mciners, Judicium de quibusdam Socraticorum re- 
liquiis, imprimis de iEschinis dialogis, in Comment. Soc. Gbtt. 1782. 

§ 188. Cebes, of Thebes, also a pupil of Socrates, B. C. 435, was 
the author of three dialogues. The third only is extant, entitled 
Uiva%, The Table, nor is it certain that this is genuine. It treats of 
the state of souls before their union with bodies, of the character 
and destiny of men during life, and of their exit from the world. 
The plan ,is ingenious, and it is executed in an instructive and use- 
ful manner. 

SchJoll, ii. 346.— Sevin <$• C. de Caylus, on the Table, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. in. 137 ; xxix. 
149.— Also Gamier, in the Mem. fyc. xlviii. 455.— F. G. Klopfer, De Cebetis Tabula,. Zwick. 
1818. 4. 

1. The Picture or Table is commonly published along with Epictetus (§ 193). — The more im- 
portant editions are, Gronovius. Amst. 1689. 12.— Johnson, Gr. &, Lat. Lond. 1720. 8. — Mes- 
serchmid. Lpz. 1773. 8.— Especially, Schweighduser. Argent. (Strasb.) 1800. 12. first published 
in his Epictetus.— And G. F. W." Grosse. Meiss. 1813. 8.— On Mss. of Cebes, cf. Harris, (as 
cited $133), vol. i v. p. 557. 

2. Translations.— German M. H. Thieme. Berl. 1810. 8. With original text. French.— 

De Villebrune. Par. 2 vols. 12. With text and Epictetus. Cf. Fuhrmann, Klein. Handb. 

p. 943. 

§ 189. Plato lived from 430 to 347 B. C. He was the son of 
Ariston of Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of the Acad- 
emy. He threw happily into a written form the oral discourses of 
that great master. Plato laid the first foundation for a scientific 
treatment of philosophy. Antiquity bestowed on him the epithet 
divine, and all in modern times have acknowledged his merit and 



PHILOSOPHERS. PLATO. TIM^US. ARISTOTLE. 235 

admired his writings. His works consist of numerous dialogues, on 
different subjects, metaphysical, political, moral, and dialectic. They 
are exceedingly valuable for both style and matter, rich in thought,, 
and adorned with beautiful and poetical images. Cf. § 175. 

1. We have 35 dialogues of Plato, besides the letters ascribed to him (§156). 
Several of the dialogues have been pronounced spurious by some critics, 
while others have strongly defended their genuineness. On this subject, and 
on the different schemes of classifying the dialogues and also for an analysis 
of their contents, we must refer to Scholl (vol. H. p. 375 ss). Many com- 
mentaries on Plato have perished ; yet many still remain. There are also ex- 
cellent scholia; there were collected in the most complete form by D. Ruhn- 
ken, and were published after his death, under the title, Schol. in Platon. 
Amst. 1800. 8. 

2. There are six ancient biographies of Plato ; the earliest by Apuleius in Latin ; the other 
five in Greek, including that of Diogenes Laertius, one by Olympiodorus, another by Hcsychhus 
of Miletus, and two anonymous. 

3. It has been made a subject of inquiry, whether Plato did not derive some of his notions 
from the Hebrews.— Cf. Enfield, Hist. Phil. bk. ii. ch. 8.— Ramsay, Disc, on Theology of the 
Pagans.— John's Bibl. Archaeology, § 313.— Prideaux, bk. vi. P. l.—Kidd, on the Trinity, p. 526. 
ss. — Chateaubriand, beauties of Christianity, bk. i. ch. 3. — Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 
bk. 1 . 

4. Editions.— B.— I. Bekker, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1816-18. 10 vols. 8. Repr. (Priestley) Lond. 1827. 
with notes of various editors. — The Bipont ed. 1781-87. 12 vols. 8. — Very good also are those 
of F. .1st, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1819-32. 11 vols. 8. and 2 vols, of annotations* 8.— and of G. Stall- 

baum, Lpz. 1821-26. 12 vols. 8. F.—Princeps, Aldus, Veil. 1513. 2 vols. M.— Gryiuzus, Bas. 

1534. M.—H. Stephanus, (ed. Serrarms), Par. 1578. 3 vols. Gr. & Lat. R.— C. E. C. Schneider, 

Lpz. 1830-33. 8.—$* Stallbaum, in Rost's Bibliotheca, Gotha 1828-36. 6 vols. 8.— Many of the 
dialogues have often been printed separately ; only a few of the editions can be named ; Sym- 
posium <$• Alcibiadcs, by Ast, Landsh. 1809. 8.—Crito Sf Phcedo, by Fischer, 1783. 8. Several 
others also by Fischer at different times. — Phcedrus with 3 other dial, by Heindorff, Berl. 1802. 8. 
others also by Heindorff since. — Gorgias, by Routh, Oxf. 1784. — Phcedoby Wyttenbach, Lud. Bat. 
1810. 8. Lpz. 1825- 8. — A new edition of Phccdo is promised by Prof. Stuart of Andover. — Phmdo 
(Crito & Apologia Socratis), by C. S. Stanford, with English notes, Lond. 1835. 8. — Hippias, Al- 
cibiades, (and others) by G. Burgess, with English notes, Lond. 1S33. 8. — Cf. Moss, Man. of 
Bibliography, vol. i. a supplement &c. 

5. Translations. — German. — Best. — Fr. Schleiermacher, Berl. 1804-17. 2d ed. improved, 1835. 
Cf. Bibl. Repos. vol. v. p. 266.— French.— By And. Dacier (10 dial.) Par. 1799. 2 'vols. 12.— Jean 

le Grou{~ dial.) Amst. 1770. 2 vols. 8.— Most recent, by Victor Cousin, finished, Par. 1838. 

English. — Sydenham <§" Taylor, Lond. 1804. 5 vols. 4. (50 dialogues and 12 epistles, with copious 
notes.) On'Taylor, cf. Ed. Rev. vol. xiv.— H. Spens, Republic of Plato. Glasg. 1763. 4. - 

6. Illustrative. — The Platonic Lexicon of Timmus, already mentioned § 137. 4. Cf. Scholl, 
ii. 416.— F. Ast, Lexicon Platonicum. Lpz. 1835-38. 3 vols. 8.— T. Mitchell, Index Groecitatis 
Platonics, Oxf. 1832. 2 vols. 8.— *G. Stallbaum, De Platonis Vita, Ingenio, et Scriptis ; prefix- 
ed to his ed. of the Apologia Socratis, in the Biblioth. of Jacobs 4" Rost. — W. G. Tennemann's 
Life of Plato, and Baur on Platonism, in the Selections of Edwards fy Park, cited § 191. 5.— F. 
Ast, Platon's Leben und Schriften, Lpz. 1816. 8.—I. Socher, uber Platon'' s Schrifien, Munch. 
1820. 8. — On the Republic of P. cf. Southern Rev. No. 7.— Plato and Aristotle compared, JVorth. 
Am. Rev. vol. 18.— Cf. Furhmann, Kl. Handb. p. 246.— Philosophy of Plato, Brit. Critic # 
Quart. Theolog. Rev. Jul. 1838. No. 47.— Massieu, Parallele d'Homere et de Plato, in Hist. Acad, 
des laser, vol. ii. p. 1. Cf. vol. xi.n. 11. — Sydenham, Synopsis or General Views of the works 
of Plato. Lond. 1759. 4.— TV. Dobson, Translation of Sehleiermacher's Introductions to the 
Dialogues. Lond. 1836. 8.—H. G. Rkhter, De Ideis Platonis. Lips. 1827. 8.— A. Arnold, Plat. 
Werke, einzeln erklart und in ihrem Zusammenhange dargestellt. Hamb. 1835.— .7. Geddes, 
Essay on the Manner of writing of the Ancients, particularly Plato. Glasg. 1748. 8. 

§ 190. Timmus of Locri, a Pythagorean philosopher, especially 
devoted to physical inquiries, was one of the instructors of Plato. 
From him Plato derived the name of one of his dialogues. 

1m. The treatise TIsqI ipvyctQ xoouia r.ai (pi'aiog, On the soul of the world and 
on nature, which is ascribed to him, was probably from a later author, and 
seems to have been drawn from the dialogue of Plato just alluded to, named 
Timaeus. 

2. This treatise is given in Bckker's Plato (vol. viii) and in other editions.— Separately, by 
Marquis d' Argens, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1763. 8. — Also in Battcux, cited § 185.— Cf. Meiner's Gesch. 
der Wiss. in Griechenland und Rom. vol. i. — Sclibll, ii. 313. 

§ 191. Aristotle has already been named as a rhetorician (§ 115). 
His father Nicomachus, was a physician and awakened in him in 
early life a fondness for the study of nature. But his intellectual 
powers, were more fully developed by the instructions of Plato, whose 
lectures he attended for about 20 years. 



236 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

lu. After the death of Plato, he opened his own school in the Lyceum (F* 
I. § 74). It was the great merit of this philosopher, that he classified the ob- 
jects of human knowledge in a methodical manner, and gave them more of 
that scientific form, which has since been preserved in treating upon them; 
He reduced logic to a system, and laid the first foundation of metaphysics. 
His works contain a great mass of '•clear thought, and solid matter, although 
his insatiable love of inquiry was often betrayed into abstruse subtilties, as- 
idle as they were dark. He wrote upon a vast variety of subjects ; especially 
on themes of logic, physics, metaphysics, politics and morals. 

2. The works of Aristotle may be classed under the heads of Logic, Phys- 
ics, Metaphysics, Mathematics, Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetry. In 
the last department we have a Paean or Hymn to virtue, and a collection of 
epitaphs and epigrams under the title of LTtnlog. Those belonging to rhetor- 
ic, have been named (§ 115). — The works on logic are all included in the 
collection usually called the ^'Ooyavov, Organum ; they are particularly the 
Karr/YOQiai, LJsoi 'Eotiyvelag, ^ JLvakvriy.a, To7iiy.cc, and LTsqL oocpiony.iov 3 E?.iy- 
Xiav. It was in reference to the title of this collection, that the celebrated 
work of Lord Bacon was nomed Novum Organum. 

For an account of the metaphysical and other writings of Aristotle, see Scholl, iii. p. 266.— 
J. Gillies, Hist, of Greece. — A. Stahr, as cited below (5).—Buhle, in the Encykl. of ErschSf Gru- 
ber. Cf. § 274. <$ 176. 

3. Editions, whole works.— B.— *J. B either, Bed. 1831-37. 5 vols. 4. vol. i-n. Gk. Text ; 
vol. iii. Lat. version ; iv-v. Commentary. — Duval, Gr. &. Lat. Par. 1639. 4 vols. fol. — Buhle, 

Gr. & Lat. Bipont. 1791. 5 vols. 8. but not completed. F. — Princeps by Aldus, Ven. 1495-98. 

6 vols. fol. containing also Theophrastus. " One of the most splendid and lasting monuments 
of the Aldine press." — Bebellius, Bas. 1531. fol. — P. Manutius, Ven. 1551. 6 vols. 8. — Sylburgius, 

Franckf. 1584-87. 5 vols. 4. — Is. Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Ludg. 1590. 2 vols. fol. Best editions 

of separate parts ; organon, J. Pacius, Gr. &. Lat. Genev. 1605. 4. — metaphysics, C. A. Bran- 
dis, Berl. 1823. 2 vols. 8.— ethics, Wilkinson, Gr. Lat. Oxf. 1716. Repr. 1818. 8.— *C. Zell, Gr. 
& Lat. Heidelb. 1820.2 vols. 8.— politics, J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Traj. ad Viad. (Franckf. 
on Od.) 1809. 2 vols. 8.— \A. Stahr, Lips, (begun) 1836. 4.— Be Anima, *F. Trendelenburg, Jen. 
1838. 8. pp. 1-109. text ; 110-560. commentary ; " very learned and valuable aid for understand- 
ing Aristotle's metaphysical writings." — Categoric, E. A. Lewald, Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1824. 8. 

4. There were numerous Latin Translations of different treatises of Aristotle ( Scholl, iii. 
299), and also many Commentaries (Bibdin, i. 327. Moss, i. 150-173). We will only mention 
here some of the later translations. — German. — Ethics 8f Politics by C. Garve, Bresl. 1801, 1802. 
8.— Organon, Sfc by K. Zell, Stuttg. 1836. 8.— Be Anima, C. H. Weisse, Lpz. 1829. 8. "with 

learned notes, but Hegelian in spirit." French. — Politics, by C. Millon, Par. 1803. 3 vols. 8. 

English.— Politics, W. Ellis, Lond. 1776. 4.— Ethics Sf Politics, by J. Gillies, Lond. 1797. 4. 

— Metaphysics, by Th. Taylor, Lond. 1801. 4. with copious notes. — Virtue fy Vice, by W. Bridge- 
mann, Lond. 1804. 8.— Ethics fy Rhetoric, by Th. Taylor, Lond. 1817. 4. 2 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative. — *^?. Stahr, Aristotelia. Halle, 1832. 2 vols. 8. Vol. i. Life of Aristotle 
(transl. into Eng. in the Selections 8fc. by B. B. Edwards and E. Park. Andv. 1839. 8.) ; vol. n. 
writings and followers of Aristotle. — F. N. Titz, De Aristotelis Operum serie et distinctione. 
Lips. 1826. 8.—F. A. Trendelenburg, De Arist. Categories. Berl. 1834. 8.— A Lexicon of Aris- 
totle is a desideratum ; " until there is one," said Hermann in 1834, " there can be properly 
speaking no Thesaurus of the Greek language." A Lexicon Aristotelicum Grozco-Anglicum for 
the Ethics of A. was announced by J. W. Moss. Lond. 1837. 8. 

§ 192. Theophrastus, of Eresus in the island Lesbos, about B. C. 
321, was a scholar of Plato and Aristotle, and on the death of the 
latter became public teacher to the Peripatetic school. 

1 u. He possessed eminent powers both in eloquence and philosophy ; dis- 
tinguished for watchful observation, he placed more reliance on experience 
than on speculation. We have treatises from him, which place him among 
the writers on natural history (§ 275). His ethical pieces, styled 'HQtxoL %a-- 
Qay.TtjQtg, possess great worth, being written with brevity and eloquence, and 
stamped with truth, and evincing much knowledge of human nature. They 
have the appearance, however, of being merely extracts from the moral writ- 
ings of Theophrastus, made subsequently to his times. 

2. His original name was Tyrtemus, which was changed into Euphrastus, 
the good speaker, and Theophrastus, the divine speaker, probably by his disci- 
ples. He was attentive to the graces of elocution, and always appeared in 
elegant dress. — Besides the works above mentioned, we have also under the 
name of Theophrastus, a Book of Metaphysics, and a treatise LTsoL aiatby'oswc, 
On perception. Several works by him are lost; of which the most regretted 
are three treatises on Laics. — Scholl, in. 303. 

3. Editions.— whole works.— B.— J. G. Schneider and H. F. Link, Gr. &. Lat. Lpz. 1818-21. 
5 vols. 8. F.— Princeps, by Aldus, with Aristotle (§ 191. 3.)— Oporinus. Basil, 1541. fol.— 



PHILOSOPHERS. EPICTETUS. ARRIANUS. PLUTARCH. 237 

_D. Heinsius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1613. 2 vols. fol. characters; Best, Fischer, Gr. & Lat. 

Coburg. 1763. 8.— Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Jen. 1800. 8. "Perhaps, critically speaking, the best." 
(Dibdin.) metaphysics ; C. A. Brandis, (with Ethics of Aristotle.) Berl. 1823. 8. 

4. Translations of the Characters. — German. — I. /. Hottinger. Munch. 1821. 8. French. — 

The most celebrated is Bruyere. Par. 1696. 12. Ed. by Schweigh'duser. Par. 1816. 12. — Coray. 

Par. 1799. 8. With Gr. text and notes. English.— .El Buddell. Lond. 1715.— If. Gaily. Lond. 

1725. 8.—F. Howell, (Gr. & Eng.) Lond. 1824. 8. With notes and plates. 

5. Illustrative. — H. E. Foss, De Theophrasti notationibus morum. Halle, 1833. 4. — C. Zell, 
De Theophrasteorum Characterum indole. Frib. 1825. 4. 

§ 193. Epictetus, of Hieropolis in Phrygia, lived about the begin- 
ning of the Christian era. He was originally a slave of Epaphrodi- 
tus, the freedman and chamberlain of Nero. Having obtained his 
freedom, he resided at Rome until he was banished with the other 
philosophers by Domitian, and then he retired to Nicopolis in Epirus. 

ltt. He was a stoic of the severest principles and most undisturbed equa- 
nimity. His views are exhibited in the Manual, ^Eyx^^'^iov, which is as- 
cribed to him. This was not written by him, but collected by Arrian from 
his lectures and conversation ; it is distinguished more for its contents than 
for its style and manner. 

2. The Manual was much read by Christians as well as pagans. There are two paraphrases 

of it, which were designed for use among the former. Scholl, v. 184. — Gamier, On Epicte- 

tus, Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xltiii. p. 408. — C. A. Henmann, De Philosophia Epicteti. 
Jen. 1703. 4.— J. F. Beyer, Ueber Epiktet, und sein Handbuch. Marb. 1795.8.— J. A. Brieglieb, 
Schule der Weisheit nach Epiktet. Cob. 1805. 8. 

3. Editions. — B. — J. Schweigh'duser, Gr. & Lat. with the comment, of Simplicius, and the, 

paraphrases, under the title, Epictetem philosoph'm Monumenta. Lpz. 1799. 5 vols. 8. F. — 

Princeps, by Ant. de Sabio, Ven. 1528. 4 —Upton, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1739. A.—Heyne, Gr. &. Lat. 

Lpz. 1776. 8. R.—A. Coray. Par. 1826. 8. With a French version.— (With Latin version by 

J. Simpson.) Oxf. 1804. 8. Containing also Theophrastus, Cebes, and the Hercules of Prodicus. 

4. Translations.— German.— Thiele. Frankf. 1790. 8.— Best, J. A. Brieglieb. Lpz. 1803. 8. 

Italian.— In ed. of Bodoni, Gr. & Lat. Parm. 1793. 8. French.— A. G. Camus. Par. 1799. 2 

vols. 18. English.— Eliiab. Carter. Lond. 1759. 4 ; 1807. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 194. Flavins Arrianus, of Nicomedia in Bithynia, under the 
emperor Hadrian and the Antonines, in the 2d century, was a Stoic, 
and a disciple of Epictetus. On account of his merit, he was pre- 
sented with citizenship both at Athens and at Rome, and at the lat- 
ter place advanced even to Senatorial and Consular honors. The 
emperor Hadrian conferred on him the government of the province 
of Cappadocia. 

1 u. Besides the Manual above mentioned (§ 193), and the historical works 
to be noticed on a subsequent page (§ 250), he wrote a philosophical work, 
entitled Jiarqt§ai ^Ejiiy.xi\rov, cited by Photius as consisting of 8 books. 
The 4 hooks, commonly called Dissertations of Epictetus, are supposed to 
have been a part of the work. 

2. In these books he professes to preserve, as far as possible, the very lan- 
guage of his master. Two other works of Arrian pertaining to philosophy, 
have wholly perished, viz. r Ouiliai ^Eiriy.rtjrov, Familiar discourses of Epic- 
tetus, and JIsq'i tov (iiov rov ^Ettiy.t^tov y.a'i rr t q uvtov rt/.svrijc, Of the life and 
death of Epictetus. Two astronomical pieces mentioned by Photius, on com- 
ets and on meteors, were probably from this philosopher. — Scholl, v. 185, 239. 

3. The best edition of the Dissertations is in Schweigh'duser, cited §193. 3. — That of Upton, 
Lond. 1741. 2 vols. 4. is good. — Princeps, that of V. Trincavelli, Ven. 1735. 8. 

4. Translations.— German.— Best by J. M. Schultz, Alton. 1801-3. 2 vols. 8. English.— 

Miss Carter, as cited § 193. 4. French.— A. Coray, Gr. & Gall. Par. 1827. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 195. Plutarch, of Chaeronea in Bceotia, flourished at the close 
of the 1st and beginning of the 2d century. His instructor at Ath- 
ens was Ammonius. Afterwards he himself taught philosophy at 
Rome, by public lectures, yet without attaching himself to any sect 
exclusively. 

1. Plutarch returned from Rome to his own country while young, and ap- 
pears to have discharged with fidelity different offices in his native city. He 
is said also to have served as a priest of Apollo. As a philosopher he rather 



238 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

favored the disciples of Platonism, and may be ranked among the New Pla- 
tonists.—SchOll, iv. 118 ; v. 76.— Cf. § 248. 

2u. He was a warm opposer of the Stoics and especially the Epicureans. 
In his numerous philosophical pieces we rind an eloquent diction, and a rich 
fertility of thought, together with various knowledge and real prudence. 
They are important sources for learning the history of philosophy and of the 
human mind. Yet they are often surcharged with erudition and mysticisms, 
unequal in point of style, and sometimes even obscure. Although upon very 
various topics, they are usually all included under the common name of mor- 
al writings (moralia), under which are comprised 84 small treatises. Some 
of the more distinguished among them are those on education (IIsQi naLSuv 
aya>y?/s), on reading the poets (Ilwg deirov viov Tcoitjuurojv axovsiv), and on dis- 
tinguishing the friend from the flatterer, and the Table Questions (ZzvuTvooiaxbt 

TTQoSZljuaTtt). 

3. Editions.— whole works.— B. — Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1774-79. 12 vols. 8. — Hutten, Gr. 
only. Tubing. 1791-1805. 14 vols. 8. Best text ; with valuable selection of notes by various 

editors. F Princeps, by H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1572. 13 vols. 8. — Cruserius, Gr. & 

Lat. Francof. 1599. 2 vols. M.—Xylander, Gr. & Lat. Franc. 1620. 2 vols. fol. moralia. 

Best, D. Wyttenbach, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1795-1800. 6 vols. 4. and 10 vols. 8. followed by Animad- 
versiones &c. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. April, 1803. Dibdin, n. 345. — A. G. Winckelmann, Plut. 

moralia selecta. Turici, 1836. 8. (vol. 1st.) Supplement to Wyttenbach. The Princeps or 

first, by Aldus, (ed. Demet. Ducas,) Plutarchi Opuscula lxxxii. Ven. 1509. fol.- single 

pieces. On Education ; Schneider. Strasb. 1765. 8. — On reading poetry ; Krebs. Lpz. 1779. 8. 
— On distinguishing the flatterer and friend; Krigel. Lpz. 1775. 8. — On opinions of the philosophers 
(ZZsoi roiv 5 Aqzcxovtow Toig (pt?.oo6cpoig) ; C. D. Beck. Lpz. 1787. 8. 

4. Translations.— German.— Moralia, by Kaltwesser, Frankf. 1783-1800. 9 vols. 8.— J. Ch. F. 

B'dhr, in the Coll. of Tafel, Osiander, Sfc. French. — Whole works, by J. Amyot. Par. 1787. 

22 vols. 8. Augm. par C. Clavier. Par. 1806. 25 vols. 8. — Moralia, by Ricard (with notes). Par. 
1783-95. 17 vols. 12. English. — Moralia, by Th. Creech, M. Morgan, and others. Lond. 1684. 

5 vols. 8. 5th ed. Lond. 1718. 

§ 196. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, surnamed the Philosopher, 
and known as a Roman emperor in the 2d century, is also worthy 
of remembrance as a writer. His 12 books of Meditations, ts>v tig 
savrbv pi§?.ia i§' , consist of instructive philosophical maxims and ob- 
servations, relating to morals and the conduct of life, and exhibiting 
the practical principles of the Stoics. 

1. He was generally a mild and excellent prince, but through a blind devotion to paganism 
he allowed the persecution of Christians during his reign. He died of a pestilential disease 
at Vindobona (now Vienna), in Pannonia, while engaged in war with the revolting tribes in 
that region, A. D. 180. — A remarkable deliverance of Aurelius and his army in a previous 
war is recorded by Eusebius, and ascribed to the prayers of Christian soldiers constituting one 
of his legions (12th), to which, as a mark of distinction, he is said to have given the name of 
the " Thundering Legion." Whiston, in the last century, strenuously defended the story ; it 
was as strongly controverted by Moyle. — Scholl, v. 193. Cf. Gibbon, Hist. R. Emp. i. 83; n. 
42. (ed. N. Y. 1822.) — Miracle of the Thundering Legion &c. Letters between Mr. Moyle and 
Mr. K. Lond. 1728. 8.— Thomas, Eloge de Marc- Aurelius. Par. 1773. 12. 

2. The Princeps edition was by Xylander, Gr. & Lat. Tigur. 1558. 8.— One of the best is Ga- 
taker's, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1652. 4.— Stanhope's, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1707. 8, and Wolfs, Gr. 

6 Lat. Lpz. 1729. 8. are good.— Better, Schulti, Gr. & Lat. Schlesw. 1802. 8. 

3. Translations.— German.— Best, Schultz. Schlesw. 1799. 8. French.— T. P. de Joly. 

Par. 1803. 13. English.— R. Graves. Bath, 1792. 8. Lond. 1811. 12.— J. Collier. Lond. 

1702. 8. 

§197. Sextus Empiricus (^ Eunnqiy.bg, so called from his profession 
as a physician) was a Sceptic or Pyrrhonic philosopher, under Com- 
modus, about A. D. 190. 

1. He was a native of Mitylene, as Visconti (in his Iconographia cited P. I. §187) has inferred 

from a medal of that city. Very little is known of his life. Johnson's Tennemann, sect.189. 

Scltoll, vol. v. p. 202. — Cf. St'dudlin, Geschichte und Geist des Skepticismus. Lpz. 1794. 2 vols. 8. 

2u, He left a work in three books, comprising the theory and principles of 
the Sceptic sect, entitled Hvqqmv^iai c Trcorv7vwOsig, ?) axsTvrixa < Y7rof.ivi'iu.ara;> 
and another in eleven books against the Mathematicians, Hqbg rovg Ma&yjuart- 
y.bvg avri(Jor]Tiy.oi, or rather against those teachers who professed positive 
knowledge ; the last five being particularly opposed to the logicians and other 
philosophers. These works are very valuable in illustrating the history of 
philosophy, especially that of the Sceptical school. 

3. Theirs* ed. was printed at Paris, 1621. fol. — Latin versions of both works had been pre- 
viously published. The next ed. was by Fabricius. Lpz. 1718. fol. Another commenced by J,G^ 
Mund, Hal.1796. 4>— Best, Struve. Regiomont, 1823. 2 vols. 8. 






PHILOSOPHERS. PLOTINUS. PORPHYRY. JAMBLICHUS. 239 

4, Translations. — German. — Buhle. Lemgo. 1801. 8. French. — Of the Hypotyposes 

(anonymous). Par. 1725. 12. 

§198. Plotinus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, in the 3d century, was one 
of the most celebrated among the New-Platonists, and taught at Rome 
in he latter part of his life. 

1. He was very enthusiastic and eccentric ; yet was much admired at Rome, and patronized 
by the emperor Gallienus. The latter even meditated the scheme of establishing for him, in 
Campania, a colony of philosophers, to be named Platonopolis, where the imaginary republic of 
Plato should be realized. Plotinus died in Campania, at the age of 66. We have his life written 
by Porphyry. — Scholl, v. 121. — J. Steinhardl, dusestiones Plotinese. Lips. 1830. 4. — Johnson's 
Tennemann, § 203. 

2u. His writings are deficient in method, solidity, and purity of style, yet 
exhibit many signs of acumen and research. They consist of 54 books. These 
books one of his pupils, Porphyry, distributed into 6 Enneads or divisions, con- 
taining 9 books each. Porphyry endeavored also to improve the style, and 
indulged himself in interpolations and additions. 

3. Editions. — Best, F. Creuzer, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1835. 3 vols. 4. with prolegomena and notes. 
■ — The only edition of the complete works is that printed at Basle (Bale) 1580. and 1615. fol. with 
the Lat. version of M. Ficinus, which was first published without the original. Flor. 1492. fol. 
— The treatise on Beauty, separately by Creuzer, Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1814. 8. — The Liber ad 

Gnosticos, by G. A. Heigel. Ratisb. 1832. 12. A German translation commenced by Engel- 

hardt. Erlang. 1820. 8. (1 vol. containing 1st Ennead.) 

§199. Porphyry was born A. D. 233, at Satanea, a Syrian village 
near Tyre, and from this circumstance he was often called the Tyrian. 
His Syrian name was Malchus (Melek). 

1 u. At Rome he became a scholar of Plotinus and an advocate of his phi- 
losophy. His writings were very various and numerous. Besides the Life of 
Plotinus and of Pythagoras, some of the more important are the pieces styled 
as follows : On abstinence from ^animal food; Introduction to the Categories of 
Aristotle; and Homeric Investigations. 

2. Porphyry was instructed by Origen the Christian Father, probably at Cesarea ; afterwards 
by Longinus at Athens. He was a violent opposer of Christianity, and wrote against it several 
treatises which are lost. His wife Marcella is said to have been a Christian. A letter from him 
to her was found and published by Mai. Milan, 1816. 8. — Scholl, v. 129. 

3. Many of the pieces of Porphyry are as yet unpublished. Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 434. — 
The best ed. of the treatise on Abstinence is that of I. de Rhoer. Utrecht, 1767. 3. repr. Leyd. 
1792. 4. containing also the Cave of the Nymphs, ed. by Van Ooen. — The Life of Plotinus is found 
in the ed. of Plot, cited §198. 3. — The Life of Pythagoras by T. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips.1816. 
2 vols. 8. 

§ 200. Iamblichus, of Chalcis in Casio-Syria, in the beginning of 
the 4th century, was a New-Platonist, a scholar of Porphyry. He 
had the reputation of working miracles. We have a part only of 
his many writings. Notwithstanding the extravagance, mysti- 
cism and fable with which his works abound, they are yet a valuable 
help in getting an idea of the philosophy of the later Platonists. 

1. While Plotinus and Porphyry must both be called enthusiasts, Iamblichus may be stigma- 
tized as an impostor. He was a warm advocate of paganism. — Scholl, v. 144. — Cousin's Tenne- 
mann, § 217. 

2. There has been no edition of his entire works. Of separate parts, we notice the following : 
Mysteries of the Egyptians, by Gale. Oxf. 1678. fol. — Life of Pythagoras (with that by Porphyry), 
in Kiessling, cited §199. 3. — The Adhortatio ad Philosophiam, by T. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 
1813.8. — Theology of Arithmetic (Tic &eo?.oyorusva rtjg \4n iGpyTixij c) ,Wechel. Lpz.1817.8. 

Thos.Taxjlor, English Translation of Jamblichus on Mysteries. B.iswick,1821. 8. Cf. Class. 

Journ. xvn. 213. 

3. Of the same school (New-Platonists) were Proclus, born at Constantinople, A. D. 412, and 

Clympiodorus of Alexandria, in the 6th century. F . Creuzer, Proclus & Olvmpiodorus, Gr. 

& Lat. Francof. 1820-25. 5 vols. 8.— V. Cousin, Procli opera, Gr. & Lat. Par.1820-27. 6 vols. 8. 
with notes. — See Scholl, vu. p. 102, 106. — Cousin, Nouv. Fragm. Phil, (cited §171) p.264ss. 

Burigny, La vie du philos. Proclus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxi. 139. Thos. Taylor, Engl. 

transl. of Commentaries of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. 

§201. Stobceus (Johannes) a native of Stobi in Macedonia, proba- 
bly flourished about A. D. 500. 

1 u. He collected from a multitude of writers in prose and verse a mass of 
philosophical extracts, which he arranged according to their subjects, in a 
work entitled 5 Avdo'/.oyiov ixloytiv, aTro(p6syuurwv 1 vtzoOijzojv, in 4 books. They 
are perhaps more correctly considered as tico works : one, Eclogce. fhysica. et 



~40 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

cthicce, in 2 books ; the other, Sermones, also in 2 books. The whole collection 
is valuable, both on account of the contents in themselves and also of the nu- 
merous passages rescued from destruction only by being inserted therein. 

2. John of Stobi cultivated the habit of reading with a pen in his hand. The 
selections which we have, were arranged, it is said, for the use of his son. 
Each chapter of the Eclogce and of the Sermones, has its title, under which the 
extracts are placed, the sources whence they are drawn being noted in the 
margin. More than five hundred authors are quoted, whose works have mostly 
perished. — Scholl, vn. 133. 

3. The best edition of the Eclogm is Heeren's, Gr. & Lat. G'dtt. 1792-1801. 4 vols. 8. with dis- 
sertations and notes. — Of the Discourses, Gaisfor<Ps J. Stobsei Florilegium. Oxf. 1822. 4 vols. 8. 
2d ed. 1823-25. with the Lat. vers, of H. Grotius, prolegomena and notes. — of both, Fr. Fabrus 
(Favre, books, of Lyons), Gr. &Lat. Genev.1609. fol. — The poetical extracts were collected 
and edited by H. Grotius. Par. 1623. 4. with a translation in Latin verse. Cf. Schmll, vn. 159. 



VII — Mathematicians and Geographers. 

§ 202%. The very name of Mathematics (ua&i'iiiotra, ua&r t uarixlx) is an evi- 
dence that their scientific form originated among the Greeks, although the 
Egyptians and various eastern nations, in earlier times, possessed arithmeti- 
cal, geometrical, and particularly astronomical knowledge. Arithmetic was 
in a very incomplete state in Greece before the time of Pythagoras. He was 
the first who considerably cultivated it ; but it was left especially to Euclid 
to treat the subject scientifically and unite with it the study of geometry. 
The elements of geometry the Greeks seem to have derived from the Phoeni- 
cians ; although the knowledge which Thales acquired in Egypt is not to be 
overlooked. The science was afterwards considered as a special means of 
improving the intellect, and an essential preparatory study for every philoso- 
pher. (Cf. § 175.) Hence its great estimation and high cultivation among 
the Greeks. There are many indications of the use and encouragement 
which the practical mathematics found among them, especially in connection 
with mechanical sciences, as Statics, Hydrostatics, and Hydraulics. That 
the Greeks applied mathematics to architecture, and with the most happy 
success, uniting the rigid principles of science with the rules of taste, we 
have sufficient proof in the descriptions of their temples, palaces, porticos, 
and other edifices, and in the still remaining monuments of that art. Astron- 
omy was introduced by Thales from Egypt. Pythagoras established several 
principles of this science. Other philosophers exhibited them in a written 
form. 

§ 203. It is obvious, from what has been said, that mathematical studies in 
Greece can be traced back only to the two primary schools of philosophy, the 
Ionian founded by Thales, and the Italic by Pythagoras (§ 168). 

From the time of Pythagoras, mathematics, as has been suggested, formed 
an essential part of philosophy. In the Academy they were specially culti- 
vated ; this may be inferred from the inscription (cf. § 175) placed by Plato 
himself over the door of his school. To the philosophers of this sect the 
science is much indebted. But in the want of historical evidence, it is im- 
possible to give a definite account of the state of mathematical knowledge 
during the time preceding Alexander. The names of several mathematicians 
and astronomers are recorded. The most important are Archytas of Tarentum, 
inventor of various machines which astonished his contemporaries ; Meton 
of Athens, author of the celebrated lunar cycle (cf. P. V. § 194) ; and Autoly- 
cus of Pitane, the most ancient mathematician whose works are preserved. 
The works of Autolycus were first published by C. Rauchftiss fDasypodiusJ. Strasb. 1572. 4. 

In Lat. trans, by 7. Auria, Rome, 1587. 2 vols. 4. A fragment of a treatise by Archytas, on 

mathematical science, is found in Porphyry ; it was published by J. Gramm. Copenh. 1707. 4. — 
•Cf. Plutarch, Sympos. vii.. and Life of Marcellus. 

§ 204. After the time of Alexander, mathematical studies became more 






MATHEMATICS AND GEOGRAPHY. 241 

'prominent than before. Mathematics were no longer merely a part of philos- 
ophy in general, but held the place of a science by themselves. They were 
cultivated in all the schools, which flourished in this period. The mathemat- 
ical school of Alexandria was rendered illustrious by the reputation of Eu- 
clid, who had a numerous class of disciples, and among them Ptolemy I., the 
king of Egypt. One of the most distinguished names in this period and in- 
deed in all antiquity, is that of Archimedes of Syracuse, celebrated not only 
for his successful research into abstract principles, but also for his curious 
and wonderful mechanical applications and inventions. A third memorable 
name adorns this period, Apollonius of Perga, whose work on Conic Sections 
formed an epoch in the history of mathematics. Euclid, Archimedes, and 
Apollonius, with Diophantus, who lived in the third and fourth century after 
Christ, may justly be regarded as the great founders of mathematical science. 

Other names belong to the period between Alexander and the capture of 

Corinth ; as Keren of Alexandria, author of several treatises on branches of 
mechanics ; Atheneeus and Biton, who wro'.e on military engines and missils ; 
and Philon of Byzantium, who wrote «*BMhe same subjects, and to whom is 
ascribed a work on the seven wonders of the world. Astronomy was cul- 
tivated with success in this period, and, according to some, an important in- 
fluence was exerted by the intercourse with the Babylonians in the expedi- 
tion of Alexander. Aristarchus of Samos, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, and Hip- 
parchus of Nictea, are the principal authors of whom we have remains. 

Marcoz, Astronomic solaire d'Hipparque. Par. 1828. 8. — Wallis, Aristarchus. Oxf. 1688. 8. 

In the next period, i. e. between the fall of Corinth and the time of Con- 
stantine, we find no eminent authors in the pure mathematics. Several writ- 
ers on astronomical subjects are mentioned ; Claudius Ptolemy, in the age dr 
the Antonines, was celebrated above all others. His system of astronomy, as 
is well known, was much in vogue, and exerted a great influence. Several 
authors on music, of whom fragments are still extant, are referred to this pe- 
riod ; some of them were among the mathematicians of the age ; their re- 
mains are found in the collection of Meibomius (cited § 208£. 1). — Cf. SchOll, 
livre vi. ch. xliv. 

§ 205. Between the time of Constantine and the overthrow of Constantin- 
ople, the list of Greek mathematicians is much larger, but contains few 
names of grea,t eminence. Diophantus, a contemporary of the emperor Ju- 
lian, and already mentioned as one of the four ancient fathers of mathemat- 
ics, is the most important. Pappus and Theon of Alexandria, at the close of 
the fourth century, may be mentioned next. Hypatia, a daughter of Theon, 
inherited her father's love of mathematical science ; she became a public 
teacher, and wrote several works which perished in the destruction of the 
Alexandrian library. Proclus the philosopher wrote on mathematics and as- 
tronomy. Leon of Constantinople, in the latter half of the ninth century, is 
spoken of by the Byzantine historians with much admiration. He was solic- 
ited by the Arabian Caliph, Al-mamoun, to remove to Bagdad ; the emperor 
Theophilus, refusing to permit this, opened a public place for Leon to give 
instruction, and bestowed many honors and privileges upon him. He has left 
nothing by which we can judge of his merits. We will add only the name 
of Anthemius of Tralles, in the sixth century, employed by Justinian to con- 
struct the church of St. Sophia, of which, however, he only laid the founda- 
tion, not living to complete the work. There remains a curious fragment of 
his work TZsoi rcuoaddi'-on' uii/uv^u^twv. — Cf. SchOll, livre vi. ch. xci. 

The fragment of Anthemius was published in the Mem. de PAcad. Inscr. et Belles Lcttres, vol. 
slii. by Dupuy and -eparately, Par. 1774. 4. Respecting the celebrated Hypatia, see Me- 
nage, Hist. Mulier. Philo-oph. — Dcsvigndes, Dissert, in Bibl. German, vol. in. — Abbe Goujct, 
Lett, in Contin. des Memoires de Litt. by Desmoids, vol. v. vi. — Socrates, Hist. Eccles. vn. 15. 

§ 20G. On the subject of Geography, the knowledge of the Greeks was 
very limited and imperfect; yet. they had writers on the subject, of much 

value in illustrating the condition of ancient countries. The earliest work 

extant, is the Periplus of Hanno. Hecataus of Miletus, in his TTaQn'jy^uc yijq, 
described the countries known at the time he wrote, in the reign of Darius, 
about 500 B. C. The Periplus of Scylax has been commonly referred to 
neariy the same period. The Anabasis of Xcnophon may properly be men- 

21 



242 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

tioned among the geographical works anterior to the time of Alexander, be* 
ing of great value in relation to upper Asia. Pytheas, of Massilia, a voyager 
and geographer, probably belonging to the same period, before Alexander, 
was the author of two works, a description of the ocean and a Periplus. The 

little now known of them is derived from Strabo and Pliny. It was not 

until the period between Alexander and the Roman supremacy, that geogra- 
phy was elevated to the rank of a science. The honor of effecting this is 
ascribed to Eratosthenes, a very eminent mathematician and scholar, who 
flourished at Alexandria, B. C. about 230. — Cf. Scfeoll, livre in. ch. xviii. ; 
livre iv. ch. xlv. 

§ 207. After the supremacy of Rome, greater advances were made in geo- 
graphical knowledge. The first distinguished geographer of this period is 
Strabo, born about 60 B. C, whose work styled rswy^a^iy.a is a thesaurus 
comprising nearly the whole history of geography from Homer to Augustus, 
with all then known upon the subject. The geographical poem of Diony- 
sius of Charax belongs to the age, of Augustus. We have a fragment of a 
work on Parthia, by Isidorus of Cb^x ; published in the reign of Caligula. 
There are also some geographical pieces under the name of Arrian, who flour- 
ished in the reign of Hadrian and the Antonines. But a more important 
work is that of Pausanias belonging to the ?ame age, and entitled, Itinerary 
of Greece. The most celebrated of all the ancient writers on geography was 
Claudius Ptolemy, already mentioned as a mathematician and astronomer about 
the middle of the second century after Christ. His system of geography re- 
mained the only manual in vogue for fourteen centuries. After Ptolemy, 

the history of Greek letters presents no author of much importance in this 
department of study. Before the time of Constantine, Agatharcides of Cni- 
dus, in the latter half of the 2d century, is said by Photius to have written 
several geographical works ; and some extracts are preserved by Photius. 
We have also a fragment of Dionysius of Byzantium in the second century, 
and a sort of geographical epitome by a certain Agathemerus, probably of the 
third century. Of the Byzantine geographers, or those subsequent to Con- 
stantine, we may mention as the principal, Marcianus of Heraclea in Pontus, 
Stephanus of Byzantium, and Cosmas the Egyptian monk. — Cf. Schbll, voL 
t. p. 275; vii. p. 33. 

§ 208. There are some Greek writers on Tactics, who may be mentioned in 
this place. The most eminent is Onosander, or Onesander, who lived probably 
about the middle of the 1st century. He left a work on the military art, in a 
style remarkably pure for the age ; it was a source whence all the later writers 
on the subject drew materials. Polyaenus, a native of Macedonia, a rhetorician 
or advocate of the 2d century, should probably be mentioned as next in rank, 
although his work is rather a historical collection of stratagems than a treatise 
on tactics. Apollodorus, an architect in the time of Trajan, left a work en- 
titled nolioQy.Ti'vixa, on military engines. The emperor Adrian is said to have 
composed a military treatise called 'ETtir/jSiVfia, a fragment of which is still ex- 
tant. Arrian and iElian also left works on the subject of Tactics. The empe- 
ror Mauritius, of the 6th century, wrote a treatise on the military art. There 
are also some treatises written at a later period, which it is not important to 
specify.— Cf. Schall, vol. v. p. 261. vn. 67. 

§ 208 1. We will now introduce some general references, and then 
speak of a few distinguished individuals, naming first the mathema- 
ticians and after them the geographers, 

1. On the history of Mathematics among the Greeks, see references P. I. § 24. — L. Liiders, 
Pythagoras und Hypatia, oder die Mathematik der Alten. Lpz.1809. 8.—Delambre on the Arith- 
metic of the Greeks in Peyrard's Archimedes, cited $ 910. 5 The principal mathematical 

Collections are, that of Thcvenot, Vet. Mathemat. Opera. Par. 1693. fol. and that of Wallis, in 3d 
Vol. of his Opera Math. Oxf. 1699. fol. The following collections of writers on subjects con- 
nected with mathematics may be cited.— Astronomical, by Aldus. Ven. 1429. fol.— By Petavius? 
Uranologion &c. Par. 1630. Amst. 1703. fol. — Musical, by Meursius. Lugd. Bat. 1616. 4. — By 
Meibomius, Antiq. Musicae auctores, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1652. 2 vols. 4.— On Tactics, by Meursiu*, 
-Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1613. 4. — P. Scriverius, Scriptores rei militaris. Vesal. 1670. 8. — A. H. 
Baumgdrtner, Samml. aller Kriegsschriftsteller der Griech. ubersetzt &c. Mannh.1779. 2 vols. 4. 

2. On the history of Geography among the Greeks, Gosselin, Geographie des Grecs. Par.1790. 
3 vols. 4. — Blair, cited P. I. $ 27.— We may also refer to Malte Brun, and to Mannert and Ukert, 
■cited .§ 7. 7 (b). The first collection of Minor Greek Geographers was that of Jlxschd. Augsb. 



MATHEMATICIANS. EUCLID. ARCHIMEDES. 243 

J.600. 8.— The second, Oronovius. Leyd. 1627. 4. — The third, more complete, Hudson. Oxf.1698- 
1712. 4 vols. 8.— Much preparation for a new edition was made by Brcdow, before 1812. On his 
death his apparatus passed into the hands of Spohn and Friedemann, from whom is expected an 
edition containing all the Greek Geographical remains, excepting those of the four authors some- 
times denominated Major, viz. Strabo, Pausanias, Ptolemy, and Stephen of Byzantium. — G. Bern- 
hardy, Geographi Graeci Minores, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1828. 8. not finished ; but very good. 

§209. Euclid lived at Alexandria B. C. about 300, in the time of 
the Egyptian king Ptolemy Soter. His native place is not known. He 
was a teacher of mathematics, particularly of geometry, in which 
branch he was the most distinguished scholar among the Greeks. 

1m. His Elements (2toixsicc), in 15 books, were drawn up with great ability, 
and in a very perspicuous manner. There are two Greek commentaries upon 
this work, by Proclus and Theon. The latter flourished at Alexandria, in the 
4th century (§ 205), and it is only according to his revision of the work that 
we now possess the Elements of Euclid. The 14th and 15th books are ascribed, 
and with great probability, to Hypsicles, who lived about the middle of the 2d 
century. Besides the Elements, we have also several other mathematical pieces 
ascribed to Euclid. 

2. The principal works allowed to be genuine are the Data (Jedouiva), con- 
taining geometrical theorems, and the Phenomena (<£>aiv6ueva), relating to as- 
tronomy. — SchOll, hi. 352. — Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 339. 

3. There have been five editions of the Works of Euclid. — Princeps, by S.Orynmus. Bas.1533. 
fol.— Bas. 1559. fol.— C. Dasypodius (Rauchfuss), Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1571.— D. Gregory, Gr. & 
Lat. Oxf. 1703. fob— Best of all, Peyrard, Gr. Lat. & Gall. Par. 1814. 3 vols. 4. — Of the Ele- 
ments, A.Caiano, Gr. & Lat. Rom. 1545. 2 vols. 8.— Ck. Mclden. Leyd. 1673. 12.— Th. Haselden, 
(with the Data). Lond. 1732. 8.— Best, Camerer, Gr. & Lat. Bed. 1824. 8. (1st vol. containing 
6 books of tbe Elements, with Excurs. and Plates.) 2d vol. continued by C. F. Hauber. 1726. — 
J. C. JVeide. Hal. 1825. 8. good, containing first 6 books, with 10th and 12th. — E. F. August. 
Berl. 1826-30. 2 vols. 8. critical text. 

4. Translations.— There have been many editions of the Elements in Latin ; among the best, 
Bormann. Lpz.1769. S.—S.Horsley. (12 bks). Oxf.1802. 8. — English.— R.Simpson (bk.1-6, 11,12). 
Glasg. 1756. 4. and often reprinted.— J. Williamson (whole 15). Lond. 1781-88. 2 vols. 4. — Ger- 
man. — /. F. Lorcnz. Hal. 1818. 8. — French. — Peyrard, above cited. 

§ 210. Archimedes was- born at Syracuse B. C. about 287, and was 
put to death by a soldier during the storming and capture of that city 
by the Roman general Marcellus, B. C. 212. He was celebrated 
especially for his skill in mechanics ; but his inventive genius en- 
riched almost every branch of mathematical science. 

1. The sepulchre of Archimedes was near one of the gates of Syracuse, but was forgotten and 
almost overgrown with briars in the time of Cicero. It was discovered by the exertions of the 
latter, while Q,urestor in Sicily, marked by a small pillar bearing an Iambic inscription and the 

figures of a cylinder and sphere. Melot, Vie d'Archimede, and Fraguier, Du tombeau d'Ar- 

chimede, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. n. 321. xiv. 128. 

2 m. He acquired his greatest celebrity by discovering the relation between 
the Cylinder and Sphere, and by contriving several military engines, by the 
aid of which the Syracusans defended themselves for three years against the 
Romans. We have several works from him ; Jlsoi rtjg Sipaiqag y.a'i Kv?.lv- 
8qov, On the Sphere and Cylinder; KvyJ.ov uir^oig, The Measuring of the Cir- 
cle; UsqL rtav y O/ovuivoir, Of floating bodies ; Wauu it?/ g Arenarius, and others. 
In general it may be remarked, however, that we possess the works of Ar- 
chimedes only according to the recensions of Isidorus and his pupil Eutocius 
in the 6th century. 

3. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, speak of the engines invented by Archimedes to harass the 
Romans, but say nothing of his destroying their fleet by means of reflecting-mirrors, or burning- 
glasses, contrived for setting fire to the vessels. Lucian is the first author who mentions the 
burning of the fleet, but he does not tell the means. Tzetzes and the writers of the Bas-Empire, 
state that it was by the aid of mirrors. Tiie story has been treated as a mere fable, although- the 
possibility of the thing has been proved by Buffon. — Sch'dll, in.360. vu. 57. — Cf. Foreign Rev. 
Ko. i. p. 305.— Edinb. Rev. vol. xvnx.-2.ond. Quart. Rev. in. 89, 108.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp.iv. 

p. 74. ed. N.Yk. 1822. For an account of the magnificent vessel constructed under the care 

of Archimedes, for the king of Syracuse, see SrMll, vu. p. 446. cf. P. I. § 167. 2. 

4. There have been four editions of the Wokks of Archimedes. — Princeps, by T. Gechauff 
(printer Hervag), Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1544. fol. — Rivault (printer Morel), Gr. &. Lat. Par.1615.fol. 
repr. 1646. ed. Richard — Borelli. Messina, 1572. fol. repr. Palerm.1685. fol. — Best entirely, Abr. 
Robertson (begun by Torelli), Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1792. fol. with the commentary of Eutocius. — 
Of the Dimensio circuli (with the Arenarius), fVallis. Oxf.1676. 8. — Arenarius, with Engl, trans L 
by G. Anderson. Lond. 1784. 8. 

'5, Translations. — German.— Sturm (of the whole Works). Nurmb. 1670. fol. — Hauber, the 



244 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Sphere and Cylinder. Tub. 1798. 8.—Krvger, the Arenarius. Q,uedl. 1820. 8. French, Peu- 

rard, of whole Works. Par. 1807. 4. 1808. 2 vols. 8. 

§211. Apollonius, surn amed Pergaus from his birth-place Perga 
in Pamphylia, lived at Alexandria about B. C. 250, under Ptolemy 
Euergetes. He studied mathematics under those who had been pupils 
of Euclid. 

lu. As a writer he is known by his work on Conic Sections, Kwvixa Sroi/eta, 
in 8 books. Only the first 4 books, however, are in the Greek ; the 3 next are 
in a Latin translation from an Arabian version, and the 8th exists only as re- 
stored by Halley from hints found in Pappus. 

2. The 4th, 6th and 7th books of the Conic Sections were translated from the 
Arabian about the middle of the 18th century, by J. A. Borelli. — The other 
works of Apollonius were Ileal ^ETccapcor, De Tactionibus, or Contacts of lines 
and circles, and ^En'meSoi ronoi, Planes, which have come to us in a very 
mutilated state ; Heql Nevoecjv, De Inclinationibus , of which scarcely anything 
remains; Heal %ojqLov ^Arcorour/g, De Sections Spaiii, of which we have no- 
thing; and Ileal Auyov 3 A/roTout/g, De Sectione rationis, which is preserved 
in Arabic. 

3. The only edition of the Conies is that of E. Halley, (begun by Gregory,) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 
1710. fol. — Attempts have been made to restore some of the other treatises. — De Tactionibus ,- 
by Camercr. Goth. 1795. 8. — By Haumann.Bresl. 1817. 8. — J. Lawson, the two books of A. con- 
cerning Tangencies, &c. Lond. 1795. 4. — On Planes, by R. Simpson. Glassr. 1749. 4. — On Incli- 
nations, by S. Horsley, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1770. 4. — By R. Barroio. Lond. 1799. 4. — De Sectione 
Spatii ; by E. Halley. Oxf. 1706. 8. with a Latin translation, from the Arabic, of the treatise Ds 
Sect, rationis. — By A. Richter, Des Apollonius zwei Biicher von Verh'altniss-schnitt (from the 
Latin of Halley). Elb. 1836. 8. 

§ 212. Pappus, an Alexandrine philosopher and mathematician, 
flourished in the 4th century. His principal work, known to us, is 
entitled MaArffiamxal owaycoyal, Mathematical Collections, in 8 books. 

1. This work is chiefly interesting on account of the extracts it contains from mathematical 
writings, which are lost. Other works are ascribed to him ; as, a treatise on military engines, 
a commentary on Aristarchus of Samos, a work on geography, &.c. — Scholl, yii. 49. — Am. Quart. 
Rev. No. xxi. 

2. Only fragments of the Greek text have yet been published. — A fragment of the 2d book 
was published by J. Wallis, in his ed. of Aristarchus of Samos. Oxf. 1688. 8. — The second part 
of the 5th book, by Eisenmann. Par. 1824. fol. — The preface to the 7th book, by Halley. Oxf. 
1706. 8. (with a treatise of Apollonius, as cited §211. 3.) — Some lemmas from the 7th book, in 

Meibomius, Dialog, de Proportionibus. Hafn. 1655. fol. A Latin version of 6 books (3-8), by 

Fr. Commandini, an Italian mathematician of the 16th century, printed, Pesaro, 1583. fol. and 
(ed. Manolessius) Bolog. 1660. fol.— A fragment of the 4th book, not in this version, is given by 
Bredow, Epistolae Parisienses. Lpz. 1812. 8. 

§ 213. Diophantus or Diopliantes, of Alexandria, lived probably 
in the 4th century, under Julian. He composed an Arithmetic, 
lAoiQiirtTizi^ in 13 books, of which 6 are now extant. A work styled 
ileal Tco7.vy<x>vu)v agi&uSv \q also ascribed to him. 

1. The Arithmetic of Diophantus is not only important as contributing to the history of Mathe- 
matics, by making known the state of the science in the 4th century, but it is also interesting 
to the mathematician himself, as it furnishes luminous methods for resolving various problems. 
It presents also the first traces of that branch of the science which was callad Algebra, in honor 
of the Arabian Oeber, to whom its invention is ascribed. — Scholl, yii. p. 43. 

2. A Latin version of all his remains was published by Xylander (Holzmann). Bas. 1575. fol. 
— The first edition of the text was by C. 6. Sachet (de'Meziriac), Gr. &Lat. Par. 1621. fol. — 
A German translation of the treatise Ileal no).. uat&. (von den Polygonal-zahlen) by Poselger. 
Lpz. 1810. 8.— Of the Arithmetic, by Schultz. Bed. 1822. 8. (containing also Poselger'' s.) 

§ 214. Hanno, the first name we mention among the geographers, 
probably lived B. C. about 500. He was a Carthaginian general. 

1m. He is supposed to have written in the Punic language the Voyage, 
which, either during his life or shortly after, was translated into Greek, under 
the title moLnZoog. What we possess is considered by some as only an ab- 
stract of a greater work. 

2. The full title is "Avveovog Kaoyjfioribiv fiacfiUcog rceoinloog TcTrv vnio rag 
' HQayJ.iovg OTtft.ag Aiftvxcov rijg ytjg fieacov ov y.al ave&yjxsv ivroi rov Kqovov reut- 
vst 8tj?.ovvra rude. Hanno is represented as sent with a fleet of 60 vessels and 
30,000 colonists to explore the western coast of Africa, and as having continued 



GEOGRAPHERS. HANNO. ERATOSTHENES. STRABO. 245 

Ms voyage until his store of provisions failed. How far he proceeded (a) has 
been a theme of much discussion. — The age and authenticity of the Periplus 
have also been a subject (b) of dispute. 

(a)Rennell, Geogr. of Herodotus, $26.— Cf. Vierthalsr, on the Peripl. of Hanno. Salzb.1798. 8. 
{b)Dodwell, Diss, in Hudson's Geogr. Min. cited § 208£. 2.— Bougainville, in the Mem. de PAcad.- 
des Inscr. xxvt. and xxviii. 

3. Editions. — Gelenius (with Jlrriw). Bas. 1533. 4. — Berkel. (with Stephanus Byzant.) Leyd. 
1674. 12.— In Hudson, Geog. Min.— Separately, /. H. Bolder. Strash. 1661. A.— Tli. Falconer, with 
an Engl, transl. Oxf. 1797" 8. — J. L. Hug. 1808. 4. with a list of authors on the subject. — An 
Engl, transl. is given in Anthem's Lempriere, Hanno. 

4. There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that of Sc y I ax of Caryanda, placed by 
some B. C. about 500. — Cf. Scholl, n. 193. — This is fonnd in Hudson's collection. — Separately, 

by I. Vossius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1632. 4. Pytheas, of Massilia, at a later period, also 

wrote a Periplus. — See Bougainville, La vie et les ouvrages de Pytheas de Marseille, in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. xix. p.146.— D'Anville, Navigation de Pytheas aThule &c. in same Mem.fyc. 
xxxvn. 436. 

§ 215. Eratosthenes, of Cyrene, flourished B. C. about 230. He 
was a pupil of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distin- 
guished as a mathematician and the first founder of scientific ge- 
ography. 

lu. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic writers, a 
chronologist, and author of popular philosophical writings. In youth he lived 
at Athens; afterwards at Alexandria, having the charge of its famous library. 
Of his numerous writings, pertaining to the mathematical sciences, we have 
only some imperfect fragments. These belong chiefly to the work entitled 
To, yewyQacpoviisvic. which consisted of 3 books, and contained the first attempt 
at the measurement of the earth. The loss of this work is much regretted. 

2. In the 1st book, Eratosthenes treated of physical geography ; in the 2d, of 
mathematical ; and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly 
by extracts made by Strabo. — A treatise called JCaraarsqiauol, explaining the 
constellations, has passed under his name, but on various grounds it is con- 
sidered as not genuine. — Scholl, in. 375, 385. 

3. Editions. — The fragments of Eratosthenes were published by Anchor. Gbtt. 1770. 4. j — 
More complete, Seidel. Gr. & Lat. GStt.1789. 8. — Most full, and best, Bernhardy, Eratosthenica. 

Berl. 1822. 8. The Catasterismi were published first by J. Fell. Oxf. 1672. 8. Cf. <5 71. 3. — 

Gale, in his Opusc. Myth. Amst. 1688. 8.— Best, I. C. Schauback. Gbtt. 1795; 8. 

§ 216. Strabo was born at Arnasea in Pontus, and lived about the 
time of Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through 
Egypt, Asia, Greece, and Italy, he was the better qualified to write 
his great work on geography. 

lu. This is entitled rswyoacpiy.u, and consists of 17books. It is not a mere 
register of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts and mature 
reflections, and is of great utility in the study of ancient literature and art. 
The first two books are a sort of general introduction ; the rest are occupied 
in descriptions of particular countries, their constitutions, manners, and re- 
ligion, interwoven with notices of distinguished persons and events. 

2. The 3d book describes Spain and the neighboring islands ; the 4th, GauL, 
Britain, and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying 
them ; the 5th and 6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Uoman 
power ; the 7th gives an account of the northern countries, and the nations 
on the Danube ; the 8th, 9th, and 10th are devoted to Greece ; the next six, 
from the 11th to the 16th, contain an account of Asia; and the 17th describes 
the countries of Africa. — The 7th book has come to us in an imperfect state y 
the rest complete. — There is an abridgment or Chrestomathy of this work ? 
made probably in the 10th century by some unknown Greek. There are also 
several collections of extracts from Strabo in manuscript. — Strabo wrote a 
continuation of Polybius under the title of ^Yrcouv^uara c loroqizu.. 

Scholl, v. 278. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. — A. H. L. Heeren, De fontibus Geographicorum 
Strabonis. Gbtt. 1823. 8. 

3. Editions.— Princeps, (in red. Aid!.) Ven. 1516. fob— Is. Casaubon, (2d ed. bv Morel.) Par. 
1620. fol. Gr. & Lat. Considered good.— Almeloveen, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1707. fof. Repr. of Ca- 
saubon, with additional notes.— Siebenkees, (continued bv Tzschucke and Friedemann,) Gr. & 
Lat. Lpz. 1796-1819. 7 vols. 8.— Th. Falconer, Gr. & Latl Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. fol. The most 
ample ed. (yet censured.) Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xiv.— Class. Jour, vi.45 j vn. 152 r 445.— Coray^ 

21* 



246 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Par. 1816-19. 4 vols. 8. Best text; preface and notes in Greek. The Chrestomathy is found 

in Hudson's Geograph. Min. cited § 208i. 2. 

4. Translations.— German.— Penzel. Lemg. 1775-77. 4 vols. 8. — K. Kdrcher, in the Collec. of 
New Transl. by Tafcl, Osiander, $c. French. — La Porte du Thcil and Coray, (under patron- 
age of Fr. Gov.) Par. 1805-14. 5 vols. 4. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. 273. 

§ 217. Dionysius, of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of, 
Strabo. He was sent by Augustus into the East in order to prepare 
a description of those regions for the use of his adopted son. 

1 u. We have from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, enti- 
tled LTtQa'jyTjOig 3 Oiy.ovutvyjc, a description of the habitable world. From the 
title of this piece he has received the surname of Periegetes. Cf. § 32. 

2. We have a learned commentary on the Periegesis written by Eustathius. — The Pericgesis 
is in the 4th vol. of Hudson, as cited § 208f. 2. with the Commentary. — Also in Matthim's Ara- 
tus, cited § 71. 3. — Separately, an improved edition, Hudson, Oxf. 1717. 8. With PL Dodwett's 
Diss, de state et patria Dionysii. 

§ 218. Claudius Ptolemteus, of Pelusium in Egypt, nourished in 
the middle of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great 
distinction in the sciences of geography, astronomy, and music. 

1 u. Among the writings left by him, the two most important are the Mey- 
alr\ avvralig, Great Construction, and the rswyyacpixi} inp^yyioig, a system of 
Geography. The former, consisting of 13 books, now called the Almagest, is 
the earliest formal system of astronomy. The latter, in 8 books, gives a ge- 
ographical account of countries and places, with a designation of their Lati- 
tude and Longitude, for which the labors of Marinus of Tyre had laid the 
foundation. Of the other works of Ptolemy now extant we mention particu- 
larly his Kavcor Baoi?.io)v, Table of Kings, which is of much value in the de- 
partment of history and chronology. 

2. The astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made in the Serapeum, or tem- 
ple of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum Of Canopus. The name of Almagest 
is derived from the title which the Arabians gave to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express 
their admiration. It was translated into the Arabic in the 9th century with the patronage and 
aid of Caliph Almamoun. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, be- 
fore the Greek original was known in Europe. In the last book of the Geography, Ptolemy 
states the method of preparing maps, and here are found the first principles of projection. The 
lasting reputation of this work has been mentioned (§207).— Scholl, vol. v. 240-260, 312-323. 
—Bonamy, Des Cartes geographiques des anciens &c. Mem. Acad, lnscr. vol. xxv. p. 40. 

3. Editions. — almagsst ; Grynmus, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1538. fol. With the Comm. of Theon. 

— Abbe Halma, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1813-15. 2 vols. 4. geography ; Princeps, Erasmus. Basil, 

1533. fol. (There had previously been several editions of the Latin. Cf. Scholl, v. 319.) — 
Montanus, Gr. &. Lat. Frankf. (and Amst.)l(305. fol. With maps by G. Mercator, after those of 
Agathodwmon, an Alexandrine of the 5th century. — Better, P. Bertius. Leyd. 1618. fol. — Hal- 
ma. Par. 1828. 4. But containing only 1st book and part of 7th, with a French version. 

canon; Perizonius. Leyd. 1745. 8. — Halma. Par. 1820. 4. — The Hypothesis of the Planets, by 

Halma, Gr. & Gall. Par. 1820. 4. For other works of Ptolemy and editions, see Scholl, vol. 

v. p. 255 ss. 

§ 219. Pausanias, according to some born at Cassarea in Cappa- 
docia, perhaps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d cen- 
tury. He traveled over Greece, Macedonia, Italy, and a great part 
of Asia. 

1 u. In advanced life, at Rome, in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, 
he composed his Itinerary of Greece, ' E)J.u8og jiEQulytjaig. It consists of 10 
books, which are frequently named from the provinces described in them. 
The work is full of instructive details for the antiquarian, especially in refer- 
ence to the history of art, as the author makes a point of describing the prin- 
cipal temples, edifices, statues, and the like. This gives his work an interest 
it would not otherwise possess. 

2. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent ; sometimes his descriptions 
are obscure ; but he displaj^s much judgment and knowledge, and casts light 
on very many topics of history and mythology. — Scholl, v. 307. 

3. Editions.— Princeps, by Aldus (ed. M. Musurus). Ven. 1516. fol.— Xylander. Frankf. 1583. 
fol.- JT" A», Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1696. fol.— Better, Fadus, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1794-97. 4 vols. 8.— 
J. Bekker. Berl. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Critical text.— Best, S,.ebelis, Gr. &. Lat. Lpz. 1822-28. 5 
vols. 8. 

4. Transla'i ns. German.— J. E. Goldhagm. Berl. 1798. 5 vols. 8. French.— E. Clavier 

(and others). Par. 181-1-2'). 6 vols. With original Greek and notes. English.— Tit. Taylor. 

Lond. 1793. 3 vols. 8. Illustrated by Aiaps and views. 



MYTHOGRAPHERS. PALiEPHATUS. HERACLITUS. 247 

5. Illustrative.— J 1 . S. C. Cdnig, De Paus. fide et auctoritate in historia, mythologia, artibus- 
que Grrecorum tradendis. Bed. 1832. 8.—Heyne, Ueber den Kasten des Cypselus &c. nach 
dem Pausanias. Gbtt. 1770. 8. 

§ 220 u. Stephanus of Byzantium was a grammarian and geographer, who 
lived towards the close of the 5th century. He wrote a copious grammatical 
and geographical Dictionary, called *E&viy.a. Of the original work we have 
merely a fragment. There is an abridgment, however, 'Edvtx&v Imroiu], 
styled also Ileqi tz6?.siov, made by the grammarian Hermolaus in the time of 
Justinian. 

The best edition of the Epitome is that of A. Berkel (completed by Gronovius). Leyd. 1688. foL 
Amst. 1725. fol. 

§ 220. Cosmas Indicopleustes was a native of Alexandria, who died about 
A. D. 550. He traveled in Ethiopia and India. His geographical work, in 
12 books, is entitled XoiOTiavixij Tortoyqcupia. He supposed the earth to be of 
a plane surface, and in the form of a parallelogram ; and thought this to be the 
only view consistent with the representations of the Bible. 

His Topography is given in B. de Montfaucon, Collect. Nov. Patrum Grcec. Par. 1706. 2 vols, 
fol. Gr. & Lat. — A Description of Plants and Animals of India is given in Tlievenot, Relations 
de Voyages Curieux (Par. 1666), as the work of Cosmas. — Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. iv. 67, 428, 

§ 221. Onesander and Polyamus have been named as prominent writers on 
military subjects. The work of the former is entitled 2rqartjyty.o§ luyog, in 42 
chapters. That of the latter is entitled Srqariiyv t uariy.li, in 8 books; it is 
highly recommended by Hanoood, for beginners in Greek, on account of its 
easy style and entertaining matter. 

1. Editions of Onesander. — First, by JV. Rigault, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1599. 4. — JV. Schwcbel. 
Nuremb. 1761. fol. with the French version of Zurlauben, and engravings of ancient military 
engines. — Coray. Par. 1822. 8. with Zurlaubcii's version, forming the 5th vol. of his Parerga da 
la Bibl. Hellenique. 

2. Editions of Polyamus. — First, by I. Casaiibon, Gr. &; Lat. Lyons, 1589. 12.— Best, by Coray. 
Par. 1809. as the 1st vol. of his Bibl. Hel.— There is an Engl, transl. by R. Shepherd. Lond.1793. 4, 



VIII. — Mythographers . 

§ 221 u. The principal existing sources, whence the traditions and fables of 
the Greeks may be learned, are three; the poets, who bring forward mythical 
ideas and fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs ; 
the historians, who weave into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and 
make known historical circumstances which serve to illustrate the same ; 
and finally the mythographers, who have made it their particular business to 
treat of mythological subjects and to present connected views or specific de- 
tails of the ancient fables. — Some of the principal writers of the latter class 
will be named in the following sections. 

The following Collections pertain to this subject. — Aldus (Fabulists). Ven. 1505. fol Th. 

Gale, Kistoriae poetics scriptores antiqui. Par. 1675. 8. — By same, Opuscula mythologica &c. 
Camb. 1671. 8.— Amst. 1688. 8. 

§222. Palatphatus, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 320; 
some place him in the time of Horner, but without sufficient grounds. 

lu. His book Tliol an'iarwv, On things incredible, contains 50 Muthi, or fables, 
with an explanation of them. It is probably but a corrupted abridgment of the 
first part of the larger work, in 5 books, ascribed to this author, but now lost. 
The style is very simple and easy, and the contents amusing and instructive; 
it is often used as a reading-book in teaching the elements of the Greek lan- 
guage. 

2. Editions. — It is found in Aldus, and Gale, Opusc. cited § 221w.— Separately, best, J J. F. 
Fischer, Lpz. 1789. 8. — H. JV. Errnesti. Lpz. 1816. 8. with a Lexicon ; for schools. 

3. Translations. — German. — J. D. Bvchling. Hal. 1821. 8. French. — Poller. Lausanne, 

1771. 12. 

4. Euhemerus, supposed to have been a native of Messene, lived about the 
same time with Palsephatus. He wrote a work entitled c Isnu avayQayq, the 
object of which was to show that the mythological deities were mortals, who 
had conferred benefits upon their fellow-men, and on that account were deified. 



248 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

This was translated by Ennius into Latin. Both the original and the version 
are lost, with the exception of some passages in Eusebius and Lactantius. 

Cf. Sclwll, Litt. Gr. vol. in. p. 249. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. 94. ed. Phil. 1827. — Se- 
zin, and Foucher, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. vni.107. xxxir. 417. 

§ 223. Heraclitus was a grammarian, whose epoch and history are 
wholly unknown. He is to be distinguished from the philosopher of 
Ephesus bearing the same name (§ 177). 

lu. He is mentioned as the author of two mythographical works, one enti- 
tled UhQi anioToiv, Of things incredible ; the other, ^DJ.yyoqiai c Oitr-nizai, Ho- 
meric Allegories. The former seems to be a mere abridgment. The latter is 
a more considerable work, but gives the most forced and unnatural explana- 
tions to the fictions of the poet. It derives value from containing poetical 
fragments of Archilochus, Alcseus, Eratosthenes, and others. 

2. The first work is given in Gale, Opusc. cited §221w. — Separately, hy L.H.Teuchcr. Lemg. 
1796. 8. school ed. — The other, in Gale also. — Separately, by C. Gessner, Gr. & Lat. Bas.1544. 

8. as the; work of Heraclides of Pontus. — Better, by JV. Schow. Go tt. 1782. 8. A German 

translation by J. G. Schulthcss. Zlir. 1779. 8. 

3. There is another work extant with the title -ZTsoi aTtiOTor. It is from an imlaioion au- 
thor, who is suposed to have lived much later, about the time of the emperor Leo the Thracian, 

It contains 22 sections, and appears to be an abstract of a larger work. Published by L.Allw- 

tius. Rome, 1641. 8. — Gale, in Opusc. cited above. — Teucher, with Heraclitus cited above. 

§ 224. Apollodorus, a son of Asclepiades, was a grammarian, who 
lived at Athens, B. C. about 145. He was a pupil of Aristarchus and 
embraced the Stoic philosophy. 

lu. According to Photius he wrote a History of the gods (ITsql -&£on), in 24 
books. We have, however, only 3 books under the title of Bnft.io&)' t y.yi, or Li- 
brary, which may be an abridgment of the forementioned, but perhaps is a 
wholly different work. It contains a brief account of the gods and heroes be- 
fore the Trojan war. 

2. It is given in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited $ 221m.— Separately, best, Heyne. Gbtt. 1802. 2 vols. 8. 

—E.Clavier, Gr. & Fr. 1805. 2 vols. 8.— For schools, C. L. Sommer. Rudolst. 1823. 8. German 

Translation, by F. Beyer. Herborn, 1802. 8.— Cf. Scholl, v. 36. iv.57. 

§ 225. Conon, also known as a grammarian, lived at Athens in the 
time of Caesar and Augustus, B. C. about 40. 

lu. He wrote 50 mythical Narratives, J irjyr-osig, which are now extant 
only in the abstracts given by Photius in hi3 Bibliotheca (§142). They are 
addressed to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. Although containing little that 
is peculiarly interesting, they are yet of some value in illustrating ancient his- 
tory, relating particularly to the origin of colonies. 

2. They are given in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited § 221w.— Separately, J. A. Kanne. Gott. 1798. 8. — 

French translation, by Abbe Gedoyne, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. torn. xiv. p. 170. — 

Cf. Sclwll, v. 41. 

§ 226. Parthenius, born at Nicea, lived under the emperor Au- 
gustus, and is said to have been one of the preceptors of Virgil. 

lu. He wrote a work dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and entitled JZeoteoo-, 
tixcov 7ia6t]uari»v, On amorous affections, designed to furnish that poet with 
materials for song. The narratives contained in it were drawn from the old 
poets, and clothed in an easy and prosaic style. He seems to have written 
other works, both in prose and verse, although the elegiac poet of this name 
mentioned by Suidas was perhaps another person. 

2. The work is found in Gale, as last cited. — Separately, Cornarius, Gr. & Lat. (printer Fro- 
ben) Bas. 1531. 8.— Teucher. Lpz. 1802. 8. with Conon.— Best, Lear and and Heyne. Gott. 1798. $» 
with Conon. — For the account of Parthenius by Suidas, see Scholl, v. 42. 

<§, 227. Phurnutus, or more correctly Annceus Cornutus, born afc 
Leptis in Africa, probably lived in the last half of the 1st century. 
He seems to have been the teacher of Persius, and a disciple of the 
Stoic sect in philosophy. 

lu. We have from him a Theory of the nature of the gods, GscoQia tcsqI t>;9 
tguv Qecnv (pvosws, in 35 sections. It is an attempt to solve the common fables 
by the help of allegories, mostly of a forced and extravagant character. 



MYTHOGRAPHERS. HEPHJESTION. LIBERALIS. 249 

2. Given in Gale, Opusc. Myth, cited § 221w. — Villoison left the Apparatus for a new edition ; 
now in the Royal Library of France. (Scholl, v. 179.) — On Corimtus see Enfield's Hist. PhiL 
bk. iii. ch. ii. §7. — D. Martini Disputatio de L. Ann. Cornuto. Lugd. Bat. 1825. 8. 

§ 228. Heplicestion (cf. § 134), often called PtolemcBiis son of He- 
phaestion, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 2d century 
under Trajan. 

1 u. His mythological work bore the title Zfegt rfjg iiq 7to2,vp.a&siav y.aivijs 
[arooiag, Of new history pertaining to erudition; it consisted of 7 books, but 
we have only the brief extracts found in Photius. 

2. Published by Gale, Hist. Poet, before cited. — By L. H. Teucher, with Canon and Partheni- 
us. Lpz. 1802. 8.— Cf. ScJioll, v. 43. 

§ 229. Antoninus Liberalis, of whom little is known with cer- 
tainty, most probably lived in the 2d century under the Antonines. 

1m. His Collection of metamorphoses, MsTa/.toQcpd)Cao)v ovvaywyi'j, is a com- 
pilation gathered from various writers, in 41 sections. The style is very un- 
equal, and shows that the author drew his materials from poetical sources. 

2. Contained in Gale, Hist. Poet.— Given by ./. G. Walch, in his Phadrus. Lpz. 1713. 12. — 
Separately, Princeps by Xylander (Hclzmann).' Basil, 1568. S.—JJunker, Gr. & Lat. 1676. 12. — 
Better, Verhcyk, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1774. 8.— A school ed. by Teucher. Lpz. 1806. 8. With the 

Fables of Gabrias. Cf. <S 184. 1. On Antoninus and other mythographers, see Bast, Lettre 

Critique; in.Lat. transl. *by Schafer. Lpz. 1809. 8. 

§ 230. Salhistius, who was a Platonic philosopher in the time of 
Julian and Jovian, and was Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here. 

1 u. He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with 
the Cynic of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and Alexan- 
dria, and acquired much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a work entitled 
Usol Ss&v y.ul zuGfiov, On the gods and the icorld, in 21 chapters. It is per- 
haps a philosophical rather than mythological treatise, and seems to be direct- 
ed specially against the system of Epicurus. The author maintains the eter- 
nity of the world and the immortality of the soul. 

2. Published first by JSTaudaniR , Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1638. 12.— Gale, Opusc. Myth, above cited. 
—Formey, Gr. L Fr. Berl. 1748. 8.— J. C. Orelli, Gr. & Lat. Ziir. 1821. 8.— The titles of the 
chapters are given in Scliott, vn. 80. German translation, by Schulthess. Zurich, 1779. 8. 



IX. — Historians and Biographers. 

§ 231 u. In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antiquity, had 
few, if any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought 
into that frequent and general use which is requisite for such purposes. Oral 
traditions, visible monuments, and commemorative festivals were the princi- 
pal means of transmitting a knowledge of important and interesting facts. 
The oral accounts were commonly thrown into the form of verse and song; 
and thus the poets were the first historians. Their poems, in epic, lyric, and 
dramatic forms, presented the story of the fabulous and heroic ages, and were 
impressed on the memory in youthful education ; were sung at the festivals 
of the gods and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards circulated 
by means of written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became 
more common, and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narra- 
tive was the first and principal application of it. Phcrecydes, of the island 

Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysms, Cadmus, and Hecatams , who lived 
between 550 and 500 B. C, are named as the earliest authors of history in 

prose. At this period truth and fable were more carefully distinguished; 

the former was selected as the proper material for prose and history, and the 
latter was left to the sole use of the poet. Afterwards writers began to re- 
cord the history of their own times and connect it with the traditionary ac- 
counts of former ages. The art of writing was more sedulously cultivated. 



250 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

The theory of historical composition was investigated and fixed on philo* 
sophical principles. Ere long, Greece possessed historians who are even to 
the present day viewed as masters in the art, in respect both of matter and 
manner. 

6. F. Creuzer, Historisch Kunst der Griechen. "Leipz. 1803. 8. — O. J. Vossius, De Historicfs 
Grsecis. L. B. 1651. 4. — On early methods of preserving knowledge, Du Pin, (as cited § 240), 
•bk. i. sect. 2. — O. Hermann, De Hist. Gr. Primordiis, cited § 1. 2. 

§ 232. It was in the earliest part of the period between Solon and Alexan- 
der, that historical compositions in prose began to be produced. Some of the 
earliest writers were natives of Asia Minor. Such authors were termed ?.oyo- 
YQaipoi, and their performances Zoyoyoiupiai. These authors, besides drawing 
from traditionary accounts and the works of poets, consulted all the monu- 
ents of antiquity ; inscriptions, altars, statues and edifices erected or consecrat- 
ed in connection with particular events. The logographies were the first fruit 
of this spirit of investigation. They were a kind of writing holding an inter- 
mediate place between epic poetry and veritable history. We have no entire 
specimen of them ; but there are many fragments, for which we are indebted 
to quotations made by historians and writers on mythology in later periods, 
by the scholiasts and some of the Christian Fathers. The works of the prose 
writers named in the preceding section belonged to this class. Cadmus is 
mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist vn. 56) as the most ancient author of the 
kind. There are extant fragments of Pherecydes of Leros, Acusilaus of Ar- 
gos, Hecatseus of Miletus, Charon of Lampascus, Xanthus of Sardis, and 
Hellanicus of Mitylene. 

6. F. Creuzer, Hist. Grsec. antiquiss. Fragmenta. Heidelb. 1806. 8.— Abbe Sevin, respecting 
Hecatfeus and Charon, in the Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. et Belles Lett. vol. vi. p. 472 ; xiv. p. 
56.— The fragments of Hellanicus collected and published by F. W. Sturz. Lpz. 1787. 8 — 
Those of Pherecydes and Acusilaus by the Same. Lpz. 1789. 8. 2d ed. Lpz. 1824. 4. 

§ 233. The writers just mentioned are, however, scarcely entitled to the 
name of historians. Herodotus is the earliest Greek author who gave a fin- 
ished and connected form to the narration of interesting events, and wag 
.with much justice styled by Cicero, the father of history. After him, and 
partly contemporary, were Thucydides and Xenophon. These three are the 
most eminent of all the Greek historians, and their works are among the most 
valuable remains of Greek prose composition. They all belong to the most 
brilliant period of Grecian literature. Their histories were chiefly occupied 
with Grecian affairs, and are the grand source of our knowledge respecting 
the Grecian states, in the periods to which they relate. There were sev- 
eral other historians before the time of Alexander, known to us only by a few 
fragments of their works, or by the judgment passed on them by ancient 
writers. The most important of these were Ctesias, a contemporary of Xen- 
ophon, and Theopompus, who lived a little later. We have slight fragments, 
likewise, of Philistus of Syracuse, and Ephorus of Cumse in iEolia. 

The fragments of Philistus published by Gbller, in his De Situ et or. Syracusarum. Lipa. 
1818. 8. Cf. Sevin, on Philetus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. mi. p. 1.— Of Ephorus, by M. Marx. Carslr. 
1815. 8.— Of Theopompus, by R. H. E. Wickers. Leyd. 1829. 8. Cf. A. J. E. Pflugk, De Theop. 

vita et scriptis. Bed. 1827. 8.—F. Koch, Proleg. ad Theopomp. Chium. Stett. 1803. 4. Of 

Ctesias, in Wesseling , s Herodotus, cited $241. 3. Cf. K. L. Blum, Herodot. und Ktesias, die 
fruhsten Geschichtsforscher des Orients. Heidelb. 1836. 12.— Cf. Scholl, vol. n. p. 170. 

§ 234. It may be proper to notice here a class of writers who confined them- 
selves to the history and antiquities of Athens. Their works are cited under 
the common name of '^irQideg, or Treatises on Attica. As the materials for 
these works were drawn not merely from loose traditions, but from various 
authentic sources, their loss is to be regretted, although they were no doubt 
abundantly charged with fable and full of imperfection. Works of this de- 
scription were written in the period before Alexander, by Clitodemus and 
Phanodemus, of whom little is known. Four others of the same class belong 
to the period following the time of Alexander, viz. Demo, Androtion, Philo- 
corus, and Ister. ^ 

The fragments of these authors were collected and published by Lent and Sibelis ; (Philo- 
ehorus and Androtion), Lpz. 1811. 8. (Phanodemus and Clitodemus, Demon and Ister), Lpz.. 
1812. 8.—Sc)ioll, n. 185 j ni. 224. 

235. The principal historian in the next period, from Alexander to the Ro- 
man supremacy in Greece, is Polybius of Megalopolis. He published several 



HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 251 

historical works, which are all lost with the exception of a part of his Univer- 
sal History. This was without a rival in its kind. In style and eloquence it 
is inferior to the histories of the great masters of the preceding era ; but it 
may be considered as the first successful attempt to exhibit in a philosophical 
manner the principles of morals and politics as developed in the changes of 
human society. Polybius may justly be ranked among the most distinguished 

of ancient historians. In this period there were numerous writers who 

composed historical performances chiefly relating to the life and exploits of 
Alexander, although including often much other matter. Almost everything 
from their pens, however, has perished. The following were some of the 
writers ; Callisthenes, Hieronymus or Jerome of Cardia, Diodotus of Erythse, 
Nearchus and Nymphis of Heraclea. 

Santc-Croiz, Examen des Historiens d'Alexandre-le-Grand. 2d ed. Par. 1805. 8. — Clayton, 
Crit. Enq. into the life of Alexander the Great. Lond. 1793. 4.' Cf. Dibdin, vol. i. p. 330.— Abbe 
"Serin, Recherch. sur la vie et Bur les ouvr. de Callisthenes, in the Mem. de VAead. des Inscr. &x. 
torn. tii. ; de Jerom de Cardie, in vol. xm. ; de Diodote, in vol. xix. — Ang. Mai, Julii Valerii 
res gestae Alexandra Macedonii, translates ex ^Esopo Greece Mediolani. 1817. 8-. — Fragments of 
JVymphis, in the collection of the remains of Memnon and other writers of Heraclea, by J. C. 
Orellius. Lpz. 1816. 8.— Respecting JVearchus, see under Arrian $ 250.~Scholl, livre iv. ch. 36. 

§ 236. There were also in this period, between Alexander and the capture 
Of Corinth by the Romans, other historical authors, some of whom ought at 
least to be mentioned here ; as Hecatreus of Abdera, Berosus the Chaldean 
priest, Abydenus his disciple, and Manetho of Diospolis in Egypt. We may 
■name also Timseus of Tauromenium, who, on being banished from Sicily, re- 
sided at Athens, and is quoted by Cicero as a model of the Asiatic style of elo- 
quence (Brut. 95. De Orat. II. 13.) ; Aratus of Sicyon, already mentioned 
among the poets (§ 71) ; Phylarchus his contemporary ; and Polemo Periege- 
tes. Of only a part of these authors have we any remains. The most impor- 
tant fragments are those of Berosus and Manetho. 

Bee Schazll, livre iv. ch. 37. The fragments of Hecateus were published by P. Zorn. Altona, 
1730. ; also in Creuier's Hist. GrtEC. cited $232. — For those of Berosus, see Jos. Scaliger, De 
Cmendatione Temporum ; also Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. vol. xiv. — J. D. Riohter, Chald. Historian 
Lips. 1825. 8. with life of Berosus, A work on antiquities, under the name of Berosus, was pub- 
lished in Latin by J. Annius or Nanni, a Dominican of Viterbo, who died 1502. This forgery, 
with other pieces, was printed by E. Silber. Rome. 1488. — The remains of Manetho were also 
published by Scaliger in the treatise above cited. The discovery (in 1792) of the Armenian 
version of Eusebius has furnished the means of a more complete collection. Cf. Journal des 
Savans, 1820. See $ 288. — Sir J. Marsham endeavored to reconcile Manetho with the Scriptures 
in his Chronicus Canon. Lond. 1662. fol. — Cf. Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist, connected, bk. xL 
£2d vol. p. 133. ed. Phil. 1824.) — The Ancient Fragments, containing what remains of the writ- 
ings of Sanconiathon, Berosus, Abydenus, Mega6thenes, and Manetho. Translated by J.C. Coru. 
iLond. 1828. 

§ 237. The period which comes next, the time of Roman supremacy, pro- 
duced a great number of historians, but all of secondary rank. We will name 
first those who wrote before the Christian era. The two most important au- 
thors were Diodorus Siculus and Dionysius Halicarnasseus, who flourished but 

shortly before the time of Christ, and whose works are in part still extant. 

There were several authors whose works are lost : as, Castor of Rhodes, a con- 
temporary of JuliuB Csesar ; Theophanes of Mitylene, friend and biographer 
of Pompey ; Timagenes of Alexandria, selected by Augustus as his historiog- 
rapher, but discarded for certain imprudent sallies of wit; Posidonius the Stoic } 
and Juba, son of the king of Numidia, taken captive by Julius Caesar, and edu- 
cated at Rome. Here may be mentioned also Nicolaus of Damascus, and 
Memnon of Heraclea, who both lived in the time of Augustus, and of whom 
some fragments remain. 

J. Bake, Posidonii Rhodii Reliquis doctrine &c. Lugd. Bat. 1810. 8. — The fragments of JW 
colaus, were published by Orellius. Lpz. 1804. with a Supplement, 1811.— Those of Memnon, by 
H. Stephanus. Par. 1594. ; and by Orellius. Lpz. 1816.— See Schaill, livre v. ch. 53. 

§ 238. Of the historians between the time of Augustus and Constantine, one 
of the most interesting and important is Flavins Josephus the Jew. His his- 
tory of the destruction of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye-witness, is on 
many accounts of great value. It was written originally in Hebrew, or rather 
in the Syro-Chaldaic, and afterwards by himself translated into Greek. It is 
a work full of tragic interest. 

Plutarch, who flourished in the 1st century of the Christian era, must be in- 
cluded among the historical writers, not only because his Lives partake so 



252 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

much of a historical character, but on account of several other works upon 
historical topics. After Plutarch the most important historians were Arrian, 
Appian, Dion Cassius, and Herodian. iElian is placed among the historians, 
but holds a low rank. Polys3nus ought peivhaps also to be mentioned here, as 
his work already noticed (§ 221) is of a historical character. 

There were some other historical writers in the times of which we are speak- 
ing, to whom it may be suitable barely to allude. Herennius Philo of Biblus, 
in the 2d century, is said to have written several historical works, particularly 
to have translated into Greek from Phoenician the antiquities of Sanconiathon. 
Praxis or Eupraxidas, the author of the work ascribed to Dictys Cretensis, 
lived in this period, probably in the time of Nero. Phlegon of Tralles in Lydia 
wrote, besides other pieces, a sort of universal chronology, most of which is 
lost ; in a fragment of this is mentioned an eclipse of the sun in the 18th yeai 
of Tiberius, which has by some been supposed to refer to the darkness that 
took place at the crucifixion of Christ. 

Respecting Sanconiathon, see R. Cumberland, Sanconiathon's Phoenician history, translated 
from the 1st book of Eusebius de Prsepar. Evang. &c. Lond. 1720. — Christ. Meiners, Hist. Doct. 
de vero Deo. vol. i. — H. Dcdwell, Disc, on the Phoenician History of Sanconiathon. Lond. 1680. 
8. also in his Works. Lond. 1723. — Cory's Ancient Fragments, cited <\ 236. — F. Wagenfield, 
Sancon. Hist. Phoen. Gr. & Lat. Brem. 1837. 8. Cf. Bibl. Repos. July, 1837. p. 249. April, 1838. 
p. 440. 

The remains of Phlegon were published by Franz. Halle, 1822. — Several publications appeared 
in England early the last century, on the eclipse mentioned by him ; e. g. Syk.es, Dissertation 
upon the Eclipse, &c. Lond. 1732. 8. — Whiston, Testimony of Phlegon &c. Lond. 1732. 8. — 
Chapman, Phlegon examined &c. Lond. 1734. 8. — Cf. Lit. ty Theol. Rev. No. v. p. 53, 57. 

§ 239a. In entering upon the long period from Constantine to the capture of 
his favorite city by the Turks, the first historian we meet is Eusebius, a Chris- 
tian and bishop of Csesarea, one of the most distinguished men of the age, and 
particularly patronized by the Emperor Constantine. The only work of this 
author which belongs strictly to classical literature is his Chronicle or Univer- 
sal History, TTavTodurctj [otoq'ux. (Cf. § 288.) After Eusebius, we find a long 
list of historical authors. There are, however, only two names of much impor- 
tance, viz. Zosimus and Procopius (§ 256, 257), until we come to the mass of 
writers still less celebrated, and commonly grouped under the name of By zan- 
tine historians. This series of authors, beginning with the 7th century, ex- 
tends to the final overthrow of Constantinople. " They have little merit, ex- 
cept that they are the only sources whence we can derive the history of the 
middle ages. , A few among them exhibit a degree of purity and elegance in 
style ; but most of their works are destitute of taste and of method, and de- 
graded by superstition and abject flattery." 

The Byzantine writers have been divided into four classes. The first included Zonaras, Ni- 
cetas Acominatus, Nicephorus Gregoras, and Laonicus Chalcondylas, which four authors form 
what is termed the Corpus or Body of Byzantine historians, properly speaking. Taken together, 
they give a complete history of the period from Constantine to the capture of Constantinople by 
the Turks. A second class includes the writers that have been termed Chroniclers, who at- 
tempted to give general histories, or annals extending from the beginning of the world to their 
own times. SchSll mentions 15 or 16 names belonging to this class. — The third consists of 
such as confined themselves to the history of a short period, a particular event, or of certain in- 
dividuals, and may rather be called biographers. Above 20 names are given in this class ; Aga- 
thias was one of the more eminent among them. — The fourth class is composed of authors who 
occupied themselves rather with antiquities and statistics. Of 10 or 12 included in this number, 
Constantine Porphyrogenitus was one of the principal. Of this class also was Lydus, whose 
treatise on the Roman magistrates, discovered in 1784, is considered by Niebuhr as a valuable 
source of information. It was published by Have. Par. 1812. 8. 

The works of the Byzantine authors were first published at Paris, with the patronage of 
Louis 14th, under the title of Corps de PHistoirc Byzantine, 1648-1711. 36 vols. fol. — They were 
reprinted Ven. 1729 ss. 35. in 23 vols. fol. the 23d vol. consisting of works not in the 1st edit. 
— Cf. Schmll, vi. 415. — A new and more complete edition was commenced by Niebuhr, and 
continued after his death bv ./. Belcher and others, under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences 

at Berlin. 24 vols. 8. published, 1828-36. Cf. Bibl. Repos. n. 408. Much use of the Byzantine 

writers was made by Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. — Also by L. Cousin, 
in his Hisioire de Constantinople depuis le regne de l'ancien Justin jusqu'a la fin de l'empire 
traduite sur les originaux grecs. Par. 1685. 11 vols. 12. 

§ 239b. In relation to Biography, we may remark that, as a department of 
composition, it seems to have been almost wholly overlooked by the earlier 
Greeks. In the period between Augustus and Constantine it received more 
attention. The Lives of Plutarch, already alluded to (§238), are the most val- 
uable productions in Grecian biography. In the 3d century we find two bio- 
graphical works, the Lives of Diogenes Laertius and the Lives of Philostratus, 
which are important sources of information respecting the ancient philosophy. 



HISTORIANS, HERODOTUS. 253 

We may also mention here the Lives of Moses and some of the Patriarchs, by 
Pkilo the Jew, of Alexandria ; and likewise the biographical pieces of Porphyry 
(§ 199). — After Constantine, we have the Lives of Eunapius, and the works 
of a large number of the Byzantine writers, one class of them being, as we 
have just remarked, denominated biographers. 

§ 240. We now proceed to notice separately the most distinguished 
Greek Historians, giving first some general references. 

On the Greek historians generally, L. E. Du Pin, Universal Library of Historians. Trans], 
from French. Lond. 1709. 2 vols. 12. — J. G. Meusel, Bibliotheca Historica. Lpz. 1782—1802. 
11 vols. 8. This work contains a notice of the authors ancient or modern who have written on 
the history of Grecian or Roman affairs, or on the history of any people ; with some account of 

tJieir productions. The following is a valuable collection. J.G. Eichhorn, Antiqua Historia 

ex ipsis vet. Scriptorum Grasc. narrationibus contexta. Lpz.1811. 4 vols. 8. It forms a complete 
body of ancient history, composed of extracts from Greek authors, arranged in systematic order. 
On "the margin are indicated the argument, the book and chapter of the author whence each 
passage is taken, and the date. The 1st vol. is devoted to the empires and states of Asia; the 
2d to Greece ; the 3d and 4th to Italy. — Eichhorn also published a similar Collection, drawn 
from Latin authors, Antigua Historia in ipsis vet. Scriptorum Lat. narrationibus„ Lpz. 1811. 
B vols. 8. — A plan for reading the ancient historians, is given in Priestley's Lectures on History 

(lect. xx-xxiv) ; also in Tytler's Elements of History (pt. i. sect. 49). We may mention here 

J. B.Gail, Le Philologue, ou Recherches historiques, militaires, geographiques, grammaticales, 
&c. d'apres Herodote,Thucydide,Xenophon,Polybe,&.c. Par.1814-28. 21 vols. 8. with an Atlas 
of 107 pi. 4. 

§ 241. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus in Caria, flourished B. C. about 
450. He is the oldest Greek historian whose whole works are pre- 
served. 

1 u. His History, in 9 books, which have been named after the nine rawses, 
was originally rehearsed in part at the Olympic games, and at the Panathe- 
naean festivals of Athens, and ultimately improved and finished at Thurium in 
Lower Italy. Its main subject is the history of the Greeks, whose conflicts 
with the Persians he details down to the battle of Mycale ; but he also intro- 
duces much that pertains to the Egyptians and Lydians. That he wrote in 
his 44th year, is a circumstance of some importance in reference to his chro- 
nology. His style is characterized by dignity and simplicity united, and pre- 
sents a striking resemblance to the poetical drapery of Homer, the more obvi- 
ous perhaps from being in the Ionic dialect. The contents of the work are 
also highly instructive and useful j although some things in it have no suffi- 
cient evidence to support them. He too readily adopted as matter of fact 
whatever the Egyptian priests related to him, either from traditionary reports, 
or possibly from their own arbitrary invention. It must be remembered, that 
he offers many things merely as popular traditions and rumors. 

The names of the muses are said to have been given to the different books of Herodotus by 
the hearers, who admired their style and manner when rehearsed at the games. It was at one 
of these rehearsals that Thucydides was affected to tears. — Schall,u. 140 ss. — Rollin, Hist, of 
Polite Learning, ch. ii. art. 1. sect. i. 

2. Plutarch boldly assailed the veracity of Herodotus, in his piece styled Usql xtjq c HqoS6- 
rov xay.orjQsiag. The Father of history is ably defended by a modern, the Abbe Ocinoz. 
Bee Mem. Acad. Inscr.vol. xix. p.115. xxi. p.120. xxm. p.101. — Larr.her, as cited below.— Gillies, 
Hist. Greece.— Scheell, iv. 162. 

3. Editions.— B.—Schweighduser, Gr. & Lat. Strasb.1816. 6 vols. 8. Repr,, Lond.1817. 6 vols. 8. 
To this belongs the Lexicon Herodoteum, by the same editor, published 1824. 2 vols. 8. — 
T. Gaisford. Oxf. 1824. Lpz. 1826. 4 vols. 8. Gr. only ; but " rich in explanatory notes." 

F.— Princeps, by Aldus. Ven.1502. fol. — Gale, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1679. fob — Wesselingy 

Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1765. fol. much celebrated. R.—Laing, Gr„ & Lat. Edinb. 1806. 7 vols. 8. 

Borhtck, Gr. Lemg. 1808. 3 vols. 8. " defiled with typographical errors." — Schultz (the 

parts relating to the war with the Persians). Halle, 1809. 2 vols. — G. H. Schdfer, Gr. & Lat. 
Lips. 1825. 3 vols. 8. — J. C. F. Bdhr. Lpz. 1835. 4 vols. 8. Gr. only ; Gaisford's text ; with dis- 
sertation &c. and maps. — § G. Long, with English Notes. Lond. 1832. 8. with a Summary of 
Herod, and copious Index, published 1839. 8. — C. TV. Stacker, with Engl. Notes. Lond. 1832. 
2 vols. 8. — <5 Struve, in the Biblioth. of Jacobs and Rost- 

4. Translations. — German. — Decren. Frankf. 1784-91. 6 vols. 8. J. Lange. Berl. 1812. 

1824. 2 vols. 8. "best for a philologiam" French.— Larcher. Par.1786. 7 vols. 8. 1802. 9 vols. 8. 

— In GaiVs ed. Gr. & Fr. Par. 1821. 4 vols. 8. English.— Bcloe. Lond. 1791. 1812. 4 vols. 8. 

enriched with valuable notes. — P. E. Laurent. Oxf. 1837. 2 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative. — Porti Diction. Ionicum Grajco-Lat. &c. new edit. Oxf. 1821. 8. Struve, of 
Koniesbmg, has been preparing a new Lexicon of Herodotus. Cf. $ 7. 4. (/.) — Borhcck, Ap- 
paratus ad'Herodotum intellicendum. Lemg.1795-99. 5 vols. 8.— Creuzer, Comment. Herodotese. 
Lpz. 1819. 8.— Const. Fr. de Volncy, Supplement a l'Herodote de Larcher &c. Par. 1809. 2 vols. 8. 

— Rennell, Geographical System of Herodotus &c. 2d ed. Lond. 1830. 2 vols. 8. with maps. — 
B. G. Niebuhr, Dissertation on the Geography of Herodotus. Oxf. 1830. 8. — G. L. Heyse, de 

22 



254 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

Vita Herodoti. Berl. 1827. 8. — F. Hitzig, De Cadyti urbe Herodotea. Gott. 1829. 4. — P. H. Lar- 
cher, Notes on Herodotus, transl. from the French. Lond. 1827. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 242. Thucydides, an Athenian, flourished a little after Herodo- 
tus, B. C. about 420. His master in rhetoric was Antiphon. In the 
Peloponnesian war he was a commander of the Athenian allies. 

1 u. During his banishment from his native city, he prepared the materials 
for his History, of which that war forms the subject. His work does not$ 
however, contain an account of the whole war, but terminates with the begin- 
ning of the 21st year. It is characterized by an impartial love of truth, and a 
style noble and highly cultivated, yet sometimes obscure from its very close- 
ness and fullness of thought. The ancients viewed him as a model of good 
Attic ; and Demosthenes formed his style upon Thucydides. The History is 
usually divided into 8 books, sometimes 13. Of most of the incidents related, 
he was himself an eye-witness ; the rest he collected with great diligence and 
careful scrutiny. 

2. On his banishment he retired to Scaptesyle in Thrace,where his wife owned 
a valuable mine, and spent there 20 years, returning, it is said, near the time 
when Athens fell into the hands of the Spartans under Lysander, B. C. 404. 

Schadl,u. 157.— Sm/i/tjDiscourse on the Life of Thucydides, in his Trans, cited below. — Rollin r 
Polite Learning, ch. ii. art. 1. sect. 2. 

3. Editions. — B. — Bekker, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1824. 4 vols. 8. with Greek scholia and notes of 
Wasse and Duker. — J E. F. Poppo, Gr. Lips. 1821-38. 10 vols. 8. said to be very learned and 
complete. — Gottlebcr and Bauer, Gr. &c Lat. Lpz. 1790-1804. 2 vols. 4. Better as repr. (by 
Priestley) Lond. 1819. 5 vols 8. — F. Gb'ller, 2d ed. Lpz. 1836. 2 vols. 8. This is considered the 

best for common use. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. fol. — Junta. Flor. 1526. fol. — 

H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1564. fol.— Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1696. fol. celebrated.— Duker, 

Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols, fol.— The Bipont, Gr. & Lat. 1788. 6 vols. 8. R.— P. Elmsley, 

Gr. & Lat. Edinb. 1804. 8 vols. 12. accurate and very good. T. B. Gail, Gr. Lat. & Gall. Par. 

1807. 12 vols. 8. with maps and plates. — C. F. F. Haack. Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8. text, with brief 
notes.— Same, Gr. & Lat. with scholia. Lond. 1823. 4 vols. 8.—S.T.Bloomficld. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 
12. a good school ed. with Engl, notes. — T. Arnold. Oxf. 1835. 3 vols. 8. with maps from ac- 
tual survey ; considered good. 

4. Translations. — German. — Heilmann. Lemg. 1760. 8. edit, by Bredoic. Lemg. 1823. 8. — 

Max. Jacobi, Diisseld. 3805. 4 vols. 8. French. — Levesque. Par. 1795. 4 vols. 8. English. — 

Smith. Lond. 1753. 4th ed. 1805. 2 Vols. 8. Phil. 1818. — S.T. Bloomfield. Lond. 1819. 3 vols. 8, 
Modern Greek, by JV. Dukas (Douka), with orig. text. Vienn. 1806. 10 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative. — T. F Benedict, Comment. Critici in Thuc. Lips. 1815.8. — E. F. Poppo, Obs. 
crit. in Thuc. Lips. 1815. 8. — Creuzer, Herodot. und Thucyd. Versuch einer n'ahern Wiirdi- 
gung ihren historischen Grundsiitze. Lpz. 1798. — L. P. Hupeden, de Periclis laudatione funebri 
Thuc. ii. 35. Lips. 1831. 8. — D. H. Meyer, Periclis ap. Thuc. oratio fun. expl. Osn. 1832. 8. — 
Smith, Discourses on Thucydides and his History, pref. to Transl. above cited. — Lex.Thucydi- 
dmum, a Gr. & Engl. Diet. Lond. 1824. 8. — Maps and Plans illustrative of Thucydides and He- 
rodotus. Oxf. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 243. Xenoylion has already been named among the philosophers 
(§186). He is also distinguished as a historian. 

1 u. His style is peculiarly excellent in narrative, being uniformly simple, 
tasteful, and agreeable. The work entitled c EZlyvitcuc comprises 7 books, and 
may be considered as a continuation of Thucydides. It relates the closing 
scenes of the Peloponnesian war, and carries on the history of the Greeks and 
Persians down to the battle of Mantinea. The Expedition of Cyrus, Kvqov 
3 ' A.vu$aGic,, is also in seven books, and gives an account of the attempts of the 
younger Cyrus, and the celebrated retreat of the 10,000 Greeks. 

2. The Cijropadia , Kvqov TtociSsia, is usually ranked as a historical work, 
although some place it among the philosophical writings of Xenophon. It 
consists of 8 books, unfolding the education and life of the elder Cyrus. Many, 
both ancients and moderns, have considered it as a sort of historical and politi- 
cal romance. Cicero remarks (lib. 1. Ep. 1. ad Q.) that Xenophon's design 
Was not so much to follow truth as to give a model of a just government. 
There are several points of discrepancy between Xenophon and Herodotus in 
giving the history of Cyrus, especially in reference to the circumstances of his 
birth, the manner of his uniting the Median and Persian thrones, and the 
occasion of his death. 

Cf. Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. vii. xxxii. (vol. i. p. 315. and in. p. 501. Lond. 1801.)— Mitford, 
ch. xliii. sect. 1 (vol. vn. p. 150. Bost. 1823). — Scholl, n. p. 172, and references there given. 

3. Editions. — wholb works, see §186.-^-^hellenica. Best, J. G. Schneider. Lpz. 1821. 8. 

Moms, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1778. 8.—Bothc. Lpz. 1823. 8.—L. Dindorf. Oxf. 1831. 8. anabasis, 

Hutchinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1735. 4. often repr. Best, Camb. 1785. 8. with Porson's addenda. — 
Lion. Gott. 1822. 2 vols. 8. — C. G. Kruger, Hal. 1826, 8. with excellent notes in Latin. — E. H. 



HISTORIANS. XENOPHON. CTESIAS. POLYBIUS. 255 

Barker, with Engl, notes. Lond. 1831. 8. cyrop^edia, Hutchinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1727. 4. 

often repr. Latest, Oxf. 1812. 8. (1st Am. Phil. 1806. 8.) — Poppo. Lpz. 1821. 8. — Weckherlin. 
Stuttg. 1822. 8. — Bornemann, in RosVs Bibliotheca. — E. H. Barker, with Engl. Notes and Ques- 
tions. Lond. 1833. 12. 

4. Translations. — German. — Cvropadia, by Meyer. Frankf. 1813. 8. anabasis, by Halbcart, 

2d ed. Bresl. 1822. 8. — Hellenica, by Borheck. Frankf. 1783. 8. French.— Cyrop. by Dacier. 

Par. 1777. — Jlnab. by Larcher. Par. 1778. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrm.ann, p. 218.) English. — Anab. 

by Spelman. Lond. 1742. 8. By JV. S. Smith, Gr. & Angl. with notes. Lond. 1824. 8. — ; Cyrop. 
by Ashley. (Am. ed. Phil. 1810. 8.) 

5. Illustrative. — Fischer, Kommentar liber die Cyrop. (ed. Kuinol) Lpz. 1800. 8. — F. A. 
Bomemann, Der epilog der Cyropsedie erl'autert. Lips. 1819. 8. — C. Hoffmeister, De Cyro Xeno- 
phontis. Meurs. 1826. 4. — J. Klerk, De Vita Crcesi, in Cyropaedia, &c. Lugd. 1826. 8. — J. M. 
Holzmann, Worterbuch zu Anabasis und Cyropasdie. Carlsr. 1818. 8. — Creuzer, de Xenophonte 
historico. Lips. 1799. 8. — Renncll, Illustrations of the Expeditions of Cyrus and Retreat of the 
Ten Thousand. Lond. 1814. 4. — Fraguier, also Banier, sur Cyropaedia, in Hist. Acad, des Inscr, 
ti. 45. vi. 400. — Freret, on Geogr. of Cyrop. in the Mem. Acad, iv. 588. — W. Ainsworth, on the 
Cilician & Syrian Gates (mentioned by Xenophon), in the Journal of Lond. Roy. Oeog. Soc. 
yol. vni. p. 185. — W. Williams, Essay on the Geography of the Anabasis. Lond. 1829. — Maps 
and Plans illustrative of Xenophon and Polybius. Oxf. 1829. 8. 

§ 244. Ctesias lived in the same period, B. C. about 400. He was 
a native of Cnidus in Caria, and a physician by profession. 

l?i. He wrote a work on the Assyrian and Persian history (LTsqgixwv), in 23 
books, and also one book on India (*lv8txiov). He employed the Ionic dialect, 
and his style is commended by the ancient grammarians. The credibility of his 
accounts has been often questioned, yet there are many considerations that 
weigh in favor of it. The loss of his works is much to be regretted. We have 
some fragments of both, however, preserved in Photius. 

2. Ctesias is at variance in many points with both Herodotus and Xenophon. His history of 
India abounds with fables, some of which are supposed to have arisen from ascribing an actual 
existence to such hieroglyphical and emblematic figures as are still found on the ruins of Per- 
sepolis. — Sch'dll, n. 174. vii. 436. — Oedoyn, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. torn. xiv. 

3. The fragments of Ctesias are given in many editions of Herodotus. — Separately, H. Ste- 
phanus. Par. 1557.-^3. Lion. GStt. 1823. Q.—Bdhr. Frankf. 1824. 

§ 245. Polybius, of Megalopolis in Arcadia, flourished between 
200 and 150 B. C. distinguished as a statesman and a warrior. He 
lived many years at Rome, where he became an intimate friend of the 
younger Scipio ; the last six years of his life were passed in his na- 
tive land. t 

\u. His work, entitled r Iaroqla xaQoZixlj, General History, consists of 40 
books ; and is a universal history for the period of 53 years, from the begin- 
ning of the second Punic w T ar to the reduction of Macedonia under Perseus, 
B. C. 167. We have only the first 5 books entire, and some fragments of the 
rest as far as the 17th. Polybius was the author of a new method of treating 
history, expressed by the term 'pragmatic. His details of military operations 
are more particular and interesting from his personal experience in the military 
art. His style is not pure and classical, yet it is vigorous and manly, and 
evinces both learning and reflection. 

2. " Polybius," says Scholl, " gave a new character to history, and created 
a new kind, Vhistoire raisonnte, or pragmatique {jcqay^anxi^). Not content 
with merely relating events, he unfolds their causes, and explains their conse- 
quences. He paints characters and passes sentence upon actions. Thus he 
forms the judgment of his reader, and prompts the reflections which may pre- 
pare him for the administration of public affairs (TZQaypaTa)." — Cf. Cicero de 
Or. ii. 5. — Of the books after the 17th we have no remains, except what is 
found in two meagre abridgments, which the emperor Constantine Porphyron 
genitus caused to be made. — Polybius was born B. C. 205, and died B. C. 123. 

— Scholl, in. 226—230. 

3. Editions. — B. — Schweighdaser, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1789-95. 9 vols. 8. with a copious Lexicon. 

Repr. Oxf. 1823. 5 vols. 8. F. — Princeps, by Obsopoeus, Gr. & Lat. Hagan. 1530. fol 

Arlenius, Gr. &. Lat. Eas. 1549. fol. — Casaubon, Gr. &c Lat. Par. 1609, fol. highly commended. 

— Gronovius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1670. 3 vols. 8. — Emesti, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1764. 3 vols. 8. 

4. Translations. — German.— F. TV. Bcnikcn. Weim. 1820. 8. French.— V.Thidllier, with 

comment, of Chev. Folard. Par. 1727. 6 vols. 4. and with Suppl. Amst. 1753. 7 vols. 4. Eng- 
lish.— Hampton. Lond. 1772. 4 vols. 8. 1809. 3 vols. 8. Cf. Moss, ii. 530. 

5. Illustrative. — Lipsius, Comment, ad Polybium, cited P. IV. §275. — Reiske, Animadver- 
siones ad Polybium. Lips. 1763. Q.—J. Moor, Criticisms on Polybiiis, &c. Glasg.1759. 12.— Dry- 
din's Character of Polybius, &c— See references, § 531, 4, 



256 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 246. Diodorus Siculus, of Argyrium, lived under Julius Caesar 
and Augustus. By his travels over a great portion of Europe and 
Asia, and also in Egypt, and by a diligent perusal of the earlier Greek 
and Latin historians, he prepared materials for his great historical 
work. 

lu. This is composed of 40 books, under the title of Bipitotyxti laroqiy.},, 
extending from the earliest times down to Csesar's Gallic war, B. C. about 60. 
A large part of the work is lost ; we have only 15 books (viz. 1-5 and 11-20), 
with fragments of the rest. It is marked by a careful indication of the order 
of time, but has less merit in point of style, or accuracy in other respects. 

2.. Diodorus employed 30 years in completing his Historical Library. For a view of the plan 
and contents, we refer to Scholl, vol. iv. 81, and Rollin, Polite Learning, ch. ii. art. 1. sect. 6. 

3. Editions. — R. — L. LUndorf. Lips. 1828-31.. 5 vols. 8. " the most critical and valuable." 
Heyne % Eyring, Gr. &. Lat. Bipont, 1793-1807, 11 vols. 8.— Wesseling, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1746. 

2 vols. fol. F^—Princeps, by Obsopceus. Bas. 1539. 4. (bks„ 16-20.)— H. Stephanus. Par. 1559. 

fol. (lObks. 1-5 & 11-15.) — Rhodomann, Gr..& Lat. Han. 1604. fol. 

4. Translations. — German. — Stroth 8f Kaltwasser. Frankf. 1782-87. 6 vols. 8. French. — 

Abbe Terasson. Par. 1777. 7 vols. 12. English.— 6. Booth. Lond. 1721. fol. 

§ 247. Dionysius Halicarnasseus has been mentioned among the 
rhetoricians (§117). He lived 22 years at Rome, and there collected 
the materials for his Roman Archceology. 

lu. This work, * Aoyaioloy'ia. Pwuaix>' h comprised 20 books, and was designed 
to make known to the Greeks the origin, history, and constitution of the Ro- 
mans. It extends from the building of the eity to the beginning of the first 
Punic war. There are now extant only the first 11 books, and some fragments 
of the rest, in part recently discovered by Mai. The extant books bring the 
history to the year of Rome 312, B.C. 442. His narrative is not wholly im- 
partial, being often too favorable to the Romans, and his style is not unexcep- 
tionable. Yet we may obtain from this work the best insight of the Roman 
system and constitution, because the author was led, in explaining to the 
Greeks a novel and strange subject, to enter into particulars much more than 
the Roman writers needed to do. 

2. We team from Photius, that Dionysius made an abridgment of his work in 5 books. Mai 
supposed he had discovered this abridgment in a manuscript in the Ambrosian Library at Mi- 
lan ; but the specimen published by him does not justify the opinion. — Scholl, vol. i v. 100. — 
K. L. Struve, Ueber die von A. Maius bekannt gemachten Bruchstiicke des Dionysius &c. 
Konigsb.. 1820..8. 

3. There have been three editions of the whole works. — Princeps, that of Sylburg, Gr. & 
Lat. Frankf. 1586. 2 vols. fol. (there were editions in Latin earlier.) — Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 
1704. 2 vols, fol.— Reiske, Gr. & Lat. 1774-77. 6 vols. 8.— A better edition wanted.— The archae- 
ology, R. Stephanus. Par. 1546. fol. (with other works. - ) — Grimm. Lpz. 1786. 8. (but containing 
only a part). — The fragment discovered; in the Amb, Libr. was published by Mai. Mil. 1816. 4. 
Repr. Frankf. 1817. 8. 

4. Translations of the Archceology. — German. — Benzler, Lemg. 1771-72. 2 vols, 8. French. 

—Jay &f Bellanger. Par. 1723. 2 vols.. 4. 1806. 6 vols. 8. English.— Ed. Spelman. Lond. 1758. 

4 vols. 4. 

5. Illustrative. — Petit-Radel, and Raoul-Rochette, on the authenticity of Dionysius &c. in the 
Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. etLitt. Anc. vol.v, p.143. — Hooke, Observat. on Rom. Senate, 
Dionysius Halyc. Sec. Lond. 1758. 4. — E. Stanley. Review of Hooke's Observations &c. Lond. 
1758. 8. — P. F. Schulin, De Dionys. Hal. historico &c. Heidelb. 1821. 4. 

§ 248. Flavins Josephus, the Jew, was born at Jerusalem A. D. 37. 
He possessed a large knowledge of the world, united to much famili- 
arity with Greek learning. Belonging to the sect of the Pharisees, 
and being a descendant from the royal Asmoneean family, he held the 
prefecture of Galilaea with much reputation. He became a prisoner to 
Vespasian, but obtained his freedom and accompanied Titus during 
the siege of Jerusalem. Afterwards he lived; at Rome. 

lu. His Jewish Wars, in 7 books, he wrote originally in Hebrew or Syro- 
Chaldaic, afterwards in Greek ( y Iovdaix}; lo-roota mql tUioostoc) in order to 
present the work to the emperor. Subsequently he composed his Jewish An- 
tiquities ('lovSaiyJi 'AQxaioloyia), in 20 books, containing the history of the 
Jews and their ancestors from the creation to the 12th year of the emperor 
Nero. The genuineness of a passage of the 18th book, respecting Christ, is 
verv questionable, and is by many considered as an interpolation. We have 



HISTORIANS. JOSEPHUS. PLUTARCH. ARRIANUS. 257 

also from Josephus a work in 2 books on the antiquity of the Jewish nation, 
and an auto-biography. With all their defects the writings of this author are 
of great value in illustrating the Bible and the history of religion. 

2. The work on the antiquit\r of the nation is in reply to Apion, a gramma- 
rian of Alexandria. — A work styled *Etg JVLaxxafiaiovg ?.6yog (found in some 
editions of the apocryphal scriptures as the fourth book of Maccabees) , has been 
erroneously ascribed to Josephus. — An account of the discussion respecting 
the disputed passage above mentioned, is given in Schbll (vol. iv. p. 116). 

3. Editions. — whole works, best, Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1720. 2 vols. fol. — Havercamp^ 
Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1726. 2 vols. fol. — Oberthur, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1782. 3 vols. 8. (promising to 
be the best, but not completed on account of the editor's death.) — auto-biogr4fhy, Gr. &c 
Lat. HcjiJie. Bruns. 1766. 8. — de bello judaico. E. Cardwell, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1837. 2 vols. 8. 

4. Translations. — Latin. — Ruftnus (or Cassiodorus). 1470. German. — Hedion. Strasb. 1531. 

fol.— Ott. Zur. 1736. 6 vols. 8. -Spanish.— Al. de Palencia. Sev. 1492. fol. French — Verard 

(printer). Par. 1492. fol.— Gillet. Par. 1756. 4 vols, 4. Italian.— Florence, 1493. fol. Eng- 
lish. — Whiston. Lond. 1737. fol. often reprinted. 

§ 249. Plutarch was named among the philosophers (§ 195), but 
also deserves a place with the historians. 

1. In his Parallel Lives, Bioi naQalhjloi, he exhibits and compares, in a 
very full and instructive manner, the characters of the most distinguished 
Greeks and Romans. There are 22 parallels, giving the lives and characters 
of 44 persons ; with which is connected the biography of 5 individuals taken 
singly. The lives of several others, said to have been written by him, are now 
lost. 

The Lives of Plutarch have been universal^ considered as a rich treasure for the antiquarian, 
the statesman, and the scholar. They contain citations of a vast number of ancient authors,. 

many of whom are wholly lost. Heercn, de fontibus et auctoritate viUparal. Plut. Gommen-. 

tationes. Gott. 1820. 8. 

2. We have several other works of a historical character from him; among 
them, Roman Questions (^Atriui c Poniaiy.ai) and Grecian Questions C Atrial 
'E?M]vixai), in which he discusses various points of Greek and Roman antiqui- 
ties ; Comparison of analogous events in Greek and Roman history ; On the for- 
tune of Alexander, &c. The Lives of the 10 orators, ascribed to him (§ 99), is 
not considered as genuine. — A son of Plutarch, named Lamprias, formed a 
catalogue of his father's works, styled LT?.vtuq^ov Bip.icov nivaz, which is pre- 
served in part, and given in Fabricius. — Scholl, vol. iv. 118-163. 

3. The Lives are published in the editions of the whole works, cited §195. — Separately, Prin- 
ceps, by Junta. Florence, 1517. fol. — Best, Bryan Sf Du Soul, Gr. &c Lat. Lond. 1729. 5 vols. 4 — 
Coray. Par. 1809. 6 vols. 8. with notes in modern Greek. — § 6?. H. Schdfar (in Teubner's Coll.) 
Repr. Lond. 1829. 6 vols. 12. — § F. Jacobs, in the Bibliotheca ,1836. 

4. Translations. — Latin. — Campanus. Rom. 1640. 2 vols. fol. The Lives were published in 

Latin versions several times before the first edit, in Greek. German. — Kaltwasser. Magd. 

1799-1806. 10 vols. 8. — Klaiber, in the Collection of Tafel, &c. French. — Amyot, Whole 

Works of P. (rec. ed.) Par. 1784. 18 vols. 4. (cf. Fuhrmann, p. 394. )—Dacier. (rec. ed.) Par. 1812. 

15 vols. 18. English. — J. §■ W. Lang-home. Lond. 1770. 6 vols. 8. with notes and a Life of 

Plutarch. Several times reprinted. 

§ 250. Flavins Arrianus, of Nicomedia, in the 2d century, has 
already been mentioned among the philososophers (§ 194). He was 
not without celebrity as a writer of history, in which department he 
was a very successful imitator of Xenophon. 

1 u. He composed an account of the Expedition of Alexander in 7 books, 
*Iotoquov uvapuotwg 3 Alszartinov fiip.ia l, and a work on the Affairs of India, 
*Ivdiza, wbich continues the history of Alexander. The latter has been con- 
sidered as the 8th book of the former, but without grounds, although there is 
indeed a connection by the subject. The former is written in the Attic dia- 
lect, the latter in the Ionic. In the latter work he borrowed much from the 
Periplus of Nearchus. 

2. Arrian wrote also several other historical works, which are lost; among 
them a history of Parti da, Uao&r/.u, in 17 books; of Bithynia, Bi&vviay.a, in 8 
books ; of the times subsequent to Alexander, The utrlc ' AAszarSqov. — There are 
still extant, besides what has here been named and his philosophical writings 
(§194), a treatise on Tactics, Ti/rt] raxrix^ ; another on the Chase, Kw)jysri- 
y.oc ; and a Periplus of the Black Sea, JltniTc/.ovg Ei'Uivov. A Periplus of the 
Red Sea, 'EovSqug 6a?.uoot;g, also bears his name. — SchOll, iv. 166. v. 256, 306. 

22* 



258 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURES 

3. Editions. — whole works. The only edition, A. C.Borheck. Lemg. 1792. 1811. 3 Vols. -8. 

not highly commended. — exped. of alex. Best, Schmieder, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1798. 8 J. E. 

Ellendt. Koni'gsb. 1832. 2 vols. 8. Gr. only ; best text, with explanatory notes. india, Schmie- 
der. Hal. 1788. 8. A good edition of both these together, Raphel (by Schmid), Gr. &. Lat. Amst. 
1757. 2 vols. 8. — tactics. — Best, Blancard, Gr~& Lat. Amst. 1683. containing also the Peripli 
and Chase. The Peripli are also in Hudson, Geog. Min. cited § 208. 2. — The Chase in Zeune's 
Polit. of Xenophon, cited $186. 3. 

4. Translations. Alexander's Expedition. — German. — Borheck. Frankf. 1790-92. 2 vols. 8. — 

French — Chaussard. Par. 1802. 3 vols. 8 English,— J. Rook. Lond. 1729. rec. ed. 1814. 

2 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative.— P. 0. Chys, Comment, geograph. in Arr. de Expedit. Alexandri. Lugd. 1828. 
4. with maps. 

6. The Periplus of Nearchus. mentioned above, is found in Hudson,Geog.Mm. referred to above. 
See W. Vincent, Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus &c. Lond.1797. 1810. 3 vols. 4. Cf. P. I. § 27. 

§ 251. Appianus of Alexandria nourished at Rome as a lawyer, in 
the 2d century, in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, 
and finally acquired the office of imperial procurator. 

1m. He wrote a Roman History,' lax oy'ia* Pix)uaiy.i h in 24 books, of which we 
have only 11, with some fragments. It extends from the destruction of Troy 
to the time of Augustus. The order of narration is not chronological, but the 
events are arranged with reference to the countries or the nations particularly 
concerned ; thus in different divisions he treats of different wars, in which the 
Romans ware engaged, as e. g. the Punic, Parthian, Iberian or Spanish, Syrian, 
Mithridatic, &c. In this work much is borrowed from others, especially from 
Polybius and Plutarch. It is particularly serviceable in giving an idea of the 
Roman system of war and military affairs. 

2. In his preface, Appian states the reason of his renouncing synchronism as a principle of 
historical arrangement; viz. the weariness occasioned by being obliged to turn the attention 
from province to province as the scene of events is changed ; to hurry, for example, from Car- 
thage to Spain, from Spain to Sicily, from Sicily to Macedonia, and thence again to Carthage. 
The style of Appian is formed on that of Polybius, but is inferior to it. He is charged with par- 
tiality in favor of the Romans. — Scholl, rv. p. 173-176. — J. Schweighauser, On Appian, in his 
Opuscula Academica. Argent. 1806. 8. 

3. Editions. — The best, Schweighauser, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1785. 3 vols. 8.. F. — Princeps , 

bv C. Stephanus. Par. 1551. fol. — H. Stephanus, Gr. &. Lat. Gen. 1592. fol.— Tollius, Gr. &Lat. 
Amst. 1670. 2 vol's. 8. R — Schdfer, in the Coli. of Tauchnitz. 4 vols. 18. 

4. Translations. — German. — Dillenius. Frankf. 1793, 1800. 2 vols. 8. French. T. J. 

Combes-Daunous. Par. 1808. 3 vols. 8. English.— Dames. Lond. 1679. 1703. fol. 

§ 2.52. Dion Cassius, surnamed Cocceianus, of Nicsea in Bithynia, 
lived at the close of the 2d and' beginning of the 3d century, and was 
twice Roman Consul. 

1 u. During along residence at Rome he made himself familiar with the his- 
tory of the Romans, on which he wrote a work in 8 Decades, or 80 books, ex- 
tending from JEneas to his own time, A. D. 229. The first 35 books, however, 
are lost, excepting some fragments ; we have the succeeding books, from the 
36th to the 54th, almost entire, and the 55th in parts ; of the following, to the 
60th, we have an abridgment by an unknown hand ; and the remaining 20 
books are in the abridgment made by Xiphilinus in the 11th century. Dion 
details with much exactness, but his style is often too much labored, and he is 
sometimes unnecessarily minute. 

2. His name was properly Cassius, and he is said to have assumed the other as descended, by 
his mother, from Dion Chrysostomus (§118). Much of his life was spent in public official em- 
ployments. The remains of his work e'nable us to fill up many chasms in Roman history, and 
form our most important guide for the events of his own times. The abridgment by Xiphilinus, 
alluded to above, was drawn up by order of the emperor Michael Ducas, and extends from the 
35th book to the end of the original.— Scholl, iv. 180-187.. 

3. Editions. — Best, Reimar (begun by Fabricius), Gr. & Lat. Hamb. 1750. 2 vols. fol. Some 
fragments published by Morelli (1728. 8.) were repr. (ed. Chardonla Rochette) Par. 1800. in folio, 

in order to be joined with this edition* J\. 6. Start, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1834-38. 9 vols. 8. with 

notes of Reimar and others. F. — Princeps, by R. Stephanus. Par. 1548. fol. — H. Stephanus. 

Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1592. fol. — Leunclavius, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1606. fol. 

4. Translations. — German. — J. A. Wanner. Frankf. 1783-86. 5 vols. 8. English. — Manning. 

Lond. 1704. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 253. Claudius JEIianus, of Prseneste in Italy, was a sophist of 
the 3d century ; but he is usually ranked among the historians. 

lu. He is thus ranked on account of his work entitled JJoi/.O.ri [otoqIu, Va- 
rious history, in 14 books. It is a mere compilation of miscellaneous incidents, 
made without much close scrutiny or discrimination ; yet the narratives are 
very entertaining, although the style is unequal and sometimes affected. iE- 



BIOGRAPHERS. DIOGENES LAERTIUS. PHILOSTRATUS. 259 

lian also wrote a history of animals (§ 277). The work on Tactics, which some 
have ascribed to him, was probably from an earlier writer of the same name. 

2. Although he was descended from Latin parents, and according to his 
own testimony never went beyond the borders of Italy, he acquired such a 
knowledge of the Greek language, that he was, according to Philostratus, con- 
sidered worthy of a rank among the purest Atticists, and according to Suidas, 
obtained the surname of MsZtcpOoyyog (Jwney-voiced) . — Besides the works 
above named, there are also ascribed to him 20 Letters on rural topics QAyqoi- 
y.al iTtiorolal), of but little value. — SchOll, iv.195. — Stollius, Int. in Hist. Lit. 
(Jena.) 1728. 

3. Of the Var. History B. — Grovovms, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols. 4. — F. Jacobs, Gr. 

only. Jena, 1830. 8. with notes. Principal earlier ; Scheffer, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 1685. 8. — 

Perizonius, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1701. 2 vols. 8. R.— Coray. Par. 1805. 8. with notes in an- 
cient Greek. — Lunemann. Gbtt. 1811. 8. The Letters are found in the collections of Aldu3 

and Cujas, cited $ 152. 1. Of the work on Tactics (by the elder .(Elian A. D. 120), the best 

edition is that of S. Jlrcerius {Elzevir printer). Leyd. 1613. 4. The whole works of both the 

^Elians were published by Gessner, Gr. & Lat. Tiguri (Zurich), 1556. fol. 

4. Translations. — Various History.— German, by Meinecke. Ctuedl. 1787. 8. French, by 

J. Dacier. Par. 1772. 8. English, by T. Stanley. Lond. 1665. 8. Tactics. — German, by 

Baumgartncr. Mannh. 1786. 4. 

§ 254. Herodianus the historian, not the same as jEUus Herodia- 
nus named among the grammarians (§136), lived at Rome towards 
the middle of the 3d century. 

1m. He wrote the history of those emperors whose reigns he had seen, from 
the death of Marcus Aur. Antoninus to the accession of the younger Gordian, 
A.D. 180 — 238. Tfjg uara Muqxov (iaat?.slag [aroqiai, in 8 books. It is exe- 
cuted with much frankness and love of truth, but with too little precision in 
respect to chronology. His style is pure, and in the discourses or addresses, 
which he has introduced, there is a great degree of nobleness and dignity, 
without excess of labored ornament. 

2. The best edition of Herodian is that of G. W. Irmisch, Gr. &Lat. Lpz, 1789-1805. 5 vols. 8. 
(with a vast mass of notes.) — A better text is found in Wolf (Gr. only). Hal. 1792. 8. — A good 
ed. for common use is Weber (Gr. only). Lpz. 1816. 8. — Also G. Lange. Hal. 1824. 8. 

3. Translations. — Latin. — bug. Politian. Pom. 1493. fol. This was made by order of Inno- 
cent 8th, and was greatly admired and often reprinted German. — J. G. Cunradi. Frank£. 

1784. 8. English.— J. Hart. Lond. 1749. 8. French.— H. de Montgault. Par. 1712. 12. 

§255a. Diogenes Laertius flourished probably in the beginning of the 3d cen- 
tury. Little is known respecting his life. He left a work entitled JZsot fiiwv 
v.ai SoyiiuTvw rwr lv ipiZoooyla ivdoziuyourTuiv, in 10 books, which contains the 
biography of the principal philosophers of the various sects, and their most re- 
markable apothegms. The whole of the last book is devoted to Epicurus. ■ 

The contents are stated by Scholl, vol. v. p. 226. 

1. Editions. — B. — H. G. Hubner, Gr. <fe Lat. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. A commentary on the 

first 5 books, by same. Lips. 1830. 8. F. — Princeps, by Froben (the sons of). Bas. 1553. 4. — - 

H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1570-94. 2 vols. 8. — t M. Meibomius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1692. 
2 vols. 4. — Longolius, Gr. & Lat. (text of Meib.) Hof. 1739. 2 vols. 8. with engravings of heads,, 

2. Translations. — The work was first published in the Latin of Ambrosius (Traversari), 
before 1475. A 2d ed. Ven. 1475. fol. — Walter Burley, in the beginning of the 14th century, 
translated or closely followed Diogenes, in the work styled Devitaetmoribusphilosophornm&.c. 
which was printed at Cologne, 1472. 4. He is supposed by some to have had a better text of the 

original than is now possessed, (cf. Wolfs Analekt. Lit. ii. 227.) German, — E. A. Borheck. 

Vien. 1807. 2 vols. 8. French. — (Anonymous.) Amst. 1758. 3 vols. 12. Par. 1796. 2 vols. 8- 

English. — By several authors. Lond. 1688. 2 vols. 8. 

§255b. Flavius Philostratus the elder, from Lemnos, lived in the 3d 
century, and in the profession of sophist taught eloquence both at 
Athens and Rome. 

lu. We have from him the Life of Apollonius Tyanensis, 3 ' Anollwviov rod 
Tvaviws j^toc, in 8 books, full of the most extravagant encomiums, especially 
upon the miracles of Apollonius, who lived about A. D. 70. 

2. It has been thought by many that Philostratus designed, in his biography of Apollonius, 
to ridicule the life and miracles of our Savior. In the time of Dioclesian, less than a century 
after Philostratus, his work was placed by Hieroclesof Nicomedia in opposition to the writinga 
of the evangelists. The absurdity of this was afterwards exposed by Eusebius. — Huet, DemonsL 
Evang. Prop. ix. c. 147.— Scholl, iv. 289.— Cf. § 287, 288. 

3u. There is also a work by him entitled Eixovsg, in 2 books, containing 66 
descriptions of paintings in a gallery, which was at Naples. — There is a work 
with the same title by Philostratus the younger, who was nephew to the for- 



260 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

mer and also of Lemnos. It is in some respects valuable for artists, although 
wanting in precision and simplicity. 

The books on painting have received attention from modern writers. — There is a work on 
statues, by Callistratus, of an unknown era, which is usually joined with them. — Count Caylus, 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. torn. xxix. — Heyne, in his Op use. Acad. vol. v. — Fr. Jacobs, Animad. in Cal- 
listrati statuas et Philost. imagines. Lips. 1797. 8.—Rehfues tiber den jiingern Philost. u. seine 
Genial dbeschreib. Tub. 1800. 8. 

4. We have other works by Philostratus. In a piece called 'HqaCita, he 
gives the fabulous history of 21 heroes of the Trojan war. He has left also 
about 70 letters, and an epigram found in the Anthologies. But a more inter- 
esting and valuable work is his Lives of the Sophists, Bioi aoipiarwv,'va. 2 books. 
One book gives the biography of 26 philosophical sophists ; the other, of 33 
rhetorical sophists. It contains a fund of anecdotes illustrating the manners 
and morals of these ostentatious pretenders, and gives a vivid picture of the 
decline of genuine eloquence. — Seholl, iv. 190. 

5. Editions. — Of the complete icorks, there have been two editions. — Morel. Par. 1608. fol. — 

Olearius. Lpz. 1709. fol. containing also Philostratus the younger. After the edition of Ole- 

arius, no part of Phil, was published (according to Seholl, i v. 296) until the Heroica by Boissonade, 
Gr. & Lat. Par. 1806. 8. — Imagines, by F. Jacobs Sf F. T. Welckcr. Lips. 1825. 8. containing 

also Callistratus on statues. ©f. G. J. Bekker, var. lect. et observ. in Philost. vit. Apollon. 

&x. Heidelb. 1818.— C. L. Kayser, Not. crit. in Philost. Vit. Sophistarum. Heidelb. 1831. 8. 

6. Translations. — German. — Whole works, by Seybold. Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. English. — 

Lives of Sophists, by Edw. Berwick. Lond. 1812. 8. Also Life of Apollonius. Cf. Lond. Quart. 
Rev. in. 417. French.— Life of Apollonius, by Castillon. Berl. 1774. 4 vols. 12. 

§ 25.5c. Eunapius was a native of Sardis. He studied in Athens, and traveled 
in Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. He is named 
here on account of his work entitled Blot y>0.oa6<pwr v.ai Poyiarwv, which contains 
notices of 23 philosophers and sophists, who lived in his time, or not long be- 
fore. It betrays his hostility to the Christian system. — Cousin, Nouv. Fragm. 
Phil. (p. 200) cited §171. 

There have been four editions of Eunapius. — Princeps, by Ad. Junghe (Junius), Gr. & Lat. 
Antw. 1568. 8. — The last, and best, by J. F. Boissonade, Gr. only. Amst. 1822. 2 vols. 8. with 
notes.— Cf. Seholl, vn. 70. 

§ 256. Zosimus flourished in the 5th century. He held the office of 
Comes Fisci at Constantinople. 

lu. His New History, Nta r IotoqIcc, in 6 books, embraces the reigns of the 
emperors from Augustus down to A. D. 410. The style is pure, perspicuous, 
and not destitute of ornament. But he is by no means an impartial writer, 
and appears to have been strongly prejudiced against Christianity. 

2. Polybius had exhibited the causes which contributed to the rise of Ro- 
man grandeur. Zosimus, in imitation of this distinguished writer, proposed 
to trace the causes of its decline. His object and plan were good, but he had 
not the requisite qualifications for the task. Among the causes he erroneously 
ranks the establishment of the Christian religion. — Seholl, vi. 338 — 348. 

3. The best editions ; Reitemeier, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1784. 8. (Fuhrmann.) — I. Bekker. Bonn. 
1838. 8. in Niebuhr's Corpus, cited § 239a. — The first complete ed. was in Sylburg's collection, 
Script. Hist. Rom. Franc. 1590. 

4. Translations. — German. — Seijbold and Heyler. Frankf. 1802. 2 vols. 8. French, by 

Cousin. 

§ 257. Procopius, a native of Cgesarea in Palestine, flourished in 
the 6th century, as a sophist and lawyer at Constantinople. He was 
a friend to Belisarius, and held for a long time the office of prefect of 
the Capital. 

lu. He wrote a History of his own times, in 8 books, Twv z<x& y uvrov [aroQicov 
@ip?.La oxtoj. The work is divided into 2 tetrades, the first 4 books being called 
Persic, and the last 4 Gothic, including a period of 70 years, A.D. 482 — 552. 
The former portion describes the wars of the Romans, both with the Persians 
and with the Vandals and Moors in Africa ; and the latter, those with the 
Goths. He has left also a work styled 3 ^ivixSora, which is a secret history of 
the Court of Constantinople under Justinian ; and another called Krl.Of.iura, 
Buildings, in 6 books, in which he describes the various works constructed or 
repaired by Justinian. His style has the merit of accuracy and clearness. 

2. The Corpus of Byz. Hist, (cited <S 239) includes the three works of Procopius, edit, by C. 
Maltret, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1662, 63. 3 vols, fol.— ed. by O. Dindorf, 1833. 3 vols. 8. in the Corpus 
4'c. Cf. § 239a — A German translation of the secret history, by J. P. Reinhard. Erlang. 1753. 8* 



HISTORIANS. PROCOP1US. ZONARAS. DARES. 261 

§ 258. Agathias, of Myrina in iEolis, has already been mentioned 
as an author of Epigrams and editor of an Anthology (§34, 35). He 
was a Christian jurist or advocate, of the Alexandrine school, and 
lived at Constantinople in the 6th century. 

lu. We have from him a continuation of the history of Procopius, through 
7 additional years, in a work entitled Usol rijg 'Iovotlviuvov paoi?.slag, On the 
reign of Justinian. 

2. This work is divided into 5 books. His style has been thought to suffer 
from the author's habits as a poet. He speaks of himself as being especially 
fond of poetry from his youth. His History derives much of its value from 
an account it contains of Persian institutions and usages drawn directly by 
him from Persian writings. — Scholl, vi. 377. — For. Rev. No. n. 

3. The first edition was by B. Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1594. 4. — Included in the Corp- 
Byz. Par. 1660. fol. with his epigrams.— By B. Q. mebuhr, Gr. & Lat. 1828. 8. in his ed. of the 
Corpus Byz. 

§ 259. Zonaras [Johannes) flourished at Constantinople in the 11th 
and 12th centuries. He was raised to distinguished honors in the 
court of the emperor Alexius Comnenus, but resigned them and re- 
tired as a monk to Mt. Athos. 

lu. Of many works composed by him in the latter part of his life, we notice 
as belonging here his Annals, Xaoviy.bv, in 18 books, including a general his- 
tory from the beginning of the world down to A. D. 1118. It consists of 
abridgments or extracts from larger works, and exhibits great inequality of style. 
The history of the Jews is given first, then that of the Greeks and of" the Ro- 
man Republic, and lastly that of the Roman Empire. In the latter part he 
closely follows Dion Cassius. 

2. Another work of Zonaras was an Exegesis on the Canons of the Apostles, Synods, and 
Fathers. He left also a Lexicon or Glossary, which is useful as a concomitant to that of He- 
eychius.— Scholl, vi. 288, 358. vn. 241. 

3. The Annals were first published by Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1551. 3 vols, fol.— Repr. in Corp. 

Byz. Ducange, ed. 1686. The Exegesis is in Beveridge, Synodicon sive Pandect, canonum 

S. S. apost. concil. ab eccles. Grasc. receptorum. 1672. 2 vols. fol. Lexicon, by Tittmann (c£ 

$142.4). Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. 

§ 260. Dares the Phrygian, and Dictys the Cretan, may be men- 
tioned in closing our list of names in the department of history. 
Their era is uncertain, and their value trifling. 

1. Homer (II. v. 9) mentions Dares as a priest of Vulcan at Troy. iElian 
(Var. Hist. xi. 2.) states that an Iliad or history of the Trojan war by Dares 
was extant in his times ; yet this work was probably not from the Trojan priest, 
but the fabrication of some sophist. There is extant a work in Latin, entitled 
De excidio Trojce historia, which has been taken for a translation made by 
Cornelius JVepos from the Greek of Dares. It is now admitted to be merely 
the prose outline of a poem in 6 cantos by Joseph Iscanius, who was an Eng- 
lish poet of the 12th century, born at Exeter in Devonshire, and called Isca- 
nius from fsca the ancient name of Exeter, and sometimes Davonius from his 
native county. (Cambden's Britannia, p. 133. Publ. in Latin 1607. fol. English, 
by Gibson, 1617.) 

2. There was a kindred fabrication in Greek, made by Praxis, in the name 
of Dictys Cretensis, who is said to have served in the Trojan war, and to have 
kept a journal (ttprueQig) of its events. The original Greek is lost; but there 
is a Latin version in 6 books. Cf. § 238, 522.— Scholl, iv. 107. 

3. The pretended works of Dares and Dictys ($ 238) are supposed to have been the original 
source of the famous romance of chivalry by Guido dalle Colonne (de Columna), a Sicilian lawyer 
and poet of the 13th century. This romance, the second that was written of the chivalric class, 
was translated from the Latin into all the languages of Europe, and received with universal 
enthusiasm. The first romance of this class Is traced to an eastern origin in a Persian tale of 
Alexander the Great, translated first into Greek and then into Latin. — Sclitill, vn. 3-5. 194-96. 
— Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. vol.i. p. 116. — W. Ouselcy, on some extraordinary anecdotes of Alex- 
ander ; in the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. i. Lond. 1829. 

4. Dares and Dictys have usually been published together. The first edition was printed, 
Milan, 1477.— The best edition is that of Perizonius. Amst. 1702. 8. a reimp. of Madame Dacier^a 
(Par. 1680. 4), and containing the poem of Joseph Iscanius (cf. § 522). — These works were 
translated in the 16th century into the Italian, French, and German. A Russian version was 
published, Mosc. 1712. 8. Cf. Fabricius, above cited, p. 112. 



262 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



X. — Writers on Medicine and Natural History. 

§261m. The science of Medicine is founded essentially upon observation and 
experience, and is one of those which were but imperfectly understood in an- 
cient times. Indeed, from the nature of the case, it could not be brought to 
perfection until later periods. The same is true, to a considerable extent, of 
Natural History and Physics in general. Yet these sciences were pursued 
among the Greeks not without some zeal and success. But their success in 
them can by no means be compared with that which they enjoyed so peculiarly 

and happily in literature and the fine arts. At first the practice of medicine 

was limited almost wholly to the curing of external wounds. The great re- 
nown which Esculapius ('yioyj.tjntog, cf. P. III. § 84.) and his descendants 
called the Asclepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and rarity of the heal- 
ing art in those times, in which in fact it was considered as a miraculous gift 
from the gods. The Asclepiades established several schools in medicine, of 
which those at Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus were the most celebrated. It was not 
until a later period that the Greeks became acquainted with anatomy. Hip- 
pocrates was the first who investigated the science systematically, or wrote 
upon the subject. 

There is a brief collection of rules of health ascribed to the Asclepiades, entitled ' ' d-Gy.li]7lia- 
dcov vysiva naQayyz7.ua.Ta. Found in J. C. d'Aretin, Beytrage zur Gesch. der Lit. vol. ix. 
— and in Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. m. p. 11. 

§262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period, between Solon 
and Alexander, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the guidance of 
experience, and plunged into the labyrinths of speculation. The school termed 
the Dogmatic was now established, which attempted to unite the theories of 
the philosophers with the principle of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates 
are named among its founders. The most distinguished of this school were 
Diodes of Carystus in Eubeaa, and Praxagoras of Cos. Of the medical writ- 
ings of the former we have have a few fragments. 

The fragments of Diodes are published in C. O. Kuhn, De Medicis Greecis &c. Lips. 1820. 4. 
— Cf. Scholl, in. 402. 

§ 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of 
the human body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Al- 
exandrine school, the most distinguished were Herophilus and Erasistratus, 
who lived under the first Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of fol- 
lowers. Among the adherents of the fdrmer soon arose the Empiric school, 
founded by Philinus, of Cos, and Serapion of Alexandria. To this school most 
of the physicians of the period before the fall of Corinth attached themselves. 
They professed to follow the lessons of experience (tuns lq La). — One of the 
most illustrious of the Empirics was Dioscorides, who will be noticed below 
(§ 271). We may mention also Apollonius of Citium, and Xenocrates of Aph- 
rodisium, as of some eminence. 

It was towards the close of this era that the medical art of the Greeks was introduced among 
the Romans, by Archagathus ; it had been, at first, chiefly practiced by Greek slaves. The 
physician that seems to have acquired the highest celebrity at Rome, was Asclepiades of Bithynia, 
B. C. about 100. He may be assigned to the Empiric school, although he professed to have pecu- 
liar notions of his own. 

C. F. H. Beck, De Schola medicorum Alexandrica. Lips. 1810. 4.— Scholl, in. 404. v. 335. — 
The work of Xenocrates (on the nourishment furnished by aquatic productions), by Corarj. Par. 
1814. 8.— The remains of Asclepiades of B. were published by Oumpert, Asclep. Bith. Fragmenta. 
Vimar. 1794. 8. — The name of Asclepiades was borne by many different persons. Cf. Harless, 
Medicorum vet. Asclepiades dictorum lustratio &c. Bon. 1828. 

§ 264. In the period succeeding the fall of Corinth a new school arose, called 
the Methodic or Methodistic, founded B. C. about 90, by Themison of Laodicea, 
who 'was a disciple of Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. 
The system was matured by Soranus of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome un- 
der Trajan and Hadrian with brilliant success, and has left several works. 
To this school belonged Criton, also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and 
Moschion, the reputed author of a work on Diseases still extant. — Within the 
limits of the same period, another medical sect was originated, the Eclectic^ 
which is generally ascribed to Archigenes, another physician in the time of 
Trajan. Jlretceus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent advocate 



MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY. 263 

of this school. Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent physician not assigned to 
any of the sects ; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which 
is most important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, 
but in fact in the whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen. With 
transcendant genius he broke from the restraints imposed by the different 
medical sects, and built a system for himself upon the ruins of them all, and 
became and continued for many centuries the oracle of the art. 

The works of Soranus are in Ant. Cocchi, cited below, $ 269. — That of Moschion, separately, 
F. O. Dewez. Vienn. 1793. 8.— Those of Rufus, by W. Clinch. Lond. 1726. A.—Schmll, v. 338. 

§ 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constan- 
tinople, no progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a 
long time the chief seat for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome 
and Constantinople furnished ample fields for its practice. Most of those who 
attempted to write on the subject, contented themselves with commenting 
upon the works of Galen or some author of times previous to their own. They 
formed what is called the School of Galen, although they professed to be Eclec- 
tic, and to draw their principles from all the different sects. There are but 
few names which are specially deserving of mention. Oribasius, in the time 
of Julian, is the first writer of any note ; he has been called the ape of Galen, 
on account of borrowing so much from him; among his works was a medical 
compilation from preceding writers, made by order of Julian, and called 3 E(i- 
doutjy.ovTupift.og, from its comprising 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in 
Greek, and several others in Latin only. JStius of Amida in Mesopotamia, 
was a physician at Constantinople, in the 6th century. He left a compilation 
from the earlier medical authors under the title of Bip.iov iarqiy.bv, in 16 books. 
Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign of Justinian, and after 
much travel practiced in Rome with great celebrity; his Therapeutics, Biftliov 
$£Q<x7V£VTixbv, in 12 books, is extant. Paul of iEgina may also be mentioned 
as a practical physician, and as the author of a compilation entitled an Abridg- 
ment of all Medicine. We will add only the name of Constantine, surnamed 
the African, a native of Carthage. He studied among the Arabians, Chaldeans, 
and Persians, both medicine and astronomy, with the kindred sciences. Re- 
turning to the west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was regarded as 
a sorcerer, and finally retired, in a religious habit, to Salernum in Italy, where 
the monks of Mont-Cassin had established a medical school. Here he employed 
himself until his death, towards the close of the 11th century, in making known 
the Greek and Arabian medicine, and contributed much to the high celebrity 
which that school attained. 

An edition of Oribasius in Latin was published, Bas. 1537. 3 vols. 8. but not complete. — The 
Works of Alexander are given in the collection of Hallcr (cf. § 269). — The Latin version of JEtius 
by J. Cornarius and J. Montanus is also in Holler. — Paul ofJEg. was published by Rermisaus. Bas. 
1538. fol. There is an English version by F- Adams. — Constantine left numerous works, but in 
the Latin language — SchazU, vn. 247 ss. 

§266m. Physics, or Natural Science, formed a prominent object of many of 
the first Greek philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest 
didactic poems. The study of philosophy in later periods usually implied 
some attention to these branches. But for want of sufficient observation, and 
of the necessary helps, many errors were adopted and long retained in the 
Grecian schools. 

§ 267. The merit of first treating these subjects systematically and scientifi- 
cally is universally ascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his 
studies in natural history with a princely liberality. Thcophrastus, the disciple 
and successor of Aristotle, pursued the same studies with considerable success. 
While Aristotle is called the father of Zoology, Theophrastus must be ac- 
knowledged to stand in the same relation to Mineralogy and Botany. — Among 
the Alexandrine scholars, the subjects of natural science seem to have obtained 
but comparatively little attention. This could not have been owing wholly to 
want of encouragement, because the Ptolemies are said to have expended con- 
siderable sums in procuring collections of what was curious in the three king- 
doms of nature. Antigonus of Carystus is the principal Alexandrine writer of 
whom we have remains-pertaining to this department, and his work is chiefly 

a collection of marvelous stories, and not a description of natural objects. 

Nor under the Roman supremacy, from the fall of Corinth even to the time of 



264 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

Constantine, do we find any manifest advancement. The chief writers were 
Dioscorides, who was distinguished as a botanist (yiLOTouog) as well as physi- 
cian, and JElian, who compiled a considerable work on the history of animals. 
The superstition and love of the marvelous, which prevailed hoth in this and in the preced- 
ing period, were probably a hindrance to the real progress of natural science. We may refer, 
as evidence of their influence, to the works of Melampus in the former, and Artemidorus in the 
latter. Melampus wrote on the art of divination in several branches, and also a work on Prog' 
nostics from the changes in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna. — Arte- 
midorus left a work on the Interpretation of dreams, 3 Oveiqoxqltixu, which, with all its absurd- 
ity, is of some value in illustrating mythology and the symbolical and allegorical figures of an- 
cient sculpture. It was published by J. G. Reiff. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. — Cf. Schcell, m. 393 ss. 
v. 277 ss. 

§ 268. Under the emperors of Constantinople, all the sciences connected 
with the study of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect ; in the whole 
time we do not meet with a single name of any eminence, nor one work of 
specialjjvalue. We find a treatise of Epiphanius, IZsoi r5>v ddjSsxa ZLQwr, Onthe 
12 stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest; and another, Usqi ?.i&uv 
tiwatiswv, On the virtues of stones, by Michcel Psellus, in the 9th century. We 
have a large compilation on agriculture, entitled JTswrcovixa, in 20 books, by 
Cassianus Bassus, in the 10th century. We have likewise a compilation on the 
veterinary art, in 2 books, entitled ' iTVTttarQixa, collected by an unknown 
writer, by order of the emperor Constantine VI. Porphyrogenitus. There are 
also several works, yet in manuscript, on Chemistry, or rather Alchemy, or the 
art of making gold; especially one by Stephanus of Athens, in the 7th century, 
UsqI xQvoonoiiag, in 9 books, and parts of another styled Xv/ubvtixcc, in 28 books, 
by Zosimus of Egypt. The latter author has left us a treatise on the making of 
beer, JJsql t,v&<ov noi^anag. Such is the trivial list, with which we must close 
our view of the Greek writers on natural science. 

The treatise of Epiphanius was published by Oessner, De omnium fossilium genere. Zurich, 
1565. 8. Cf. P. I. §195. 3.— That of Psellus, by Bernard. Leyd. 1745. 8.— The Oeoponics of Bas- 
sus, best, by J. JV. Niclas, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1781. 4 vols. 8. — The Mss. on Alchemy are in the 
Libraries of Paris and Vienna. — The last treatise above named is given in C. G. Gruner, Zosi- 
mi de Zythorum confecfrione-fragmentum. Solisb. 1814. 8. — Schcell, vir. 197 ss. 

One discovery or invention of this dark period ought perhaps to be mentioned, that of the 
celebrated Greek fire {feu Gregeois), the composition of which was so carefully kept a secret 
above 400 years. The recipe for making it is given in a work ascribed to Marcus the Greek, 
a Latin version of which, in manuscript, was found in the Royal Library of Paris ; and from 
this the work was printed, the same year, by Laporte du Theil. Par. 1804. 4. — Schcell, vn. 211. 
Cf. Gibbon, Dec. and Fail, <£x. ch. lii.— Warton, Hist. Poetry, i. 169. 

§ 269*. We give the following references to works pertaining to 
Greek medicine and physics, before speaking of the authors sepa- 
rately. 

1. H. Stephanus, Medics artis principes post Hippocratem et Galenum. Lat. Par. 1567. 2 vols, 
fol. — int. Cocchi, Grrecorum Chirurgicorum libri, &c. Flor. 1754. fol.— Fernelius, Medic, antiq. 
qui de febribus scrips, coliectio. Ven. 1594. fol.— Holler, Artis medico principes. (cur. Vicatii) 
Laus. 1784-87. 11 vols. 8. in Lat. version onlv. — C. F. Matthaei, Mediocor. xxi. vet. Greec. 
Mosc. 1808. 4.— C. G. Kuhn, Opera med. Gnec. quas extant. Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1821-33. 26 vols. 8. 
— iC. G. Gruner's Bibliothek der alten Aerzete in Uebersetzungen und Ausziigen. Lpz. 
1780-82. 2 vols. 8. — Cf. P. I. $ 23. — For some remarks on the anatomical knowledge of the 
-Greeks, see J. Elmes, Annals of the Fine Arts. vol. v. p. 225. Lond. 1816-20. 5 vols. 8. 

2. Franz, Scriptores physiognomoniae veteres. Altenb. 1780. 8. — J. G. Schneider, Ecloga? 
physicae e script, prfecipue Gnecis. Jen. 1801. 2 vols. 8. containing natural history and physics. 
— /. L. Ideler, Meteorologia vet. Graee. et Romanorum. Bed. 1832. 8. — d. Libes, Histoire de la 
Physique. Par. 1810. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 270. Hippocrates, of Cos, a descendant of JEsculapius, flourished 
B. C. about 420. In philosophy he was a disciple of Heraclitus. He 
practiced the medical art particularly in Thrace and Thessaly, and 
died at Larissa in the latter country. 

lti. With uncommon acuteness of intellect he combined a rich variety of 
knowledge and experience which was increased by travels, and which gave to 
his writings a value not limited to ancient times, but enduring even to the 
present day. Of the numerous works that have been ascribed to him, many 
are spurious. Of those which are genuine, the Aphorisms, or brief medical 
principles and maxims, are the most generally known. 

2. Besides the 3 Ayoqiouoi, the following works are by all acknowledged to 
be genuine^ viz. the : 'En iSi'^ua, Epidemics; HQoyvu>OTiy.bt,Prognostics, in 4 books} 



£H¥SICIANS. HIPPOCRATES. DIOSCORIDES. ARET^US. 265 

UsqI Stalrr;? &|i'wv, Of regimen in acute diseases ; ITsqI 'AIqwv, 3 YSurcov, T6- 
vtov, Of Mr, Water, and Climate, a work of general interest ; Ilsqi nov lv 
atttpah] Tquuutcov, Of zoounds of the Head ; IIeqL *Ayucov, Of Fractures. There 
fixe 12 or 13 others, which some of the critics receive ; and a much larger num- 
ber of pieces, which all consider spurious. 

Scholl (vol. in. 12 ss.) gives a view of the various opinions of the critics. For remarks 

on Hippocrates, see B. Rush, Introductory Lectures (medical). Phil. 1811. 8. lect. xii J. O. 

Thierf elder'' s Lemosii Judicium operum Hippocratis. Mis. 1835. 8. 

3. Editions. — Works. The most convenient for use is that of Kiihn. Lips. 1827. 3 vols. 8. 
belonging to his Coll. above cited. — The best previously ; Fcesius (F<zs)> Gr. & Lat. Frankf. 
1595. Genev.1657. fol. to which bekmffs, as a glossary or'lexicon, Fcesii QEconomia Hippocratis. 
Gen.1662. fol.— R.Charterus (Chartier)' Par. 1679. 13 Vols. fol. with Galen. (More full than Fees.) 
— An ed. was commenced by A. M. Dornier, Gr. Lat. & Gall. Par. 1827. vol. i.-xi. containing 
■Aphorisms and Prognostics, with a notice of Life and Writings of H. — — The Aphorisms have 
often been published separately ; Berl. 1822. 12. a reimp. of Bouillon. Par. 1785. with the Prog- 
nostics J. W. Underwood, Gr. & Ang. Lond. 1831. 12. Of Air, &c. Coray. Gr. & Fr. Par. 

1800. 2 vols. 8. repr. 1816.— An ed. of "select icorks was commenced by De Mercy, Gr. & Fr. 1815. 

4. Translations. — Tfliole works. Latin, by Fas, ed. bv Pierer. Altenb. 1806. 3 vols. 8. Lips. 

1827. German.— Grimm. Alt. 1781-92. 4 vols. 8.— Gruner, cited $269. English.— Clifton, 

1734. French.— Gardeil Toul. 1801. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 271. Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazarbus in Cilicia, flourished in 
the 1st century. He was a distinguished physician, and in various 
travels in Europe and Asia he studied the nature of plants, which he 
afterwards described for the benefit of pharmacy. 

1m. We have from him a work, Zfco L vhjg larqiy.fjq^de Materia medica,\n 5 books. 
Besides this there are ascribed to him a treatise on Antidotes, 3 AXBlufunucty.ct, 
In 2 books, and another IIsqI Ivtzoqiotuv ipctQi.iaxwv, On medicines easily pre- 
pared ; but their genuineness is doubted. 

2. It has been mentioned that Dioscorides was celebrated as a botanist 
(§ 267) ; for many centuries his work (de Mat. Med.) above named was con- 
sidered as a sort of oracle in Botany, although he treats of the subjects only in 
reference to medicine. — Scholl, v. 332. — Sprengel, Hist, rei herb. Amst- 1807. 8. 

3. Editions. — Best, by C, Sprengel. Lp z. 1829. 2 vols. 8. in the Coll. of Kiihn, cited § 269.-1. 
— The best previous is that oiSaracenus (Sarrasin), Gr. & Lat. Frankf. 1598. fol. — Respecting 
the curious manuscript of Diosc. see P. I. §107. 2. 

§272. Aretceus, of Cappado^ia, probably lived towards the close 
of the 1st century, at least later than Pliny the elder, and Dioscorides. 

lu. He was one of the most distinguished of the Greek physicians, and left 
two works : JZsoi Alximv zal 2r t iisimv oJtwv y.al %Qov'aov na&wr, On the Causes 
and Signs of acute and chronic diseases ; and the other, On the Cure of the same, 
JZeot Qzoarct'ictg otztwv xai xQoviav Tva&cov. Both of them have come to us only 
in a mutilated state. 

2. He is considered as the most faithful observer of facts after Hippocrates. His works are 
well written, and may be termed truly classical. — Schcell, v. 344. 

3. A good edition is given in the Collect, of Kuhn, cited § 269. 1. — Also by J. Wicrgan, Gr. & 

Lat. Oxf. 1723. fol.— And by H. Bdrhave. Leyd. 1731. 1735. fol. A German translation of 

both works by F. O. Dewez. Vienn. i790. 1802. 2 vols. 8» 

§273. Claudius Galenus was born at Pergamus in Asia, about 
A. D. 130. He traveled much, and repeatedly took his residence at 
Rome. He wrote not merely on medical topics, but also on subjects 
of philosophy, mathematics, and grammar. Many of the writings as- 
cribed to him are undoubtedly spurious, especially such as are extant 
only in Latin, 

1. The name of Galen is justly associated with that of Hippocrates, as to these 
two, above all the ancients, the healing art is indebted. The time of his death 
is unknown. He was the confidential physician of the emperor Marcus Aure- 
lius. Some of his works composed at Rome are said to have perished by the 
burning of his house ; yet there are extant 82 treatises of established genuine- 
ness, besides 18 commentaries on Hippocrates and a number of fragments. In 
addition to these, there are 18 published under his name of doubtful genuine- 
ness, and a still larger number now acknowledged to be spurious, and many 
still in manuscript in the Libraries. Among the most interesting and important 
of his works are the folio wi n sr : Tliol avarofitxav ^Ey^siQijOsvir, Of anatomical 
23 



266 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

manipulations, in 9 books (originally 15J ; ITsqL xQ i>ia ? r & v ** av&qwnov amiati 
poQiwv, On the use of the different parts of the human body, in 57 books, regarded 
as his chef-d'oeuvre, and containing a demonstration of divine wisdom and de- 
sign; Tkx vr i laxQixi'], The healing Art, cited also in the middle ages under the 
title of Tegnum, Microtegnum or Michrotechnum, a work which was adopted in 
all the schools, and familiarity with it made a prerequisite for admission to 
practice ; and QsQaTisvTizi] uiQodoc, Therapeutics, in 14 books, called in the 
middle ages Megalotechnum. We may mention another work, which is rather 
curious, LTeql Ta>v Id'nav fiip.iwv yqaipi n a systematic enumeration of his own 
writings, with incidents of his life, composed when advanced in age. — Schbll, 
v. 345 ss. 

2. There have been many editions of Galen's works in Latin ; Schcell speaks of 22. — There 
have been two of the Greek text alone ; Andre d'Asola (in asd. Aid.) Ven. 1525. 5 vols. fol. — 
A. Cratander (printer, ed. Oemusmus). Bas. 1538. 5 vols, fol.— There are two also of the Greek 
with a Latin version ; R. Chartier. Par. 1679. 13 vols. fol. (cf § 270. 2.)— Best, K. G. Kilhn, in the 
first 20 vols, of the collection cited § 269. 1. We notice the following works, separately pub- 
lished : That the best physician is also a philosopher, by Coray. Par. 1816. with a treatise of Hip- 
pocrates (§ 270. 3). — Exhortation to study of the sciences, Willet, Leyd. 1812. 8. — A German trans- 
lation of the works of Galen, commenced by JVoldecke. Oldenb. 1805. (1st vol.) 8. 

§ 274. Aristotle must not only have a place among the rhetoricians 
(§115) and the philosophers (§191), but also be ranked high among 
naturalists. 

1 u. He was the first to bring both physics and natural history into a scien- 
tific form. In these branches, he displayed fine powers of observation, with 
habits of close reasoning. Of his works pertaining to this department, we 
mention as the principal his <&voixi'i 'Ay.Qoaoig, a work on general physics, in 
3 books, and the History of Animals, LTsqI Zatav [oroQiag, in 10 books. Some 
of the others ascribed to him are not genuine, or at least did not come from 
him in their present form ; as e. g. the treatise Ilsql QavfiaoLuiv 3 Axovo t uartav 1 
On wonderful reports. 

2. These treatises are found in the editions of A.'s works, §19L 2. History of Animals, by 

J.G.Schneider, Gr. & Lai. 1811. 4 vols. 8. veiy satisfactory. — Wonderful Reports, by J. Beckmann. 
GStt. 1786. 4. — Three pieces pertaining to s'leep and dreams, by G, A. Becker. Lpz. 1823. 8. — 
Meteor ologica, by J. G. Idcler, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1834. 2 vols. 8. — — A German Translation of 

the Hist, of Animals, by F. Strack. Frankf. 1816. 8. A. F. A. Wiegmann, Observ. zoologi- 

ece in Arist. Hist. Animalium. Lips. 1826. 4. 

§ 275. Theop7irastus also stands among the naturalists, as well as 
among the philosophers (§ 192). 

1m. The works which place him here, are principally the following : Iltqi 
tpvTwv [oTOQiag, History of Plants, in 10 books ; IIsqL ipvriy.wv y Aniwv, On the 
causes of Plants, in 10 books, of which only 6 remain ; Zfroi ?.i6wv, Of stones. 
"We have also from him several other treatises, on Winds, Fire, Odors, &c. 
and various fragments preserved in Photius. 

2. Schneiders ed. of the whole works (cf. $192. 2.) furnishes the best of these parts. — The latest 
ed. of the Hist, of Plants, is J. Stackhouse. Oxf. 1813. 8. handsome, but not correct. (Fuhrmann.) 

3. Translations.— German.— Hist, of Plants, by Sprengel. Alton, 1822. 8. — Stoties, by Schneider. 

Freib. 1806. 8. French.— Stones, (anon.) Par. 1754.^8. English — Of stones, by J. HilL 

Lond. 1746. 1777. 8. 

§ 276. Antigonus of Carystus, in the island Eubcea, lived about 
B. C. 284, under Ptolemy Philadelphus. 

1m. He compiled, from the works of other naturalists, his r Iotoqicov napa- 
Sd^wv avvixywyt], Collection of marvelous things. It consists of 189 sections, 
containing particularly an account of animals. The last 62 sections are the 
most important, being drawn from authors that are lost. 

2. This work was first published by Xylandef (Holzmann). Bas. 1568. 8. — Another ed. by 
Meursius. Leyd. 1619. 4.— Best, by J. Beckmann. 1791. 4. 

§277. jElianus has been named among the historians ($252). 
But we have a work from him, belonging to this place, on the pecu- 
liarities of animals, myl twwv iSiorrjrog, in 17 books. It is chiefly a 
compilation from earlier writers, particularly Aristotle. The additions 
by JElian are mostly of a fabulous character. 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 267 

1. It is given in the editions of his works, cited § 252. 2. — Separately, Abr. Gronov. Lond. 
1744. 2 vols. 4.— Schneider. Lpz. 1734. 8.— Best, F. Jacobs. Jen. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

2. The compilation of Apollonius Dyscolus, styled Wonderful Histories (cf. § 135), might be 
ranked in this department ; but it is of little value. — Scholl, v. 379. 



Jeicish and Christian Writings in the Greek Language. 

§ 278. Before leaving the history of Greek Literature, we ought to remark, 
that we find in the Greek language two classes of writings, which have not 
been noticed in the preceding glance, and which ought not to be overlooked, 
although they are not commonly included in the range of classical studies. 

The first of the classes, to which we here refer, comprises those writings 
which may perhaps properly be termed Hebrews- Grecian ; being published in 
the language of the Greeks, but of a Hebrew origin and character. These are, 
the Septuagint version, and the Greek Apocrypha, of the Old Testament. 
These writings breathe a moral spirit quite at variance with that of pagan lite- 
rature, and it cannot be doubted, that they exerted some influence, when made 
known to the scholars of Alexandria. Indeed it has been thought, that their 
influence is apparent in the style of some of the pagan writers of the age (cf. 
§ 68. 3). — The most marvelous stories have been reported as to the manner 
in which the proper literature of the Hebrews, composed of their Canonical 
Books and called by us the Old Testament, was first presented to the Greeks 
in their native tongue. The true account is, probably, that the Jews of Alex- 
andria, who had lost the use of their national language, procured for their own 
benefit a Greek translation of these Books, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
B. C. about 280. This translation received the sanction of their Sanhedrim, 
consisting, like that at Jerusalem, of 70 or 72 members, and was from this cir- 
cumstance called the Septuagint. This version enjoyed a high reputation 
both among Greeks and Jews for many years ; but in some of the Inost inter- 
esting parts it fell far short of the spirit and force of the original, and attempts 
were made at a later period to give to the Grecian reader, in a more elegant 
dress, this body of sacred history and poetry. 

For an account of the Septuagint, and of other Greek versions, we refer to Home's Introd. to 
Crit. Study of the Scriptures, vol. u. pt. i. ch. v. sect. 1. § 2. ed. Phil. 1825. 4 vols. 8. — Works of 
higher critical authoritv are J.G.Eichhorn, Einleitung ins. A. Test. (4th ed.) GStt. 1824. 5 vols. 8. 
and W. M. L. Be Wette, Einleitung in die Bibel Alt. u. New. Test. (3d ed.) Berl. 1829. 8. 

§ 279. The books termed the Apocrypha (arvuxQvcpa) were originally writ- 
ten, some of them in the Greek, but most of them in the Hebrew or Chaldee. 

They were all, or nearly all, composed before the Christian era. Several 

of the pieces contain authentic narratives of events, and are highly valu- 
able in supplying the historical deficiencies of the canonical books, and 
illustrating the circumstances of the age to which they refer. A larger 
number must be viewed as mere historical fictions, having perhaps their foun- 
dation in matters of fact, but embellished according to the fancy of the author, 
often ingenious and amusing ; yet framed wholly for moral and religious pur- 
poses. Some of the books are more purely and directly didactic in character, 
consisting of proverbial reflections, and maxims of prudence and wisdom. 
" The song of the three children" is the only piece in the collection which can 
be justly called poetical ; in form and structure it almost exactly resembles 

the Psalms of David. What interest these apocryphal writings excited, or 

to what extent they were circulated among the Greek literati, it may be im- 
possible now to determine ; but it is manifest from the reply of Josephus tq 
the attack of Apion, that about the commencement of the Christian era, the 
antiquities and historical records of the Jews had become interesting subjects 
of inquiry among pagan scholars. At first the Greeks very generally looked 
upon the Jews with profound contempt, classing them without distinction 
under the leveling epithet of barbarians. Occasionally they honored them 
with a tribute of derision for their proud claims as a nation favored of heaven, 



268 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

and their bigoted adherence to a system of burthensome ceremonies. But at 
length the Greeks became more acquainted with their sacred books, and con- 
version from paganism to Judaism was not an uncommon occurrence. Syna- 
gogues, composed in great part of proselytes, existed in many of the Grecian 
cities, at the beginning of the Christian era. 

On the writings classed under the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, see J. A. Fabricius, Co- 
dex Pseud-epigraphus Veteris Testamenti. Hamb. 1723. 2 vols. 8.— Home, Intro. &c. cited 
§ 278. vol. i, p. 626.— Besides the apocryphal books above mentioned, there are some other spu- 
rious productions, ascribed to biblical personages. The book of Enoch and the Ascension of 
Isaiah have been found in the Ethiopic language, in modern times. See R. Lawrence, Book of 
Enoch &e. Oxf. 1821. 8.— Same, Ascensio Isaise etc. Lond. 1819. 8. 

§ 280. The other class, to which we alluded (§ 278), comprehends the nu- 
merous writings from Christian authors. After the time of Christ, there be- 
gan to appear in both the Greek and Roman tongues, works totally different 
in their whole spirit and character from all that is found in pagan literature. 
In the notices already given of Greek authors, a few names of professed be- 
lievers in Christ are found ; but they have been presented only as their works 
related to the subjects strictly included in the compass of profane studies. 
Independent of all such works, there was a body of Christian literature, which 
deserves our notice here, and which in fact offers a spacious and most inter- 
esting field of observation. Our limits confine us to a glance at the Christian 
writings in the Greek language before and during the time of Constantine. 

§ 281. The first object which appears as we enter this field, is the collec- 
tion of sacred writings contained in the Neic Testament. These, considered 
in a literary point of view, may be classified under the three heads of histori- 
cal, epistolary, and prophetical composition. Of the Jive pieces which are 

historical, four illustrate the life, death, and character of the great Founder 
of the religion, while the fifth relates the circumstances of his followers for 
some time after his death, and details the labors particularly of one apostle. 
They are written in a style of the most affecting simplicity, and contain a 
historical and biographical narrative, which, in whatever light it is consid- 
ered, is altogether without a parallel in the literature of the world. The 

epistolary part consists of letters from five of the first teachers, directed t© 
companies of believers in the Christian faith united together in churches, or 
to individual converts. Those letters must of course be accommodated to 
the specific object of each, and contain many allusions to the peculiar wants 
and circumstances of the times. But they were intended for general instruc- 
tion, and present it in almost every variety of form in which it can be offered 
to the mind and heart of man ; in rigid demonstration of truth ; in clear ex- 
posure of error ; in strong warnings against impurity of life ; in warm en- 
couragements to active goodness and benevolence ; all urged with sanctions 

drawn from the sublime realities of a future eternal existence. One piece 

only is considered as prophetical, styled the Revelation. It was composed 
last of the whole collection, and is marked by many striking peculiarities. 
There is one trait in its style specially remarkable, to which there is nothing 
similar in any department of pagan literature, the singular use of symbolical 
language. This peculiar language was chiefly derived from the Hebrew 
prophets, by whom it seeems to have been employed as essential to the pro- 
phetical style. It throws an air of mystery over the composition, but at the 
same time imparts to it an overwhelming majesty and sublimity. The grand 
and simple object of this beautiful vision of the venerable exile at Patmos 
seems to have been to show forth the hastening overthrow of Judaism and 
Gentilism, the future general triumphs of Christianity on earth, and the final 
rewards of its disciples in Heaven. 

For whatever pertains to the editions of the New Testament, its interpretations, and kin- 
dred topics ; Home, as already cited. — Especially, J. L. Hug-, Einl. in a. Schriften d. N. Test. 
(3d ed.) Stuttg. 1826. 8. Transl. into English, by D. Fosdick, with notes by M. Stuart. And. 
1836. 8.— H. A. Schott, Isagoge Historico-Critica in Libros Nov. Feed. Sacr, Jen. 1830. 8. 

§ 282. It would be impious sacrilege to speak of the writings just named 
only as a part of the general mass of literary productions. It must not be 
forgotten that they constitute, taken in connection with the sacred books of 
the Jews, a series of authentic communications from God to man ; they are,, 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 269 

if the expression can be allowed, the second volume of divine inspiration. 
There is irresistible evidence, that they are from the pens of men who wrote 
as they were moved by the Holy Ghost, and contain the infallible rule of 
faith and practice for us as the intelligent moral subjects of the Great Ruler 
of the universe. By the principles of these books we are each to be tried at 
the day of final judgment, and each to receive his eternal retribution. It is 
only by giving earnest heed to these books, that we can cleanse our ways from 
sin, or obtain part in the life and immortality which they and they only have 
brought to light. " The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul." — 
Yet Fhese writings should be noticed as included among those mental produc- 
tions of antiquity, which are presented to us in the language of the Greeks, 
especially as the literary importance and influence of the New Testament has 
been too generally overlooked. It is often interesting to the scholar to con- 
sider how the writings of a distinguished individual, a Homer, a Plato, an 
Aristotle or a Bacon, have given a cast to the general mind through distant 
ages ; how a single production has affected the thoughts and feelings, and 
modified the whole character, of many successive generations. Viewed in 
this light, no work of human genius suggests so interesting a train of reflec- 
tions as the inspired writings of Christianity. No work or class of works has 
operated so powerfully or so extensively on the human mind, none has effect- 
ed so much in arousing the latent energies of intellect, in preparing it to put 
forth splendid and successful efforts in the various departments of science 
and literature. Cf. P. I. § 83. 

§ 283. The writings which next fall under our notice, following the order 
of time, are those which are ascribed to the Apostolical Fathers. Barnabas, 
Clemens Romanus, Hermas, Polycarp and Ignatius, are included under this 
denomination. Barnabas was a native of the island of Cyprus, was edu- 
cated at Jerusalem, in the school of Gamaliel, and was for some time a com- 
panion of the Apostle Paul. The letter extant under his name is chiefly an 
argument addressed to the Jews, showing that the Mosaic law had been abol- 
ished by Christ, and a purely spiritual service substituted instead of their cer- 
emonial rites and sacrifices. The work left by Hermas, is styled Pastor or 

Shepherd, consisting of three Parts; viz. 12 commands, 12 similitudes, and 
4 visions. The commands are so many practical positions or principles laid 
down and illustrated. The visions and similitudes are fanciful and puerile in 
the extreme, and little worthy of attention except as they indicate the great 

sincerity and piety of the author. The only genuine remains of Clement 

of Rome are two ejnstles to the Corinthians, and concerning the second of 
these there is reason to doubt. They are altogether of a practical character, 
exhorting the Corinthians to cultivate the Christian virtues and to manifest 
in their deportment the superior excellence of the Christian faith. Clement 
enjoyed distinguished reputation, and on this account several works by later 
writers were ascribed to him in order to give them currency ; as the Apostol- 
ic Canons, the Apostolic Constitutions, the Recognitions, and the Clementines. 
These works, although spurious, afford much useful and curious information 
respecting the state of Christian society, opinions, and views in the period to 
which they belong. Polycarp and Ignatius are both remembered as ven- 
erable and heroic martyrs. The former at the age of more than eighty years 
died at Smyrna, bound to the stake ; the latter, at about the same age, was 

devoured by lions in the Amphitheatre at Rome. The only fragment of 

Polycarp is an epistle to the Philippians, applauding their faith, enforcing the 
doctrine of the resurrection, giving precepts to the different classes in the 
church, and warning its members against errors in belief and sins in practice. 

A large number of epistles are extant ascribed to Ignatius. Only seven 

of them are considered as genuine ; one of them was a letter of Christian 
friendship to Polycarp, and the others were pastoral addresses to different 
churches, written after he commenced his fatal journey from Antioch to Rome, 
a prisoner of the emperor Trajan. These various remains of the Apostol- 
ical Fathers were held in high estimation by the primitive Christians. Some 
of them were occasionally read Avith the Holy Scriptures in the religious as- 
semblies on the Sabbath. 

23* 



270 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

The best edition of the writings of the Apostolical Fathers is that of J. B. Cotderitis (&8 
emended by J. Clericns) Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1724. 2 vols. fol. — An English translation was putn 
lished by Abp. Wake. Reprinted, Lond. 1817.— An account of their lives may be found in Cave's 
History of the Primitive Fathers. Lond. 1697. fol. — See also Mosheim translated by Murdoch, 
(New Haven, 1832. 3 vols. 8.) 1st vol. p. 89. 

§ 284. In the 2d and 3d centuries, as was perfectly natural, there appeared 
a number of spurious productions, which claimed to be from the Apostolical 
Fathers and others, who had been active in the introduction and first promul- 
gation of Christianity. Many of these were undoubtedly written with the 
best intentions, and perhaps were understood by their first readers as assert- 
ing a fictitious origin not expected to be believed or allowed, according to a 

law which has existed in the republic of letters from time immemorial. 

Among the fabrications alluded to we must rank the Apostles' Creed, a beau- 
tiful little summary of doctrine, which is still regarded with great respect. 
To the same class belong the books styled the Revelation and the Preaching of 
St. Peter, the latter of which contains, together with some interesting matter, 
many ridiculous statements and anecdotes. A still bolder fiction is found in 
the two Edessan Epistles, which purport to be a letter from Abgarus, king of 
Edessa, sent to Jesus Christ, and the ans\^er returned to him by the Savior. 
The story is briefly, that Abgarus in a dangerous sickness wrote to implore 
relief, and that Christ sent back a gracious reply, accompanied with a present 
of his picture, which was miraculously impressed upon a handkerchief by 
Christ himself. Besides pieces of this description, there were several pro- 
fessed biographies of the Savior, crowded with the most puerile superstitions 
and absurdities, but in some instances exhibiting the marks of a lively and 
truly poetical imagination. The collection of writings termed the Apoc- 
ryphal Testament is composed of such productions as have just been men- 
tioned ; productions perfectly consonant to the circumstances of the age and 
the character of the times ; when the Savior and the Apostles had been so 
long departed, that their lives and actions might be embellished by exaggera- 
tion and fiction, and the reading class among Christians had become so nu- 
merous, and the general curiosity so awakened, as to create an increased de- 
mand for writings relating to their common faith and the history of their 
Founder and his companions. 

Many of these works have perished. Those extant were collected and published by J. A* 
Fabricius, in his Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti. Hamb. 1719-43. 2 vols. 8. — An apocryphal 
book, purporting to be the Acts of the Apostle Thomas, was lately discovered at Paris, and was 
published by Jo. Car. Thilo, (Thomae Apostoli Acta.) Lpz. 1822. Q.—Thilo, commenced an 
ed. of the Apocr. N. Test. Lips. 1832. 8. learned and celebrated — An English translation of 
most of these productions was published, entitled The Apocryphal New Testament &c. Lond. 
1890. 8.— Cf. Home, before cited, vol. i. Appendix No. V. 

§ 285. The works, which have thus far been noticed, proceeded chiefly from 
men comparatively illiterate. But in the 2d century, and still more in the 
3d, Christians could rank among their advocates and writers many distin- 

fuished scholars and philosophers, particularly of the Greeks. Very early, 
owever, arose two opposite opinions respecting the importance of human 
attainments. A considerable class of Christians utterly disapproved of the 
study of science and philosophy, as useless and inconsistent with the design 
of Christianity. Another class warmly advocated such study as perfectly 
proper and highly useful, especially to those who aspired to be publie teach- 
ers of religion. The latter opinion gradually gained the ascendency, and the 
sciences, which had been taught in the pagan schools, were at length to a 
considerable extent introduced into the Christian Seminaries. (Cf. P. I. §83.) 
But Philosophy constituted the principal study thus derived, and nearly all 
the Christian writers, who remain to be noticed in the glance we are now 
taking, will come under the general name of philosophers. None of them 
wrote treatises expressly philosophical ; but many of them were philosophers 
by profession before they were converted to Christianity, and afterwards con- 
tinued the same pursuits, while all of them studied more or less the pagan 
systems, and employed the doctrines of philosophy in whatever they wrote 
in support of their own religion. — The fathers down to Origen have been 
termed Platonizing , because they generally preferred the system of Plato and 
adopted many of his views. Justin Martyr and Irenseus were the most dis- 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 271 

tinguished of this class. Origen and most of the early Greek Fathers after 
him have heen termed Eclectic, because they embraced the system of Ammo- 
nius, to which we have already alluded (§ ISi). Some of the Fathers were 
partial to the doctrines of other sects, particularly the Stoics ; but the Eclec- 
tic philosophy became altogether the most popular among Christians as well 
as pagans. The views of the Fathers were, however, in many points peculiar 
to themselves, and formed what might be called a Christian philosophy. 
(Schoil, livre v. ch. lxviii.) The productions of the writers, whose philosoph- 
ical studies and partialities have thus been hinted at, may be classed under 
the several heads of Biblical, Controversial, Doctrinal, Historical, and Homi- 
letical writings. 

§ 286. The early Christians attached great importance to Biblical studies. 
The writings of both the Old and New Testament they endeavored not only 
to explain to their children and to those who attended their public assemblies, 
but also to circulate among all the heathen around them. For this purpose, 
versions were very early made into several of the different languages then 
spoken. Much care and labor were expended also in collecting various cop- 
ies, in correcting the versions in use, and publishing more perfect editions. 
Many of the Fathers engaged in these efforts with ardor, but the palm of pre- 
eminent zeal and di.tVence belongs to Origen. His Polyglott, usually called 
the Hexapla, has be,^\ considered one of the most astonishing monuments of 
philological industry iVnd the loss of it is still deeply lamented by every sa- 
cred interpreter. Jr yinonies of the Gospels were likewise among the bib- 
lical compositions of tttt age. That of Tatian, about the middle of the 2d 
century, is the earliest on record ; it was called To Si'a riaoaocjv or Movorta- 

cccqov. But the most important and numerous productions of this general 

class were Commentaries. Ir. the 2d century Theophilus of Antioch wrote 
on the Gospels ; Clemens Alexandrinus, on the Epistles ; Justin Martyr, on 
the Apocalypse. In the 3d century we find among the commentators, Hippo- 
lytus, Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Origen, the most prolific and most distin- 
guished of them all. These authors understood but very imperfectly the true 
principles of interpretation. Justin Martyr adopted the Jewish idea of a 
double meaning belonging to one and the same passage, and made a constant 
endeavor in his expositions to ascertain a hidden and remote sense in addition 
to the literal. The same principle was embraced by Origin, who incorporat- 
ed it with notions borrowed from the allegorizing Platonists, and spread it out 
into a system, which soon led its founder and his followers into endless laby- 
rinths of mystical extravagance. 

Respecting the early version?, consult Home's In trod. P. I. ch. v. sect. 1. $3, 4. — Gerard's 
Institutes of Bibl. Crit. Bost. 1823. 8. ch. iv. § 4, 5, 6. — An account of Ori gen's Hexapla is 
given by Home, vol. ii. p. 171. Cf. Stvart, Dissertations on studying the Orig. Languages of 
the Bible, Note C. — A particular description of the six Greek versions in the Hexapla of Origen 
is given by Epiphanius, who lived in the latter part of the 4th century, in his Treatise on Weights 
and Measures ; a treatise which was written for the purpose of elucidating the Scriptures, and 
which is still useful. It is given in D. Pctavius, S. Epiph4.nii Opera. Gr. et Lat. Par, 1622, 

S vols. fol. repr. Col. 1082. 2 vols. fol. On the early harmonists and commentators, Home, ir. 

p. 478, 741. — On the Christian poetical writings, cf. Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, m. 198. — Poet® 
Christiani Grceci. Par. 1609. 8. 

§ 287. The Controversial writings of the early Greek Christians constitute 
an interesting part of their literature. They consist of books designed either 
for heretics, or for Jews, or for pagan Gentiles. The errors of the vari- 
ous classes of heretics and schismatics were opposed by a great number of 
writers whose books are lost ; but the five books of Irenseus, in which he ex- 
amines and refutes the doctrines of the whole body of them, are still extant, 
partly in the original Greek and partly in a Latin version. — The chief work 
from the Greek Fathers in controversy with the Jews, which now remains, is 
the curious dialogue of Justin Martyr with Trypho Judams, although Sera- 
pion of Antioch and other Christian doctors wrote particular treatises against 
them. — The polemical writings intended for Gentile readers were chiefly 
apologies for Christians, or exhortations to pagans ; great numbers of which 
were composed before the time of Constantine. The most distinguished 
authors were Justin Martyr, Tatian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Athenagoras, 
and Theophilus of Antioch. But the Fathers were also called upon to arj- 



272 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 

swer particular attacks upon Christianity made by heathen authors ; Origen 
published a triumphant reply to Celsus, Methodius to Porphyry, and Eusebi- 
us to Hierocles and Philostratus (§ 255b. 2). In these compositions they 

exposed the unsatisfactory and contradictory doctrines of the Greek philoso- 
phy, demonstrated the vastly superior nature of the Christian religion, and 
defended its disciples from the numerous aspersions cast upon their charac- 
ter ; thus they contributed much to promote that mighty change which ulti- 
mately took place in the complete extirpation of the old mythology and the 
establishment of the Christian faith. 

The best editions of Iren seus are those of J. E. Orabe, Oxf. 1702. fol. and Ren. Massuet, 
2d ed. Par. 1734. fol.— Of the dialogue of Justin a good edition is that of S. Jebb, Lond. 
1719. 8. with his apologies. It is given in the edition of his works by P. Maranus, (Maran) 
Par. 1742. fol.— Also in F. Oberthur, Opera Patrum Grac. (Gr. & Lat.) Wurtzb. 1777-94. 20 
vols. 8. This is called poor by Prof. Sears, having often a " text corrupt and translation false ; 
yet it is "cheap, of very good type, and of convenient form." — Tatian, bv Worth, Gr. 
&. Lat. Oxf. 1700. 8.— A t h e n a g o r a s, by E. Dechaire, Gr. &. Lat. Oxf. 1706. 8.— C lemens 
Alexandrinus, by J. Potter, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1715. 2 vols, fol.— Theophilus, by J. 
Chr. Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Hamb. 1724. 8.— We may also refer to the work entitled Sanctorum Pa- 
trum Opera polemica de veritatis Rel. Christ, contra Gentiles et Judaeos. Wurtzb. 1778. 4 vola. 
8. — Cf. Murdoch's Mosheim, vol. i. 144. 

English Translations. — " There is no English translation of Irenjeus." A. Clarke, (as cited 
§ 293. j. vol. i. p. 108. — Justin ; The two Apologies for Christians, by W. Reeves. Lond. 2d 

ed. 1716. 2 vols. — The Dialogue with Trypho, by H. Browne. Lon, & 1755. 2 vols. 8. The 

Exhortation to the Gentiles, by T. Moses. Lond. 1757. 8. — Athe^ jORas, by D. Humphreys. 
Lond. 1714. 8. including both the Apology for the Christians, an^ d treatise on the resurrec- 
tion. — Clemens Alex. "No English translation has yet been gi"-fler,f an y part of St. Clement's 
works, which is much to be regretted. A translation of his P{\o^iogue, would be particularly 
useful." Clarke, as above cited, p. 127.— Theophilus. By J. B ty . Oxf. 1722. 8.— Of Origen'8- 
qight books against Celsus, there is a good French translation by Bouhereau. Amst. 1700. 4. 

§ 288. The chief Historical writer among the Christian authors, who come 
under notice in the period before us, was Eusebius. He lived in the time of 
Constantine, was one of the most accomplishes scholars of the age, and left 
enduring monuments of his learning and diligence in different departments 
of study. His Universal History has already been mentioned as falling with- 
in the circle of classical literature (§ 239). It was written, however, for the 
purpose of confirming the historical books of the Old Testament, and is a very 
valuable help and guide in the perplexing labyrinths of ancient chronology. 
The Greek text is lost ; but we possess a Latin translation by Jerome, and 
also an Armenian version (cf. § 236) as old as the 5th century. His Ecclesi- 
astical History, :, Exx?.tjoiaarix} j 'Ioroqia, is justly ranked among the most val- 
uable remains of Christian antiquity, being our principal source of informa- 
tion respecting the affairs of the church in the first centuries. It consists of 
10 books, and extends from the origin of Christianity to A. D. 324. His Life 
of Constantine, in 4 books, although abounding with eulogium, is yet of much 
value. One of his greatest works is that entitled ^EvayytXiy.fjg aTtoSsi^aus 
stQOTcaQaaxtvi'j, Praparatio Evangelica, in 15 books. Its object is to show, 
how vastly superior the Gospel is to all the pagan systems. The work styled 
*Evayyi-lir,»i an65si£i$, Demonstratio Evangelica, is also celebrated, as contain- 
ing the proofs of the credibility and authority of the Christian religion. Ifc 
consisted of 20 books, of which only 10 are preserved. Both these works 
might perhaps be ranked among the controversial writings, to which we have 
alluded. 

The best edition of the Universal History Is that of Mai and Zohrab, Mil. 1818. 2 vols. 4. 
containing the Greek fragments, and a Latin translation from the Armenian version. — The 
Armenian version, with a new Latin transl. was published by J". B. Aucher. Ven. 1818. 2 vols. 
4. — O. B. Neibuhr has a memoir on the Armen. version, in his Kleine Historische und Philolog- 
ische Schriften. — J. Scaliger attempted to reconstruct the Greek text, and published the collect- 
ed fragments in his Thesaurus Temporum. (2d ed.) Leyd. Bat. 1658. fol. The Ecclesiastical 

History ; best, F. A. Heinrichen. Lpz. 1827. 3 vols. 8. with copious notes. — Reading, Gr. & Lat 
Camb. 1820. 3 vols. fol. Containing also the other early Greek eccles. historians, Socrates, 
Sozomen, Theodoret, Sfc. — An English translation was published, Lond. 1683. fol. — A recent 
one was published at Philadelphia, entitled The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus, 
Translated from the original by the Rev. C. F. Cruse, A. M. Assistant Professor in the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania. 1833. 8. Life of Constantine ; best, Heinrichen. Lpz. 1830. 8. Prop. 

Evangelica ; Vigerus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1628. fol. Reprinted, Lpz. 1688. Demons. Evangel. } 

Vigerus, Gr. Sc Lat. Par. 1628. Reprinted, Lpz. 1688.— See Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. vn. 8. 

§ 289. A few Doctrinal treatises made their appearance as early as the 2d 
century j but there seems to have been nothing like an attempt at systematic 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 273 

theology until the third, when Origen published his four books of Elements 
or first principles, Ilsqi ^Aqx&v, illustrating the doctrines of the Gospel after 
a philosophical manner. Other works of a similar character soon followed, 
and essays and discussions altogether too numerous to be mentioned, on vari- 
ous points of faith and practice, of theology and of morals, were given to the 
church. 

The name of Athanasius must not here be passed in silence ; he has just- 
ly been pronounced one of the greatest men of whom the church can boast. 
"His life, his struggles, his genius," says an elegant French writer (Ville~ 
main), " did more for the advancement of Christianity than all the power of 
Constantine. Trained, as it were, in the midst of religious dissensions, re- 
nowned while young in the Council of Nice, chosen patriarch of Alexandria 
by the suffrage of an enthusiastic people, exiled by Constantine, proscribed 
by Constance, persecuted by Julian, threatened with death under Valens, he 
ended his life in the patriarchical chair, from which he had repeatedly been 
driven. The writings of such a man, it is easily seen, are not the writings of 
a mere theologian. If he often contended on points of deep obscurity, his 
aim was to establish that religious unity of which he well understood the 
value and the power." The chief theme of his doctrinal discussions was the 
subject of the Trinity, on which he most vigorously opposed the notions of 
Arius. The celebrated compend or formula of Christian doctrine long as- 
cribed to him, and still usually called the Mhanasian Creed, " is now gener- 
ally allowed not to have been his, but to have been deduced from his works." 

The Greek text of Origen's First Principles is chiefly lost ; we have a Latin version made by 
Rufinus in the 4th century, first published separately by E. R. Redepenning, Lips. 1837. 8, with 
notes. — Origen's Works, by (the Benedictines Charles S( Charles Vincent) De la Rue. Par. 
1733-59. 4 vols. fol. Reprinted, by Oberthur. Wiirtzb. 1780. 15 vols. 8. This has been 
ranked as the best edition. A new ed. containing the whole of De la Rue, and said to be bet- 
ter, is now in progress, by C. H. E. Lommatisch. Berl. 1831-39. vol. i.-vii. 12. The best ed. 

of the works of Athanasius is that of Bern, de Monte-Falconis (Montfaucon), Gr. & Lat. 
Par. 1698. 2 vols. fol. — Some pieces (opuscula), not contained in this, are given in the 2d voL 
of Montfaucon' s Biblioth. Patr. Graec. Par. 1706.— Cf. Harlas, Int. in Hist. Ling. Gr. vol. m. 

p. 225. — Villemain, as cited $292. T. Jl. Mbhler, Athanasius &c. Mainz, 1827. 2 vols. 8. - — 

" The writings attributed to Athanasius may be divided into three clases, genuine, dubious, and 
supposititious; amounting in the whole to upwards of one hundred distinct treatises." Clarke, as 
cited § 293. 

§ 290. The last class of writings mentioned, as included in the Christian 
literature of these early ages, was the Homiletical. The Homily of the primi- 
tive church held nearly that place in the public worship, which the sermon 
does at the present day ; it was the address of the religious teacher to the au- 
dience assembled, and intended for their instruction, and improvement. But it 
differed widely in its character from the modern sermon. It was neither a 
labored discussion of a single subject, nor a critical interpretation and illustra- 
tion of a single text ; but a rapid exposition of a whole context, or a full chap- 
ter, or even a larger portion of scripture ; combining in a manner quite irregular 
and accidental, the most various matter, doctrinal, philosophical, critical and 

practical. The eloquence of the pulpit, contemplated in its origin, progress, 

and effects, presents truly one of the most interesting topics of study in the 
whole history of the human mind. The subject, however, comes before us in 
this place only so far as relates to the remains of sacred oratory which exist in 
the language of the Greeks. These, it is much to be regretted, are compara- 
tively few until after the time of Constantine. Nearly every one of the authors 
who have been named was a preacher or sacred orator. The great business of 
the Apostles was to address their fellow-men on the sublime truths of religion 
and the momentous interests of eternity. The apostolical Fathers were also 
chiefly employed in the same duty. The other writers mentioned were publie 
religious teachers. Yet of the actual addresses of so many speakers, we have 
6carcely any full and fair specimens, until we reach Origen. Their other writ- 
ings, however, afford us some aid in judging of their oratory. The apostles 
imitated the simple and powerful manner of the Redeemer himself, who spake 
as never man spake. They practiced an easy, artless, moving eloquence, 
warm-hearted and pungent, which was astonishingly efficacious to convince 
and to reform. The apostolical Fathers and their contemporaries generally 
followed the same natural, unstudied, unostentatious method of speaking;. 



274 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

But an unfortunate change in taste soon made its appearance. The writings 
of the Platonizing Fathers, of whom Justin may be taken as a representative, 
furnish plain evidence that in their public discourses they indulged to a mel- 
ancholy extent in feeble reasonings and frivolous allegories, in erroneous and 
even puerile and ridiculous applications of Scripture. The oratory of Justin 
was strikingly marked by these faults, but was nevertheless flowing and per- 
suasive in its character. 

On the preaching of the first centuries, see Bernh. Eschenburg. Versuch einer Geschichte dej 
offentlichen Religionsvortrage in der griech. und lat. Kirche. Jen. 1785. 8. — M. O. Hansch 
Abbildung der Predigten im ersten Christenthum. Frankf. 1725. 8. 

§291. The principal genuine homiletical remains of the period under notice are 
from the hand of Origen, who has already been mentioned as a writer of ex- 
tensive acquirements and extraordinary abilities. The homilies of Origen 
exhibit as one of their most prominent characteristics the disposition for alle- 
gory and mystery, for which he was so much distinguished as an interpreter 
of Scripture. Interpretation or exposition still continued to be the essence of 
preaching. The speaker proceeded from clause to clause of the passage be- 
fore him, offering miscellaneous observations and reflections as he advanced. 
This was the manner of Origen. His explanations were more full and diffuse 
than those of earlier speakers, with more of studied oratory and a freer use of 
human erudition. He had prepared himself for the highest duties of a sacred 
orator by cultivating a thorough acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian 
Scriptures, with the languages important to a biblical interpreter, and with the 
literature, philosophy, and arts, both of the Greeks and Romans. He possessed 
less ardor of religious feeling than some others of the same age, but maintained 
a character of uncommon courage, independence, and decision, so as to be en- 
titled to the name which was sometimes applied to him, the man of adamant 
(aSaiiavTivog). Had he not been misguided by a lively and fertile imagination, 
he would have secured a much higher place in the annals of sacred eloquence, 

Many of the homilies of Origen are lost ; and of those extant a considerable number are only 
in the Latin translations made by Rufinus or Jerome ; those in Greek are chiefly included undej 
his Exegetica or Commevtaria, and the Philocalia, a collection of extracts from his works made 
by Basil the Great. — Clarke, (as cited § 293) i. 162-166. 

The best edition of Origen's works has been named, § 289. — For a good account of Origen, 
see Murdoch's Mosheim, vol. i. p. 204. — Homilies from Origen, Aihanasius, and others, are giver* 
in the Homiliarium Patristicum by Rheinwaldt 4" Vogt, commenced 1829-33. pt. i-iv. 8. 

§ 292. Although confined by our plan and limits to the Christian writers 
before the death of Constantine, we cannot forbear while speaking of the early 
sacred eloquence, to mention the names of two or three, who lived at the close 
of the 4th century, and who were highly distinguished as scholars and orators. 
We refer especially to Gregory Nazianzen, Basil the Great, and Chrysostom, 

The published works of Gregory consist of about 50 orations or sermons, 
with a large number of epistles and small poems. As an orator he exhibits a 
fertile imagination united with much strength and grandeur, but is charged 
with indulging in false ornament and as deficient in method. — Basil was a 
contemporary, fellow-student, and intimate friend of Gregory. He was a pupil 
of the rhetorician Libanius (§128) at Constantinople. His education was com- 
pleted at Athens, where Gregory and Julian the apostate were his companions 
in study. Among his numerous works are nearly a hundred discourses and 
homilies. He is esteemed a fine scholar, an elegant writer, and a good rea- 
soner. — But both Gregory and Basil were wholly surpassed in eloquence by 
John Chrysostom, who was born at Antioch A. D. 354, and was in early life 
distinguished for his genius, literary acquirements, and piety, and in the year 
398 was made patriarch of Constantinople. His works include above 300 dis- 
courses and orations, and above 600 homilies, besides numerous letters and 
treatises. "For overpowering popular eloquence, Chrysostom had no equal 
among the fathers. His discourses show an inexhaustible richness of thought 
and illustration, of vivid conception, and striking imagery. His style is ele- 
vated, yet natural and clear. He transfuses his own glowing thoughts and 
emotions into all his hearers, seemingly without effort, and without the power 
of resistance. Yet he is sometimes too florid, he uses some false ornaments, 
he accumulates metaphors, and carries both his views and his figures too far." 
(Murdoch.) 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 275 

1. The best edition of G r e g o v y ofNazianzus is that of Billius, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1630. 2 vols, 
fol. A better edition commenced by the Benedictines ; yet only 1st vol. executed, by Clemencet 7 
Gr. & Lat. Par. 1771. fol. A 2d vol. (said to have been executed by Clemencet, and lately dis^ 
covered) was published in 1838. — Ullmann, Gregorius von Nazianz. Darmst. 1825. 8. a good 
biography. — Basil, that of J. Gamier, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1721 -30. 3 vols. fol. — C h r y s o s to m , 
Montfaucon, Gr. & Lat. Par.1718-38. 13 vols. fol. reprinted, Veu. 1756. Also Par.1834-37. 13 vols. 
royal 8vo. a beautiful work. — De Sacerdotio, by A. E. Meo. Lips. 1834. 8. — JVeandcr's Life of 
Chrysostom (2ded. Lpz. 1832. 2 vols.), transl. into English. Lond. 1838.— See a very interesting 
Eecount of these orators in the Essay De PEloqucnce Chretienne dans le quatrieme Steele, by Ville- 
vutin in his Nouveauz Melanges &c. Par. 1827. 8. 

2. There have been English Translations of some portions of these authors. H. S. Boyd, Se- 
lect passages from Gregory Nazianzen, St. Basil, and St. Chrysostom. Lond. 1810. 8. H. S. 
Boyd, Select Poems of Synesius, and Gregory Nazianzen. Lond. 1814. 12. " The Poems of 
Gregory, though principally the productions of his last years, betray nothing of the decay of 
either intellect or imagination ; they abound with the fire of genius, and the vigor of youth ; 
without the aid of pagan machinery, the imagery is bold, the expressions strong, and the 
thoughts frequently mounting to the sublime." — W. Barker, S t . B a s i 1 the Great his Exhor- 
tations to his kinsmen to'the Studie of the Scriptures. Lond. 1557. 8. — " An Homelye of Ba- 
eilius Magnus, howe young men oughte to reade Poetes and Oratours. Translated out of the 
Greke. Anno MDLVIL 8vo. Lond. J. CaWood." (The original Greek of this treatise or dis- 
course (cf. P. I. § 83.) was published by J. Potter, with the Lat. version of Orotius. Oxf.1694. 8, 
republ. by Mai. Frankf. 1714. 4. — A good edition of the text alone is F. O. Stun. Gera,1791. 8.) 
— J. Evelyn, Chrysostom's Golden Book on the Education of Children. Lond. 1559. 12, 
H. Hollier, Chrysostom on the Priesthood. Lond. 1728. 8. The same treatise translated also by 
J. Bunce. Lond.1759. 8. and recently by H. M» Mason (Rector of St. John's church Fayettevilla, 
N.C.) Phil. 1826. 

§ 293. For brief but very satisfactory notices of all the principal early Christian authors, or 
Fathers of the Church, both Greek and Latin, we refer to the notes of Dr. Murdoch's Transla- 
tion of Mosheim. — For an analysis of their works ; Adam Clarke, Succession of Sacred Litera- 
ture in a chronological arrangement &c. to A. D. 1300. Lond. 1830-32. 2 vols. 8. a convenient 
work. — The following works are ranked among the authorities on this subject. — J. O. WaU 
chii Bibliotheca Patristica. Jen. 1770. 8. As edited by J. L. Dam, Jen. 1834. it is one of the 

best works.— W, Cave, Scriptor. Eccles. Historia Literaria. Oxf. 1740-3. 2 vols. fol. good. > 

L. E. Du Pin, Nouv. Bibliotheque des Auteurs Eccles. Par. 1693-1703. 14 vols. 4. — Ant. Gah> 
landus, Biblioth. Gr. and Lat. vet. Patr. Ven. 1778. in fol. " this is the most critical collection 
of the Greek and Latin Fathers." — UAbbe Tricalet, Bibliotheque Portative des Peres de 1'Eglise, 
qui l'histoire abregee de leurs vies, l'analyse de leurs principaux ecrits, etc. Par.1758-62. 9 vols* 
6. new ed. 1787. 8 vols. 8. — A work more extensive, entitled Bibliotheque Choisie des Peres de 
VEglise,by Guillon, was commencedPar.1831. to consist of 20 vols. 8. "elegant and well spoken 
Of." — A collection entitled Biblioth. Sacra Patr. Grmcorum, containing the Greek text only, was 
commenced by Richter. Lips. 1826. in 12mo. — Many of the Fathers mentioned in the preced- 
ing glance, with the works of later writers, are found in De la Bigne, Maxima Biblioth. Vet. Patr, 
(ed. by Despont) Lugd. 1677. 27 vols. fol. " this is the fullest collection, yet it does not contain 
the original text of the Greek Fathers, but only a Latin version." — C. Fr. Rossler, Biblioth, 
der Kirchen-V'ater, in Uebersetzungen und Ausziigen. Lpz. 1776-85. 5 vols. 8. — A new Ger- 
man translation by Catholics is in progress. S'ammtliche Werke der Kirchen-Vateretc. Kempt. 

1830-36. vol. i— x. 8. There is a Collection of the Latin Fathers, by Oberthur, Opera Pa- 

trum Latinorum, in 13 vols. 8. j not, however 9 complete. His collection of the Greek Fathers 
Is cited above, $ 287. 



PLATE IX, 




HORACE, 






LIVY. 



CICERO . 



HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



Introduction, 

§294w. Next to the Greeks, the Romans deserve an honorable rank in the 
literary history of antiquity. But in the first periods of their republic they 
were too much engrossed by War, and the prevailing taste was too much for 
conquest and for the extension of their power to allow any considerable leisure 
or patronage to the arts of peace. Subsequently, however, when security and 
opulence were enjoyed, and the Romans had by their very conquests been led 
to a knowledge of the arts and sciences existing in the conquered countries > 
when, especially, they began to have intercourse with the Greeks, and became 
acquainted with the productions of Grecian taste and art (P. I. § 119) ; then 
they themselves imbibed a love for letters and the sciences, and cultivated 
their language with greater care ; then also they imitated the best writers of 
Greece with peculiar talents and happy success. Accordingly we find in their 
literature master-productions of eloquence, poetry, history and philosophy. 
The most flourishing period of Roman literature and art was in the last ages 
of the republic and the reigns of the first emperors, especially that of Augus- 
tus. Afterwards (P. I. §121, 128), under the withering influence of tyranny ^ 
luxury, and moral corruption, there was a gradual and complete decline of 
letters. ( 

ISMbe le Moine d? Orgival, Considerations sur l'origine et les progres des belles lettres chez 
les Romains et les causes de leur decadence. (2d ed.) Amst. 1750. 8. Transl. into Germ, by 
J. C. Stockhausen. Hann. 1755. 8.-*-C. Meiners, Geschichte &c. as cited P. I. $ 128. — J. H. Eber- 
hardt, Ueber den Zustand der schonen Wissenschaften bei den Romern ; aus dem Schwedis- 
chen mit Zus'atzen. Altona, 180 L 8. This work, says Dunlop, " contains in its original form 
rmly a superficial sketch of the subject; but valuable notes and corrections accompany the 
German translation.' 5 

§295it. From these remarks it is obvious that the study of the Roman lan- 
guage and authors must be attended with many advantages. An acquaintance 
with both is the more indispensable to the learned of every class, because the 
Latin language has been so extensively employed as a general medium of writ* 
ten communication in the republic of letters. 

To the English and American scholar, the study of this language is highly important on ac*- 
count of the great number of English words derived from it. C£, ^ 298. 2. — On the study of the 
Classics in general, cf. P. I. § 29* I 

§296?/. Respecting the origin and progress of the Latin language, we have 
already (P. I. §114) mentioned what is most important. — Four ages have been 
Commonly assigned to it; these are also considered as periods of Roman lite- 
rature, and in reference to their relative character and value are denominated 
From four metals. But in this assignment, the period of the rise and formation 
of the language is not included. The golden age continued from the seconjd 
Punic war to the death of Augustus ; the silver, from the death of Augustus 
to the death of Trajan ; the brazen, from the death of Trajan to the destruc- 
tion of Rome by the Goths (A. D. 410) ; the iron, from this event, during the 
Whole of the middle ages, to the restoration of letters. — Others divide the his* 
tory of this language into periods, which are denominated, according to an 
analogy in human life, the infancy, the youth, the manhood, and the old age of 
the Roman language and literature. 

The last-mentioned is the division made by Fuvccivs,, in his History of the Roman Language 
and Literature. See § 299, 8-. The same is followed by Harles. — Duvlap (cited v\ 299. 8.) sug- 
gests a division info" three periods: the age before Augustus; the age marked by his name ; 
and the age after him, extending to the destruction of Rome. But we shall adopt another di- 
vision, which is suggested by Sclwll (cited § 299-. 8.), and appears more simple and exact. Cf» 
$301. . 

24 



278 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 297. The true pronunciation of the Latin, like that of the Greek (§ 5), 
cannot be determined with certainty. There is no dispute among scholars re- 
specting the principles which are to guide us in locating the accent ; i. e. 
in deciding on which syllable to place the stress in enunciating any word. 

The following rule is adopted. In all words of only two syllables, place the stress always on 
the first syllable or penultima; in all words of more than two syllables, place the stress on the 
penultima when the penultima is long in quantity, but on the antepenultima when the penul- 
tima is short in quantity. This rule is thought to be supported by the authority of Quintilian* 
"Namque in omni voce, acuta intra numerum trium syllabarum continetur, sive lis sintin ver- 
bo solae, sive ultima? ; et in his aut proxima extremes, ant ab ea tertia. Trium porro, de quibus 
loquor, media longa aut acuta aut fiexa erit ; eodem loco brevis, utique gravem habebit sonum, 
ideoque positam ante se, id est ab ultima tertiam, acuet. Est autem in omni voce utique acuta, 
sed nunquam plus una; nee ultima unquam ; ideoque in dissyllabis prior.' Instit. Orat. L. I. 
c. 5. 

But with reference to the sound of the letters, the vowels especially, there 
is not such agreement. Many think it proper to adopt what are called the 
Continental sounds of the vowels, while others choose to follow English anal- 
ogy. The latter is the custom at most of the seminaries in the U. States, par- 
ticularly the northern. 

It is worthy of remark that the Frenchman, German, and Italian, in pronouncing Latin, each 
yields to the analogies of his native tongue. Each of them may condemn the other, while each 
commits the same error, or rather follows in truth the same general rule. Erasmus says he 
was present at a levee of one of the German princes, where most of the European ambassadors 
Were present; and it was agreed that the conversation should be carried on in Latin. It was 
so ; but you would have thought, adds he, that all Babel had come together. — Cf. C. Mlddletott, 
De Latinarum literarum pronunciatione, in his Miscellaneous Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8. 
(vol. 4th). See Rules for pronouncing Latin, &c. cited § 5. — Andrews & Stoddard, Lat. Gram- 
mar, under Orthoepy. 

§ 298. It is important that the study of this language as well as the Greek 
should be commenced in early life. In the introduction to the History of Greek 
Literature, we offered (§6) some remarks on the methods of teaching the lan- 
guages. We will add here a few particulars. 

1. Besides the various exercises before alluded to (§ 6. 4.) that of conversa- 
tion may be mentioned as a very valuable aid in acquiring familiarity with 
Latin or any other foreign language. It may in fact be a question, whether 
the inconvenience of the old regulation, which required the intercourse be- 
tween pupil and teacher in the higher seminaries to be carried on in Latin 7 
was not more than compensated by the knowledge of the language thereby 
acquired. Certain it is, that under our present systems of study, languages 
are learned as it were by the eye rather than the ear; and it often happens, that a 
scholar would be quite puzzled by a sentence spoken to him, when he could 
readily translate the same sentence presented to his eye in a v;ritten form. 
The difficulty is, partly at least, that he has associated the meaning of the for- 
eign word with its visible form rather than its sound. Frequent conversation 
would remove this, besides contributing in other ways to familiarity with the 
language. — A very useful exercise, preparatory for more regular conversation, 
is to give orally in Latin (and the same of course may be done in the case of 
any other language which one wishes to learn) the name of each object that is 
noticed in a room, a walk, /ride, or visit to a place of resort, a store, a shop, or 
the like. This exercise is particularly calculated to please youthful beginners, 
and might be practiced by several students in company, either with or without 
a teacher. 

Some aid in exercises of this kind may be derived from "Vocabularies, in which the names of 
things belonging to the same class, or of subjects related to each other, are brought together., 
The London Vocabulary, for the Latin, and Howard's Vocabulary, for the Greek, are little works 
of this sort, of considerable merit. 

2. Another amusing and useful exercise, in studying the Latin and Greek 
in particular, is to trace terms in our own language back to the Latin or 
Greek originals, from which they were derived. It is also specially ser- 
viceable, in acquiring the mastery of a language, to examine into the analogies 
established in it in the formation of derivative words from their primitives, 
and of compounds from their simple constituents. 

Special exercises for these objects may be devised by the teacher, besides directing the stu- 
dent's attention to them in connection with particular "words occurring in the daily lessons. — 
A very good introduction to etymological studies is furnished by the following small works. — 
The Student's Manual, being an etymological and explanatory vocabulary of words derived 
from the Greek , by R. H. Black, LL. D. Lond. 1834. 18. and the Sequel to the Student's Man- 



INTRODUCTION. METHODS AND HELPS IN STUDYING LATIN. 279 

ual, an etymolog. and explan. Dictionary of words derived from the Latin, by the same Au- 
thor. — See also OsicaWs Etymological Dictionary of the English language, by J. M. Keagy. 
Phil. 1S36. 12. 

3. Some valuable remarks upon a Course of Latin Studies will be found in the Am. Quart. Rev. 
vol. vi. p. 303. — See also T. F. Heynatz, Versuch eines Schulstudien-plans. (4th Absch. von 
Erlerrmng der lat. Sprache.) Lpz. 1794. 8. 

4. The following extract contains an account of the system of instruction in the Boston Latin 
Sckool. It is from a pamphlet, which was kindly furnished to the writer by Mr. C. K Dillaway, 
the present Principal (1836), and which contains an interesting account of the origin and his- 
tory of that School. 

" The scholars are distributed into four separate apartments, under the care of the same num- 
ber of instructors, viz. a Principal, or head-master, a sub-master and two assistants. When 

a class has entered, the boys commence the Latin Grammar all together under the eye of the 
principal ; where they continue until he has become in some degree acquainted with their in- 
dividual characters and capacities. As they receive credit-marks of 5, 4, 3, 1, or at each reci- 
tation, and as these are added up at the end of every month and the rank of each boy ascer- 
tained, those boys will naturally rise to the upper part of the class who are most industrious, 
or who learn with the greatest facility. After a time, a division of from twelve to fifteen boys 
is taken off from the upper end of the class ; after a few days more, another division is in like 
manner taken off; and so on, till the whole class is separated into divisions of equal number ; 
it having been found that from twelve to fifteen is the most convenient number to drill together. 

In this way boys of like capacities are put together, and the evil of having some unable to 

learn the lesson which others get in half the time allowed, is in some measure obviated. The 
class, thus arranged for the year, is distributed among the assistant teachers, a division to each. 
— When this distribution is made, the boys continue for the year in the apartment in which 
they are first placed, unless some particular reason should exist for changing them ; or when 
the divisions study Geography or Mathematics with the instructor to whom these branches are 
committed. — This method of studying each branch separately, is adopted throughout the school. 
The same individuals do not study Latin one part of the day and Greek the other, but each for 
a week at a time. In this way the aid of excitement from the continuity of a subject is secured, 
and a much more complete view of the whole obtained, than when studied in detached portions, 
and the grammar of neither language permitted to go out of mind. For it should ' be remem- 
bered, that if the grammar be the first book put into the learner's hands, it should also be the 
last to leave them.' — At convenient times the boys in each apartment undergo a thorough ex- 
amination in the studies they have been over. If any class, or any individuals, do not pass a 
satisfactory examination, they are put back, and made to go over the portion of studies in which 
they are deficient till they do pass a satisfactory examination* 

Boys commence with Adam's Latin Grammar, in learning which they are required to com- 
mit to memory much that they do not understand at the time, as an exercise of memory, and to 
accustom them to labor. There are some objections to this, it is true, but it has been found ex- 
tremely difficult to make boys commit thoroughly to memory at a subsequent period, what they 
have been allowed to pass over in first learning the grammar. It takes from six to eight months 
for a boy to commit to memory all that is required in Adam's Grammar ; but those who do 
master the grammar completely, seldom find any difficulty afterwards in committing to memory 
whatever may be required of them. — The learned Vicesimus Knox thinks it may be well to re- 
lieve boys a little while studying grammar, ' for,' says he, ' after they have studied Latin Gram- 
mar a year closely, they are apt to become weary.' When boys can write Latin prose gram- 
matically, they are required to make nonsense verses, or to put words into verses with regard to 
their quantity only. When the mechanical structure of different kinds of versification is familiar, 
they have given them a literal translation, of a few verses at a time, taken from some author 
with whose style they are not acquainted, which is to be turned into verses of the same kind 
as those from which it was taken ; and then compared with the original. Afterwards portions 
of English poetry are given to be translated into Latin verse. Original verses are then re- 
quired, which, with themes in Latin and English, continue through the course. Considerable 
portions of all the Latin and Greek poets used in school are committed to memory, as they are 
read; particularly several books of Virgil ; all the first book of Horace, and parts of many oth- 
ers ; the third and tenth Satires of Juvenal entire ; all the poetry in the Greek Reader, and 
many hundreds of verses in Homer. This is an important exercise to boys ; and without it 
they can never write Latin prose or verse with the same facility as with it. It is in this way 
that the idioms of any language are gained ; and in writing verses the quantity and proper use 
of most words employed by the best writers are instantaneously determined, by recalling a verse 
in which it occurs." 

§299t. Here is the proper place to name some of the works which may serve 
as aids in studying the Latin language and literature. 

1. Chrestomathies and Reading-Books. — F.Ge- 
dike's lateinisches Lesebuch,18th ed. Bed. 1820. 
8. — By same. Lat. Chrestomathie. 4th ed. Bed. 
1822. 8. — F. Jacobs (and F. W. DVring's) lat. 
Lesebuch. Jen. 1818. The latter has been pub- 
lished in this country under the title of The 
Latin Reader edited by George Bancroft, in 2 
vols. (Parts I and II.) The first part of it also, 
under the title of Andrews'' Latin Reader, by 
E. F. Andrews. Bost. 4th ed. 1839. — F. Ellevdt, 
Lateinisches Lesebuch fur die untersten Klas- 
sen. 5th ed. Konigsb. 1815.8.— The Liber Pri- 
mus (stereotvped 1827), VIA Romm (as published 
for Boston Lat. School, 1833), and Historic Sa- 
cree, are also used in teaching beginners. — The 
Ezcerpta Latina (Bost. 1810. 8.) was designed for 
Students more advanced.— Analccta Latina Ma- 



jora, containing selections from the best Latin 
Prose Authors, with English notes, &c. on the 
plan of Dalzel's Analecta Grceca. Lond. 1831. 

8. The authors usually read first after the 

Chrestomathy are Cornelius Ncpos, Cmsar, Vir- 
gil, Ovid, Cicero, Sallust, Horace. 
■ 2. Grammars. Of the great number of gram- 
matical helps, we mention the following. — G. 
J. Vossius, Aristarchus s. de arte grammatica. 
Amst. 1632. 2 vols. A.—Fr.Sanctius, Minerva s. 
de causis linguae lat. Comment, (ed. C.L.Bauer) 
Lips. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8. (ed. Eb. Scheidius.) 
Amst. et Goth. 1809. 8.— A.F.Bernhardi,\o\\st. 
lat. Grammatik. Bed. 1795-97. 2 vols. 8.—J.G. 
Scheller, AusfUrhliche lat. Sprachlehre. Lpz. 
1803. 8. Translated into Eng. by G. Walker. 
Lond. 1827. 2 vols. 8. — Ch. G. Braider, Prak- 



280 



HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



tische Grammatik der lat. Spvache. (14th ed.) 
Lpz. 1820. 8.—H. B. Wench's lat. Sprachl. (ed. 
G. F. Orotefend) Frankf. 1820-23. 2 vols. 8.— 
C. G. Zurn.pt' s lat. Gramm. (4th ed.) Bed. 1824. 
8. Transl, into Eng. by Kenrick. Also publ. 
N. York. 1829. 8. — K. L. Schneider, Ausfiihrl. 
Gramm. der lat. Sprache. Berl. 1819. 2 vols. 8. 
— Port Royal Lat. Grammar (a new method &c. 
translated from the French of the Messrs. de 
Port Royal) by T. Nugent. Lond. 1803. 2 vols. 
8. — D. Ludw. Ramshorn, Lateinische Gramma- 
tik. Lpz. 1830. 8. pp. 1165. — The Grammar 
which has been most usually adopted in our 
schools is that of Adam; the best editions of 
which are those of Gould and of Fish. The 
Grammar by Andrews and Stoddard is now 

(1838) most highly recommended. We may 

here mention, as very useful helps in studying 
the first principles of Latin grammar in the 
method suggested on a former page (§ 6. 2) the 
following : Goodrich's Outlines of Latin Gram- 
mar &c. — Willard's Introduction to the Latin 
Language Bost. 1835. 12. 

3. Dictionaries.— We may mention as valu- 
able, Calepinus, Lexicon Latinum variarum 
linguarum interpretatione adjecta. Patav.1681. 
2 vols. fol. first ed. 1503. The most complete ; 
J. M. Gessner, Novus Linguae Roman se The- 
saurus, post R. Stephani et aliorum curas di- 
gestus. Lpz. 1749. 4 vols. fol. — Facciolati &. 
Forcellini, Lexicon totius Latinitatis &c. (auc- 
tum labore variorum.) Lips. 1835. 4 vols. fol. 
— J. J. G. Scheller, Ausfuhrliches lateinisch- 
deutsches u. deutsch-lat. Wbrterbuch. Lpz. 
1804, 5. 7 vols. 8. — The Universal Latin Lexi- 
con of Facciolatus and Forcellinus, edited by 
J. Bailey. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. — A smaller 
work of great utility is Scheller's Handlexikon, 
verbessert und vermehrt durch G. H. Lvne- 
mann, 5th ed. Lpz. 1822. 3 vols. 8.— J. E. Rid- 
dle, Scheller's Lex. Mnguaa Latinae, with the 
Germ, explanations translated into English. 
Oxf. 1835. fol. — W. Freund, Wbrterbuch der 
Lat. Sprache nach historisch genetischen Prin- 
cipien. To be completed in 4 vols. 8. 2 vols. 
8. executed, 1837. " considered in Germany as 
one of the most perfect specimens of lexicog- 
raphy." The Dictionaries, which have been 

most commonly used in our schools, are Ains- 
worth's, Morrell's Abridgment of Ainsworth, 
and Young's. — J. W. Ntblock, Latin and Eng- 
lish Dietfonary ; for schools. — In Germany 
much use has been made of Scheller's Kleines 
lat. Wbrterbuch, edit, by Lnnemann, 5th ed. 
Han. 1816. 8.— Ch.H.Dbrner, Wbrterbuch d.Lat. 
Sprache. commenced Stuttg. 1836. 8. its value 

not known. The best for common use, F.P. 

Leverett, A new Latin-English and English- 
Latin Lexicon, abridged from the Lexicon of 
Facciolati & Forcellini, with improvements 
drawn from Scheller & Lnnemann. Bost. 1836. 8. 

For Grammars and Lexicons of the Latin 

and other languages, see J. S, Vater, Literatur 
der Grammatiken, Lexica, und Wbrtersamm- 
lungen aller Sprachen der Erde, &c. Berl. 1815. 
8. 

4. We may refer also to a few works on par- 
ticular branches of Grammar or Lexicography. 

(a) On Synonymes. — J. Hill, The Synonymes 
of the Lat. Language with crit. Dissert, upon 
the force of Prepositions. Edinb. 1804 f 4, — 
G. Dusmenil, Synon. Lat. — Same, trans- 
lated from French into German by I. Ch.. G. 
Ernesti. Lpz. 1779. 3 vols. 8. — M. Lieber, Ho- 
monyma Ling. Lat. Lips. 1837, 8. — Ludw. Db- 
derlein, Lateinische Synonyme &c. Lpz. 1826- 
38. 6 vols. 8. — There is a briefer work by Rams- 
horn, in which the Sanscrit is applied to the 
Latin. — E. C. Habicht, synonymisches Hand- 
wbrterbuch d. Lat. Sprache, &c. Lemg.1829. 8. 

(6) On Particles. — Ch. G. Schntz, Doctr. par- 
ticular. Lat. linguae. Dessav. 1784. 8. — Hot. 



Tursellinus, De particulis ling. Lat. libelhis. 
(cur. J. A. Ernesti) Lpz. 1769/8. ed. by J. Bai- 
ley. Lond. 1828. 8.— T. Hand, Tursellinus seu 1 
De particulis Latinis Commentarii. Lips.1829- 
38. 5 vols. 8. " an original and splendid work, 
completely exhausting the subject." 

(c) On Analogies and affinities of the lan- 
guage and Etymology. — Dunbar, Inquiry into' 
the Structure and Affinity of the Greek and 
Latin languages. Ed. 1827. 8. — It may be profit- 
able to consult Harris's Hermes, a philosophical 
Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar. Lond. 
1751. 8. — N. Fork, Etymologisches Handwbr- 
terbuch d. Lat. Sprache. Lpz. 1838. 2 vols. 8.— 
N. Salmon, Stemmata Latinitatis, or Etymo- 
logical s Lat. Diet, wherein the mechanism of 
the Latin tongue is. exhibited &c. Lond. 1791. 
2 vols. 8. — G. Sharpe, Structure of Lat. tongue. 
1751. — C. E. Prufer, De Graeca atque Latina 
declinatione. Lips. 1827. 8. 

(d) Prosody &. Metre. — C. H. Sintenis, Gradus 
ad Parnassum &c. Zullich. 1816. 2 vols. 8. — 
N. A. Heidcn, Anleitung zur Kenntniss der 
Dichtkunst des alten Roms. Norimb. 1815. 
2 vols. — M. C. Kirchner, Prosodia Latina com- 
pleta &c. Bas. 1643. 4.— T. Gaisford, as cited 
§ 422. 

5. In writing Latin, there are various useful 
helps. — Scheller's Praecepta stili bene latini. 
Lpz. 1797. 2 vols. 8. — C. D. Beck, Artis latino 
scribendi praecepta. Lpz. 1801. 8. — E. Valpy, 
Elegantise Latina? ; or Rules and Exercises il- 
lustrative of Elegant Latin Style. 9th ed. Lond. 
1831. Introductory to this are the two works 
styled First Latin Exercises and Second Latin 
Exercises, by E. Valpy. — The New Latin Tutor, 
or Introduction to the making of Latin, &c. 
This is now much used in our schools. — W. 
Robertson, Dictionary of Latin Phrases, &c. 
for the more speedy progress of students in 
Latin Composition. Lond. 1830. 12. — HI. Crom- 
bie's Gymnasium, or Symbola Critica. Lond. 
1830. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Class. Journ. x. 384. xi.296. 
xn. 167. — E. H. Barker, Elements of Latin 
Prosody, with Exercises designed as an intro- 
duction to the scanning and making Latin 
verses. 6th ed. Lond. 1830. 12.— S.Butler ■, Praxig 
on the Latin Prepositions, being an attempt to 
illustrate their Origin, Signification, and Gov- 
ernment. 3d ed. Lond. 1832. 8. We may- 
name also as valuable in reference to idiom and 
style, C. J. Grysar, Theorie des Lateinischen 
Stils. Col. 1831. 8.— .7. P. Krebs, Antibarbarus 
der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d ed. Frankf. 
1837. 8. pp. 515. 

6. For helps pertaining to the subjects of Ge- 
ography, Chronology, and Biography, consult 
§7. 7. — We add here, Clinton's Fasti Hellenici. 
Oxf. 1826-34. 3 vols. 4. — Biographia Classica. 
Lond. 1740. 2 vols. 8. Transl. from Eng. --to 
Germ. Hal. 1767.— A. Th. Bischoff &c I. H. Mol- 
ler, Vergleichung des Wbrterbuchs der alter, 
mittleren, und neuen Geographic Goth. 1829. 
8. — Chr. Midler, Roms Campagua in Beziehung 
auf alte Geschichte, Dichtung, und Kunst. 
Lpz. 1824. 2 vols. 8. — Cramer's Ancient Italy. 
Oxf. 1826. 2 vols. 8. with map. 

7. Among the valuable helps of a historical 
character, we mention the following. — Ge- 
schichte der Rbmer, zur Erkllrung ihren klas- 
sischen Schriftsteller. Lpz. 1767. 2 vols. 8. — 
F. Fielder's Geschichte des rom. Staates und 
Volkes. Lpz. 1821. 8.— Thos. Blackwell ; Me- 
moirs of the Court of Augustus (completed by 
J. Mills). Edinb. 1753-63. 4 vols. 4.— Ad. Fer- 
guson, Hist, of Rise and Progress of Rom. Re- 
public. Often reprinted. Transl. into German, 
with additions by C. D. Beck. Lpz.1784. 3 vols. 
8.— Goldsmith's History of Rome. Often re- 
printed. Same work abridged ; one of the best 
editions is by Pinnock (re publ. by Key fy Biddlc) 
Phiia835 l 12,— Bentzlev's Gesch. der Rwuer U 



INTRODUCTION. HELPS- IN THE STUDY OP LATIN. 



281 



transl. of Goldsmith) Lpz. 1785. 2 vols. 8.— JVie- 
buhr'sKom. Gesch. Berl.1831. Transl. English, 
Cambr. 1832. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Amer. Quart. Rev. 
Vol. iv. p. 367. JV. Amer. Rev. xvi. 438. — JV. 
Hooke, The Roman History from the building 
of Rome to the ruin of the Commonwealth. 
Lond. 1806. 11 vols. 8. — Ed, Gibbon, Hist, of 
Decline and Fall of Rom. Empire. Often repr. 
A French transl. by Suard, with notes by Gui- 
zoU Par. 1812. 13 vols. 8. (The infidel insinua- 
tions of Gibbon are exposed and refuted in 
Watson's Apology for Christianity ; often re- 
printed.) — T. Arnold, History of Rome. 1st vol. 
Loud. 1838. 8. highly commended in Black- 
wood's Mag. vol. xliv. p. 141. — T. Keight.ley, 
Hist, of Rome (to the reign of Augustus). 
Lond. 1837. 8. — W. C. Taylor, Overthrow of 
Rom. Empire (extending from Constantino to 
the fall of Constantinople.) Lond. 1838. 

8. Works belonging to the class Histories of 
Latin Literature, or Introductions to the same, 
are very useful helps. We have already men- 
tioned (§ 7. 9.) some which treat of the Latin 
authors together with the Greek. Some others 
relating to the Latin may be added here. — /. JV. 
Funeciiis, cited P. I. § 114. 2. Three portions 
of his History of Latin Literature are there cited; 
the other parts are the following: De virili state 
Linguas Latinre Tractatus. Marb. 1727-30. 2 
vols. ; De imminente L. L. Senectute Tract. 
Marb. 1744. ; De inerti ac decrepita L. L. Se- 
nectute Commentarius. Lemg. 1750. — J. A. 
Fabricii, Bibliotheca Latina, rectius digesta et 
aucta diligentia J. A. Ernesti. Lpz. 1773. 3 
vols. 8. — G. E. Mtiller, Hist. krit. EinJeitung 
zunbthigerKenntniss u. niitzlichen Gebrauche 
der alten lat. Schriftseller. Dresd. 1747-51. 5 
vols. 8. not completed. — J. C. Zeunii Introduc- 
tio in linguam latinam. Jen. 1779. 8. — F. A. 
Wolf, Geschichte der rom. Literatur ; ein Leit- 



Th. Ch. Harles, Iiitroductio in Historiam lin- 
guae latinae. Norimb. 1781. 2 vols. 8. — By same, 
Notitia literature Romanas, in primis scripto- 
rum latinorum. Lpz. 1789. 8. with Supplements 
I. & II. Lpz. 1799, 1801, and III. (ed. C. F. H. 
KBgling) Lpz. 1817. — By same, Notitia liter, 
romance &c. accomod. in. us. schol. Lpz. 1803. 
8. with Additamenta by Klugling. Lpz. 1819. 8. 
— F. Sclwll, Histoire Abregee de la Litterature 
Romaine. Par. 1815. 4 vols. 8. Cf. Ed. Rev. 
No. lxxx. vol. xl. p. 375. — J. Dunlop, History 
of Rom. Literature, from the earliest period to 
the Augustan age. Lond. 1823. 2 vols. 8. Repr. 
Phil. 1827. Cf. Ed. Rev. as just cited. A 3d 
vol. (Lond. 1828.) continues the history during 
the Augustan age. — Charpentier,~Et\ides morales 
et historiques sur la literature Romaine, depuis 
son origine jusqu'a nos jours. Hach. 1829. 8. — 
G. Bernhardy, Grundriss der Romischen Lite- 
ratur. Halle, 1830. 8. — J. Chr. F. Bahr, Ge- 
schichte der RomischenLiteratur. 2d ed. Carlsr. 
1832. 8. This is probably the best work of 
the kind. There is a valuable Supplement en- 
titled Die Christlich-romische Literature. 1836- 
38. — Other works of this class are cited by 
Dunlop at the close of his Appendix. 

9. On editions and translations, we refer to 
the works cited § 7. 10. — F. A. Ebert, General 
Bibliographical Dictionary transl. from the Ger- 
man. Oxf. 4 vols. 8. — A recent ed. of Black- 
walPs Introduction (cf. P.I. §29. 4) Oxf.1837. 
12. contains some notices of editions of Class, 
authors. — On German translations the follow- 
ing may be added ; T. F. Degen, Versuch einer 
vollstandigen Literatur der deutschen Ueber- 
setzungen der Romer. Altenb. 1794. 2 vols. 8. 
Supplem. Erl. 1799. 8. — Consult also Harles, 
Notitia &c. above cited ; in which are found 
likewise references on most of the subjects 
specified under the preceding heads. 



faden fur akad. Vorlesungen Halle. 1787. 8. 

§ 300. In giving the history of Roman literature, we shall follow the same 
method as in treating of the Greek. We shall first suggest a division of the 
whole extent of time included into a few distinct periods, and designate the 
several departments particularly cultivated among the Romans ; and then 
proceed to notice these departments separately. In doing this, a general 
view of the department will be given first, and then a brief notice of the 
most important authors in it, ranged in chronological order. In speaking of 
individual authors, we shall advert to their lives and characters, to their 
works, and to the most important editions and translations, and other useful 
helps in studying them. 

§ 301. The history of Roman literature, in its most extensive signification, 
comprehends a space of twelve hundred years, from the building of Rome, 
B. C. 752, to the overthrow of the Western Empire, A. D. 476. It may be 
very conveniently divided into five distinct periods. 

The first period extends from the building of Rome, to the close of the first 
Punic War, B. C. 240. It includes more than five centuries, during which 

the language continued in a state quite unpolished. The second period 

extends from the close of the first Punic War, to the civil War of Murius and 
Sylla, B. C. 88. It includes about one century and a half, during which the 
language was greatly improved and enriched in consequence of intercourse 

between the Romans and the Greeks of Magna Graecia. The third period 

extends from the Civil War of Marius and Sylla, to the death of Augustus, A. 
D. 14. It includes about a century, during which the language exhibited the 
highest degree of refinement it ever attained. This may properly be called 

the golden age of Roman literature. The fourth period extends from the 

death of Augustus and accession of Tiberius, to the age of the Antonines, A. D. 
160. It includes about a century and a half, during which the language lost 

something of its elegance and polish. The fifth period extends from the 

age of the Antonines, to the overthroio of the Western Empire, A. D. 476. It 
includes about three centuries, in which the language became greatly corrupt- 
ed and finally loaded with barbarisms. 
24* 



282 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 302. In noticing the most important authors and prominent circumstan- 
ces in the literary history of the periods above named, we shall follow the 
order which we adopted in treating of the Greek literature. We shall speak 
first of the Poets ; next of the Orators ; then of the Rhetoricians, the Gram- 
marians, the writers of Epistles and Fiction, the Philosophers, the Historians, 
the Mathematicians and Geographers ; here we shall mention some, who may 
b e called Economists, treating of practical arts, especially husbandry ; then 
he Mythographers , and the writers on Medicine and Natural History. We 
propose also to introduce a brief notice of the wr iters on Law and Jurisprudence. 



I. — Poetry and Poets. 

§ 303. In the first centuries after the building of their city, the Romans 
were but little acquainted with poetry. During the whole time, which we 
have designated as the first period of Roman literature (§ 301), they did not 
really cultivate any branch of letters. It was not until B. C. 240, above 500 
years after the founding of Rome, that they had properly speaking, any liter- 
ature. (Cf. P. I. § 113). At this time, the conquests of the Romans had 
brought them into intercourse with the Greeks settled in the southern part of 
Italy, and the influence was soon felt at Rome in awakening and cherishing 
a love of the arts. Dramatic poetry appears to have been the first form of 
literature thus derived from the Greeks. Subsequently, the Romans looked 
to the Greeks for their models, not only in poetry, but in every other branch 
of literature. 

§304. Previously to the introduction of the drama just mentioned, there 
were indeed some compositions of a poetical kind, which were rehearsed on 
festive and commemorative occasions. Such was the hymn chanted by the 
Fratres Jirvales, supposed to be the earliest specimen of the Roman language 
now extant. (Cf. P. I. § 114.) — Such also were the hymns (sometimes called 
axamenta) sung by the Salic priests. (Cf. P. IV. § 215.) — Such too were the 
Fescennine verses (versus Fescennini), rude and satirical verses, that were re- 
hearsed at certain festivals, in the time of harvest, and accompanied with 
rustic gestures and dances. Their name was derived from Fcscennium, a city 
of Etruria, or from a deity termed Fascinus. They were also called Sapurni- 
an, from the irregularity of their metre, or their freedom from definite rules 
of structure. They were of a very licentious character, which it became ne- 
cessary to restrain by law. Traces of this sort of poetical effusions were re-> 
tained, in the latest times at Rome, in the songs of young men on nuptial oc- 
casions. 

Cf. 6. H. Heinricks, Versus ludicri in Romanorum Ceesares priores olim compositi. Hal, 

1810. 8.— Cf. Hor. Ep. II. i. 145. Respecting Fascinus, see Forcellini, Lexicon Tot. Lat. On 

the Saturnian verse, Cf. Dunlop, as cited § 299. 8. (Phil. ed. i. 63.)— On the Fescennine verse, 
Scholl, Lit. Rom. i. 74. — J. Casaubon, De Satyrica Grsec. Poesi et Roman. Satira. Hal. 1774. 8. 
(p. 177.)— Cf. Hor. Epist. L. ii. Ep. 1. 

§ 305. Before the introduction of the more regular drama from Magna 
Grsecia, there were also practiced at Rome some performances of a dramatic 
nature ; particularly the plays of the Tuscan Histriones, and the Fabula- 
Atellance. — The former were first introduced about B. C. 364, in order as is 
stated, to appease the gods, when their wrath was felt in a prevailing epidem- 
ic. Players were invited from Etruria, and called Histriones, from the Tus- 
can word luster ; they danced to the music of a flute, with which they also 
united singing and mimic actions. These performances were called Ludi 
scenici; a phrase which was also used to include all the various forms of dra- 
matic exhibition subsequently introduced. The Fabulce Atellana, derived 

their origin and name from Atella, a city of the Osci, lying between Capua 
and Naples. They were a kind of rude irregular comedy or farce, in the 
Oscan dialect. Originally they were probably in some measure extempora- 
neous performances, in which the actors after previous agreement and prep- 
aration filled up the scenes according to their own skill and pleasure. This 



DRAMATIC POETRY. TRAGEDY. 283 

species of entertainment was very popular at Rome, and continued to be so 
after the introduction of the regular drama ; and several writers composed 
pieces denominated Atellane Fables. The exhibitions of these compositions, 
and also the pieces themselves, were called Ludi Osci. 

Livy, Lib. vii. c. 2.— SckSU, Litt. Rom. i. 75.— Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. i. 230. (ed. Phil. 1827). 
— J. Casaubon, (as cited $ 304) p. 184, 241. — J. O. Salzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schbnen 
Kunste, Lpz. 1792. 4 vols. 8.) Vol. i. p. 518. 

§ 306. It should also be remarked, that in the early periods of Rome, there 
were national ballads, which celebrated the praises of native heroes, and the 
victories gained by Roman arms. Triumphal songs and pseans were sung by 
the soldiers marching in procession through the streets of the city. At con- 
vivial feasts likewise, songs of the same description were rehearsed accompan- 
ied with instrumental music. These ballads were founded on the traditions re- 
specting the kings and heroes and early achievements of the people. Niebuhr 
and Schlegel suppose the stories, which Livy and others relate in the regular 
history of Rome, to have been chiefly drawn from such popular ballads and 
traditionary poems of the primitive ages. 

Dunlop, i. 40, 79.— F. Schlegel, Hist, of Lit. Lect. iii.— 6. B. Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, 
(Trans, from Germ, by Hare Sf Thirlwall, p. 193. vol. i. ed. Phil. 1835.— Peritonitis, Animad- 
versiones Histories, (c. 6.) — Cf. Cicero, Tusc. GluBEst. L. i. c. 2. iv. c. 2. Brutus, 18. 19. 

§ 307. With the exceptions which have been noticed in the preceding sec- 
tions (304-306), the Romans had no poetry until their conquests in Magna 
Gra?cia. From this period, they began to imitate the Greeks ; and most of 
the forms of poetry found among the latter, were finally introduced at Rome. 
We shall have occasion to notice in this sketch, the Dramatic, Epic, Lyric, 
Bucolic, Elegiac and Didactic ; also the Fable, the Epigram, and the Satire. 

§ 308. (a) Dramatic. It has already been remarked that the drama was 
the first form of literature borrowed from the Greeks. Regular dramatio 
pieces were first exhibited at Rome, by Livius Andronicus, B. C. about 239 
or 240, at the commencement of the second period before specified (§ 301). 
But the drama never reached a very high degree of perfection among the 
Romans. The mass of the people were more fond of the public shows and 
spectacles; and the higher ranks were engrossed in ambitious projects for 
power and wealth. Comedy seems to have been more congenial with the 
native taste of the Romans than tragedy ; such dramatic performances as 
preceded the time of Livius, seem to have been wholly of the comical species* 

§ 309. 1. Tragedy. It has been disputed whether the first drama repre- 
sented at Rome by Livius Andronicus, was a comedy or a tragedy. However 
this may be, he is the acknowledged founder of Roman tragedy. He was an 
actor himself, and for a considerable time the sole performer of his own 
pieces. " Afterwards, however, his voice failings in consequence of the au- 
dience insisting on the repetition of favorite passages, he introduced a boy 
who relieved him by declaiming in concert with the flute, while he himself 
executed the corresponding gesticulations in the monologues, and in the 
parts where high exertion was required, employing his own voice only in the 
conversational or less elevated scenes." Hence originated the custom by 
which the singing or rehearsal in the monologues was separated from the 
mimic action, and only the latter was assigned to the actor ; a custom which 
continued in the Roman drama during the most refined periods. 

This change from the Grecian custom, in which the tragic singing and mimic action were 
performed by one person, is mentioned by Livy, L. vii. c. 2. The terms Canticum and Diverbia^ 
commonly interpreted as referring to the monologue or rehearsal, and dialogue or conversation, 
are otherwise explained by some. Cf. Scholl, i. p. 108. 

§ 310. During the period extending from the close of the first Panic war, 
to the civil war of Marius and Sylla B. C. 88, we find three other principal 
writers in tragedy besides Livius Andronicus ; viz. Ennius, Pacuvius, and 
Attius. Noevius was also the author of several tragedies, but held a higher 
rank as a comic poet. All these authors drew their materials almost wholly 
from Grecian originals ; their productions being either translations or imita- 
tions of Greek authors. With a very few exceptions, their tragedies were 
of the class termed palliatce, i. e. constructed of Grecian characters and inci- 
dents ; only three or four (cf. § 353. 1. 354. 1.) were of the class called pra,~ 
textata or togatai, i. e. composed of native materials. — It is worthy of remark., 



284 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

that these authors could not avail themselves of personages and events 
already long celebrated in epic song, as the Greek tragedians did. Roman 
poetry commenced with the drama, and the poets were obliged almost necessa- 
rily to go to a foreign mythology and history for subjects and scenes of a date 
sufficiently ancient to be employed with dramatic effect. Whatever causes 
may be assigned, the fact is a striking one, that the Romans exhibit less orig- 
inality in tragedy and in the drama generally than in any other species of 
composition. 

See T. Baden, De causis neglectss apud Romanes tragoedise. G'o'tt. 1789. 8.— Cf. Dunlop, i» 
219-227. — F. Jacobs (remarks on the same topic) in the Charaktere d. vornefimst. Dlchter, iv. p.- 
332.— W. Schlegel, Dramat. Lit. 

§ 311. In the next period of Roman literature, extending from the civil 
war, B. C. 88, to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, regular tragedy was al- 
most driven from the stage. The taste for gladiatorial combats, and the shows 
exhibited by the cediles, had greatly increased ; and a simple dramatic repre- 
sentation became rather an insipid thing, unless attended with a pageantry 
wholly inconsistent with its proper character. It was in accordance with this 
taste, that a " thousand mules pranced about the stage in the tragedy of Cly- 
lemnestra ; and whole regiments, accoutred in foreign armor, were marshaled 
in that of the " Trojan Horse." — The species of representation called Mimes, 
was introduced, and was a novel kind of spectacle, which was more agreea- 
ble to the Romans than anything furnished by the Greek imitations in the 

regular drama.— Tragedy, however, continued to afford pleasure to many, 

and writers of merit occupied themselves in this species of composition, al- 
though it was nearly banished from the stage. C. Julius Ccesar Strabo, who 
after having been chief pontiff, was put to death by order of Cinna, is named 
as a good tragic poet. The dictator C. Julius Ccesar left a tragedy entitled 
(Edipus, of which Augustus, it is said, forbade the publication. P. Asinius 
Pollio composed tragedies. L. Varius, a friend of Virgil and of Horace^ 
named by the former among his heirs, and charged by Augustus with the 
duty of revising the iEneid, was also a tragic poet. His Thyestes, in the 
judgment of Quintilian, might bear comparison with the most perfect perform- 
ance of the Greeks. Ovid wrote a tragedy called Medea, applauded by Quin- 
tilian, but lost. Maecenas also left two tragedies, which are lost. Augustus 
attempted a tragedy with the title of Ajax. 

Towards the close of the last century, 6. JV. Hcei-kens, a physician of Groningen, and au- 
thor of an interesting account of a journey made by him in Italy, announced that he had 
in possession a tragedy in manuscript, entitled Tereus, which was from Varius the friend of 
Virgil. In the preface to a collection of poems entitled Iconcs, published at Utrecht 1787, he 
gave some extracts from his Tereus. But the Abbe Morelli, keeper of the library of St. Mark 
at Venice, in a letter dated 1792, exposed the literary imposture, showing that the same tragedy 
had been published twice, first at Venice 1558, under the title of Pro gne, and was written by 
O. Corrario, a Venetian. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 212. — Chardon-Larochette, Melanges de Critique 
et de Philologie. — Harles, Brev. Not. Lit. Rom. Suppl. i. 494.— A. Weichert, De Lucii Varii e$ 
Cassii Parmensis vita et carminibus. Grim. 1836. 8. 

§ 312. In the next period, from Augustus to the Antonines A. D. 160, the 
same taste for shows and for mimes and pantomimes continued among the 
Romans. Those writers who composed tragedies, seem to have done it rath- 
er for the sake of rhetorical exercise than with a design to furnish pieces for 
actual representation on the theatre. The most distinguished name is that of 
Seneca ; the tragedies ascribed to him have occasioned much discussion among 
the critics (cf. § 374. 1). P. Pomponius Secundus, a contemporary of Seneca 7 
is mentioned by the younger Pliny, and by Quintilian (Inst. Or. x. 1. 98), as a 
tragic author of great excellence. JEmilius Scaurus was the author of a 
tragedy entitled Atreus ; he was put to death by Tiberius, who was incensed 
against him by a passage of his composition, which the emperor imagined to 
be directed against himself (Dion. Cass. lvii. 24). Curatius Maternus is 
cited as a tragic poet of celebrity ; and the titles of four tragedies, Medea, 
Thyestes, Cato and Domitius, are mentioned ; he was put to death by Domi- 
tian (a) on account of his language in a declamation (us?.irrj) respecting tyr- 
anny. — During the last period included in our glance, that which extends 
from the Antonines, A. D. 160, to the overthrow of Rome, A. D. 476, the 
history of Roman tragedy presents nothing that is worthy of notice. 

(a) Cf. Dialog, de causis corrupt, eloquentise. c. 2. 3. Scholl, Litt. Rom. ii. 266.ss • 

There isieftant a sort of tragedy, entitled Medea, composed (according to Tertullian, HaereU a* 



DRAMATIC POETY. COMEDY. 285 

39.) by Hosidius Geta; of whom nothing is known, except that there was a consul in the 
reign of Claudius by name of Cn. Hosidius (or Osidius) Geta. It consists of 461 verses, 
formed of centos or hemistichs of Virgil ; published in P. Scriverius, Fragmenta, vet. trag. 
cited ^ 348. 2 ; also in P. Burmann, Anthol. Lat. ; and in Lemaire's Poet. Lat. Minores. 

For references on Tragedy in general, and Greek tragedy, see § 40. — On Roman tragedy, see 
references under $ 310 ; cf. § 374. 1. — Osann, Analecta critica, cited below § 348.1. — Rose, 
Tragische Biihne der RSmer. Anspach, 1777-81. 3 vols. 8. — Planck, De origine atque indole 
trag. ap. Romanos, in his ed. of the Medea of Ennius, cf. § 351. 2. — A. G. Lange, Vindicis 
trag. Rom. Lips. 1822. 4. — C. J. Ch. Keuvens, Collectanea seu Conjecture in Attium &c. — max. 
part, ad Roman, rem scenicam pertinentes. Leyd. 1815. 8. a specimen of an intended work to 

contain all the fragments of the Roman Comic, Tragic and Satiric writers. On the earliest 

dramatic pieces after the Roman, see JVarton, ii. p. 68. Cf. § 320. 

§ 313. 2. Comedy. It has already been remarked (§ 308), that comedy 
seems to have been more agreeable to the native taste of the Romans, than 
tragedy. The earliest dramatic performances among them were comedies of 
some sort (cf. § 305). But Livius Andronicus and Neevius were the first au- 
thors of regularly constructed plays. Plautus, however, may justly be styled 
the father of Roman comedy; he possessed preeminent talents for this species 
of composition. Terence followed him, and has obtained equal or greater ce- 
lebrity. The comedies of both these authors were imitations or copies from 
Greek originals. Indeed the regular comedy of the Romans was for the most 
part of the kind termed palliatce, because the personages and incidents were 
Grecian. It is from the plays of Terence and Plautus, that we- learn the 
character of the new comedy of the Greeks (cf. § 43). 

§ 314. Plautus and Terence are the principal names in the history of Ro- 
man comedy. But there are some other comic poets of the same period, 
known to us merely by being mentioned in ancient authors ; or by slight frag- 
ments of their writings ; as L. Quinctius Atta, Coecilius Statius, Lucius Af- 
ranius, Sextus Turpilius, Quintus Trabeas, P. Licinius Imbrex. 

See Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. L. iv. c. 1. v. — Fragments of these poets are given in H. Stephanas, 
Comicor. Lat. Fragmenta. Par. 1569. 8.—Scholl, Litt Rom. i. 138.— Cf. Hor. Epist. L. ii. Ep. L, 
79. — VeUeius Paterc. i. 17. — Aulus Gelllus, Noct. Att. xiii. 2. xv. 24. 

§ 315. In the next period, the third of our division (§ 301), we mee't with 
the name of a certain Titinius, who is spoken of by the grammarians as the 
author of several comedies. Suetonius (De Must, grammaticis, c. 21.) men- 
tions Caius Melissus, a freedman of Maecenas, as the inventor of a new spe- 
cies of comedy called trabeatce. — The only other name which we have to no- 
tice, is that of Verginius Romanus, who belongs to the following period ; he 
is highly commended by Pliny (Epist. 21. Lib. vi), as an author both of mimes 
and comedies ; by his pieces of the latter class, he is said to have merited a 

place by the side of Plautus and Terence. It may be remarked, that under 

the influence of the love of spectacles and pantomime which has already 
been mentioned as adverse to the regular drama at Rome, comedy after the 
time of Terence seems to have been still more neglected than tragedy. The 
writing of comedies furnished less improvement as a mere rhetorical exercise, 
and would therefore be less practiced for such a purpose. 

§ 316. Two particulars have been pointed out, in which the Latin comedy 
differed from the Greek in form. The first, is that the Latin comedy had not 
the chorus, properly speaking. The place of the chorus was supplied either 
by interludes of music alone, or by the appearance of the troop (grex or cater- 
va), composed of all the actors, or of the dancers, musicians and singers. 
The other particular- is the use of the prologue, which is not found in the 
Greek comedy. In Plautus and Terence the prologue is pronounced in the 
name of the poet. But perhaps the few remains we have of the Greek com- 
edy will not justify the assertion that it never contained this sort of intro- 
duction. 

We have already alluded to different kinds of comedy among the Romans. 
Three varieties are specified according to the rank of the persons represented ; 
the prcetextatce, in which the personages were civil magistrates ; the trabeatce, 
in which they were military officers; and the tunicatai or tabernarice, in which 
people of the lower classes were represented. — There was also in comedy 
the same distinction into two kinds, as in tragedy ; the palliatm, in which 
Grecian characters and manners were exhibited, so called from the Grecian 
dress worn by the actors (palla, pallium) ; and the togata, in which Roman 
characters and manners were represented, likewise denominated from the na- 



286 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

tional dress (toga). Quinctius Atta, according to the scholiasts, was the first 
who produced a play belonging to the latter class ; and Afranius was the most 
distinguished among the authors in this kind of comedy. — The epithets moto- 
rics and statarioe were also applied to comedies, according as their plot was 
more or less complicated. 

Sulzer's Allg. Theor. der schbn. Kiinste. I. 521.— Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 118. 137. — Dunlop, Hist. 
Rom. Lit. i. 228.— Cf. Hor. Ars Poet. 228.— On the music of the flute in comedy, cf. P. IV. 
$238. 

§ 317. In glancing at the Roman comedy we must not overlook the twt> 
actors so celebrated among the Romans, viz. iEsopus and Roscius. They 
were contemporaries of Cicero, and lived in familiar acquaintance with hirru 
iEsopus is said to have excelled in tragic scenes. Roscius gained such a rep- 
utation, both as a comic and as a tragic actor, that his name became a common 
term to designate a man of distinguished excellence in any art or science. — 
No Grecian actor seems to have acquired a renown equal to that of these Ro- 
man comedians. Yet in Greece, the employment was sufficiently honora- 
ble to allow citizens to engage in it, while at Rome it was confined to slaves 
or freedmen. The vast extent of the Roman theatres must have increased 
the difficulty of performing successfully. ( We cannot easily conceive how a 
a speaker, obliged to make himself heard by 40 and even 80,000 persons, 
should be able to preserve the tones and expression of voice which are re- 
quisite in order to touch the feelings. Another thing added to the task of a 
Roman actor ; he was obliged to play a female part sometimes, as women 
never appeared on the stage except in the character of mimes or for the pur- 
pose of dancing. But the business of a comedian at Rome was very lucra- 
tive ; both iEsopus and Roscius acquired immense wealth. 

Scholl Litt. Rom. i. 217.— Cf. Cicero, Epist. ad Div. vii. 1.— Valerius Max. vni. 2.— Plu- 
tarch, Life of Cicero, c. 5.— Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 72. ix. 59. vii. 40.— Hor. Sat. u. iii. 239. x. 359* 

Cicero, pro Arch. c. 8. For a sketch of the education of the Greek and Roman actors, sea 

Will. Cooke, Elements of Dramatic Criticism. Lond. 1775. 8. 

§ 318. 3. Atellane Fables. The introduction of the regular drama by Liv- 
ius Andronicus did not banish, except for a short time, the Atellane Fables* 
When the poets ceased themselves to act their own plays and committed them 
to a set of professed comedians, the free Roman youth were allowed to per- 
form pieces of this description. By appearing in such representations, the 
young patricians were not considered as reducing themselves to a level with 
mere stage actors. The Atellane farces were so popular that several writers 
engaged in composing them^ and the Oscan dialect, which was at first em- 
ployed in them, was gradually abandoned for the Latin. These pieces con- 
sisted of detached scenes following each other without much connection. 
One of the characters usually exhibited had the appellation of Maccus, " a 
grotesque and fantastic personage with an immense head, long nose and hump 
back, who corresponded in some measure to the clown or fool of modern pan- 
tomime." Pappus was another character introduced ; a personage, perhaps, 
of Greek origin rather than of Oscan, and derived from JJumtoq, the Silenus 
or old man of the Greek dramatic satyre. — The most approved writers of 
these fables were Quintus JYovus and L. Pomponius Bononiensis ; the latter 
composed them wholly in Latin, arid so much improved them as to be called 
the inventor. Memmius and Sylla are said to have imitated him by writing 

pieces of the same kind. There was another species of comic performances 

practiced by the Roman youth, called Exodia. These were short pieces of a 
more loose, detached, and farcical character even than the Atellanse. They 
were acted in connection with the Atellane Fables, being introduced at the 
close, as a sort of after-piece. 

Sulzcr, Allg. Theovie, 1.518.— Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 140.— Dunlop, l. 230.— Velleius Paterc. lib. 
ii. c. 9. — Valerius Max. lib. n. c. 4. — Athenaeus, lib. vr. c. 17. — Macrobius, Sat. lib. i. c. 10. — 

Juvenal, Sat. vi. 71.— Suetonius, vit. Galb. c. 13. Some fragments of L. Pomponius are 

found in R. fy H. Stephanus, Fragmenta vet. Poet. Lat. Par. 1564. 85 also in if. Stephanus, Com. 
Lat. cited above § 314. 

§ 319. 4. Mimes. It has been already stated that the regular drama, bor- 
rowed from the Greeks, did not greatly flourish among the Romans. One 
ground of hindrance existed, it is believed, in the fondness for a peculiar spe- 
cies of comic representation, called Mimes, which became very fashionable be- 



DRAMATIC POETRY. MIMES. PANTOMIME. 287 

fore the time of Cicero. The Latin Mimes were considerably different from 
the Greek Miuoi (cf. § 46). The latter represented a single adventure taken 
from ordinary life, not having incidents and duration sufficient for a whole 
comedy, and not requiring more of gesture or of mimetic arts, than any other 
dramatic piece. The Mimes of the Romans, on the other hand, had more of 
the dramatic character, although they did not contain a full or complete com- 
ic fable, and were represented with mimetic gestures of every sort except 
dancing, and also often exhibited grotesque characters which had no founda- 
tion in real life. They were too generally mere exhibitions of gross and li- 
centious buffoonery. Notwithstanding this, women sometimes took part in 
them; sometimes, according to Valerius Maximus, submitting to great inde- 
cencies ; Cytheris is mentioned as a celebrated actress in these plays. Orig- 
inally the Mimes were employed merely as afterpieces or as interludes to more 
regular performances ; but subsequently usurped the principal place them- 
selves, and in a great measure superseded other forms of the drama. They 
were warmly patronized by Sylla and Julius Cesar as a public amusement. 
The most distinguished authors of mimes (mimographi) were Laberius, Pub- 
lius Syrus, and Mattius (cf. § 368) ; and it is important to remark that these 
writers greatly elevated the style of this species of plays, purging them from 
much of their grossness and ribaldry. Verginius, of a later period (cf. § 315), 
is also celebrated as a writer of mimes. 

1. ScliiJll, Litt. Rom. i. 203.— Dunlop, i. 324.— Bccher 4* Zieo-Ur, as cited § 368. 5.— Cicero, 
Epist. lib. ix. c. 16.— Ovid, Tristia, lib. ir. v. 497.— Valerius Max. lib. n. c. 5. 

2. The Mime must not be confounded with the Pantomime. In the former the gestures were 
accompanied with language ; but in the latter everything was expressed without words. The 
pantomime was a sort of ballet, in which a whole story or drama was represented by means of 
attitudes, gestures (loquaci manu), and dancing. This species of representation was not in- 
vented in the time of Augustus, as is sometimes stated, but was then carried to its greatest 
perfection by the celebrated performers (pantomimi, chironomi) Pylades & Bathyllus. The panto- 
mime was sometimes accompanied with music and songs. The taste for pantomime was dif- 
fused from Rome through the provinces ; and although the amusement was repeatedly pro- 
hibited by the emperors, it seems to have continued even after the downfall of the city. 

Oct. Ferrarius, De Mimis et Pantomimis. Guelph. 1714. 8. — JV. Calliachus, De Ludis seen. 
Mini, et Pantomim. Patav. 1713. 4. Both contained in the Novus Thesaurus of Sallengre (cited 
P. IV. $197). — J. Meursius, De Saltationibus veter. contained in the Thesaurus of Oronovius, 
cited P." IV. $13. — J. Weaver, History of the Mimes and Pantomimes. Lond. 1728. 8. — Boulan- 
gcr de Rivery, Recherches histor. et crit. sur les Mimes et les Pantomimes. Par. 1751. 12.— .Bu- 
Tstte, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. — Sulzer, Allg. Theorie i. 523. 

3. For references on comedy in general, and the Greek comedy, see § 43. — On the history 
and various forms of comedy, Suher, Allg. Theorie, i. 486, ss.— On Roman comedy, see refer- 
ences given in the preceding sections v 314-318).— We may add Ch.Duclos, Sur les Jeux scen- 
iques des Romains, in the Mem. dc VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xxvi. — Osann, cited $ 348. l.— C. F. 

Flo gel, Geschichte der komischen Literatur. Liegnitz u. Leipz. 1784. 6 vols. 8.' T. C. Bullen- 

ger, De ludis scenicis eorumque apparatu tam apud Grascos quam Romanos, in his Opusc, 
Ludg. Bat. 1621. Fol. and in 9th vol. of the Thesaurus of Grcevius (cf. P. IV. $ 197).— Foote, 
The Roman and English comedy considered. Lond. 1747. 8.— For references on the Drama in 

general, its history in different ages and nations, &c. Suiter, Allg. Theorie, i. 711. On the 

structure of theatres, decorations, masks, &c. among the ancients, P. I. $ 235. P. IV. § 89. 238. 

$ 320. It is not improbable that the dramatic exhibitions of^modern times grew out of the 
Roman mimes and pantomimes. Cassiodorus, who lived in the 6th century, makes mention 
of the plays of pantomime. In the reign of Charlemagne, in the 8th century, the Mimi and Histri- 
ones are spoken of as still acting in their profession. At this period, trade was carried on 
chiefly by means of fairs, held for several days in different places, where merchants brought 
their goods, and people from various quarters assembled for the occasion. The attendance of 
musicians, buffoons, and histrionic performers of every sort, would be very natural ; and it 
was by this means, as some have supposed, that the foundation was laid for modern comedy 
and theatric representations in general. The Christian clergy are said to have condemned 
these amusements at first ; but, finding their opposition fruitless, to have afterwards attempted 
to turn the taste for such shows to the best account they could, by taking scenic exhibitions 
into their own hands ; they became actors themselves, and instead of profane fables and sto- 
ries derived from pagan history and mythology, made use of the legends of the church, or the 
incidents recorded in the Bible. Thus originated a kind of sacred comedies, or holy farces, 
Which were acted in the chapels of the monasteries, by the monks themselves, accompanied 
by music and scenic decorations. Particular seasons or festivals seem to have gained a special 
notoriety and popularity from a connection with such exhibitions ; as, e. g. the Feast of Fools 
(Fete de FonzJ or Jesters, Festival of the Ass (De PAne, Festum Asinorvm), &c. 

Other writers have supposed that the religious plays, which were in vogue in the middle ages 1 
under the name of Mysteries, and Moralities, had their origin more directly from the Greek 
stage at Constantinople. There the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides continued to be rep- 
resented until the fifth century. The fascinations of the pagan theatre occasioned much anxi- 
ety to the Greek Bishops and Fathers ; they petitioned the Emperor to suppress dramatic exhi- 
bitions, at least on the sacred days of the church ; and they often denounced such amusements 
in their preaching and writings. Yet some of them composed sacred dramas, founded on the 
Old and New Testament, for the purpose of public representation. Gregory Nazianzen, who 



'28S HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

was a bishop of Constantinople in the latter part of the fourth century (cf. § 292), is said to 
have introduced such pieces upon the stage instead of the pagan tragedies. " One of his own 
plays, written for this use, is still extant, entitled Xoiorog naoyoiv. Apollinaris, bishop of 
Laodicea, is said to have written tragedies adapted to the stage, after the manner of Euripides, 
on most of the grand events related in the Old Testament, and also comedies in imitation of 
Menander, on some of the domestic stories of the Bible. The introduction of histrionic farces, 
with singing and dancing, into the churches and houses of religious worship, is ascribed to 
Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople in the 10th century. The religious spectacles and 
plays thus introduced might, without difficulty, be carried thence to the west by the commer- 
cial intercourse which existed between Constantinople and Italy. 

See J. fVarton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. n. 73. m. 193. — M. die Tilliot, Memoires pour servir 
a l'histoire de la Fete de Foux &c. Laus. & Genev. 1741. 4. 1751. 8. — Flogel, Geschichte des 

Groteske-komischen. Liegnitz. 1788. 8. — J. G. Sulzcr, Allg. Theorie. i. 524, 726. The 

views of theChristian Fathers respecting the theatre may be gathered from the treatise of T e r- 
t u 1 1 i a n on Theatrical Shows (de Spectaculis, in the 1st vol. of his Works by Oberthur. Wire, 
1780. 2 vols. 8.) ; that of C y p r i a n on Theatrical Representations (in the 2d vol. of his Works 
by Oberthur. Wire. 1782. 2 vols. 8.) ; the 4th homily of B a s i 1 (cf. § 292, and the loth of Chry - 
sos torn to the Antiochians (cf. § 292). — On this subject see A. O. Walch, De theatro primis 
Christianis exoso. Schleus. 1770. 4. 

321. (b) Epic Poetry. The honor of being the earliest epic poet of the Ro- 
mans is usually ascribed to Ennius. It should not be forgotten, however, that 
Livius Andronicus made a translation of the Odyssey of Homer ; that the 
grammarians speak of a historical poem by him on the exploits of the Romans, 
in 35 books ; and that Nsevius composed a historical poem on the first Punic 
war. The songs and ballads (already spoken of §306), respecting various in- 
cidents of the national traditions, also existed long before the time of Ennius. 
Neibuhr has imagined that Ennius borrowed much from a great poem on the 
traditional history of the Romans, beginning with the reign of L. Tarquinius 
Priscus and ending with the battle of Regillus ; " an epopee," he says, " which 
in force and brilliance of imagination leaves everything produced by the Ro- 
mans in later times far behind it;" but he adduces no proof or authority to 
sustain this idea. However this may be, there can be little doubt that Ennius 
made use of the old national lays, which were in Saturnian verse, molding 
them into hexameters in his own poem. How far his Annals were framed 
conformably to historical truth, may be a question impossible for us to answer; 
Vossius maintains an opinion entirely opposite to the views of Niebuhr, and 
ascribes general historic verity to the whole work. Nor can it be denied, how- 
ever popular this production was among the, Romans, that it was deficient in 
the peculiar embellishments of fancy, and might be called a Chronicle in 
verse, more justly than a proper epic poem. 

Cf. § 351. — Sc/ioll, Litt. Rom. i. 141. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. i. 78. — Niebuhr,Hist. Rom. 
(transl. by Hare & Thirwall) p. 196. vol. i. ed. Phil. 1835. — Vossius, de Historicis Latinis, 
L. i. c. 2. 

§ 322. After Ennius, we find no epic poet until we reach our third period 
(cf. § 301), the golden age of Roman letters ; and here, although we meet 
with several names, there is one which eclipses all others in this branch of 
Roman poetry ; it is that of Virgil. The author of the JEneid obviously imi- 
tated the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, yet he produced a poem strictly 
national ; and if the work is not so strongly marked with the impress of origi- 
nal genius as its models, it is yet full of beauties and signs of cultivated taste. 

§ 323. Of the other epic writers in this period, Lucius Varius was most 
highly commended by the ancients. He has already been noticed (§ 311) as 
a dramatic author. Before the appearance of the JEneid, the first rank in epic 
poetry was assigned to him (cf. Hor. Sat. I. x. v. 43.). Varius sung the ex- 
ploits of Augustus and his son-in-law Agrippa ; and his poem, which is wholly 
lost, must therefore have had more of the historical than of the epic character. 

> The other names to be mentioned in speaking of the epic poetry of this 

period, are the following : Cneius Mattius, the nomographer (§ 319), who 
translated the Odyssey ; P. Terentius Varro, surnamed Atacinus, who trans- 
lated the Argonautics of Apollonius, and composed a poem on the war of Ju- 
lius Caesar against the Sequani ; Hostius, author of a poem on the war of Is- 
tria; C. Rabirius, who wrote on the battle of Actium ; and T. Valgius Rufus, 
highly eulogized by Tibullus (El. IV. i. 80.) : their works have perished. 
Pedo Albinovanus is also said to have composed epical pieces. Cornelius Seve- 
ms commenced a poem upon the Sicilian war. Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 225. 

§324. In the fourth period of our division (§301), after the death of Augus- 



POETRY. EPIC. LYRIC. 289 

las, there were four poets who must be ranked among the epic writers; but 
no one appeared who could rival or equal Virgil. Although they imitated him, 
yet they all fell far below him. They were well informed and well disciplined, 
but were deficient in native enthusiasm. Two of the number chose national 
subjects; and their poems may be said to belong to the historical class rather 
more properly than to the epic. — The first in order of time was Lucan, who 
celebrated in his Pharsalia the civil war between Pompey and Cossar (cf.§375). 
Valerius Flaccus, next in order, took the Argonautic expedition for a theme, 
and in the estimation of some critics even surpassed his Grecian model, Apol- 
lonius of Rhodes (cf. § 73). Silius Italicus, selected a national subject, the 
second of the Punic wars; and his work is much valued as a help in illustrat- 
ing the history of the period (cf. § 377). Statins left two performances in 
epic verse, The Thebaid, and the Achilleid; the latter in an unfinished state 
on account of his premature death (cf. § 378). All these poets flourished within 
the 1st century ; after which the history of Roman literature presents no im- 
portant name in the department of epic poetry. 

§ 325. There were, after the 1st century, many versifiers ; and they com- 
posed many pieces, of a historical or descriptive character, in the heroic meas- 
ure ; but the only one that can claim any notice as an epic writer is Claudian, 
who flourished at the close of the 4th century. His poems (cf. §386), with all 
their blemishes, show a genius worthy of a better age. — The elder Gordian, 
who became emperor of Rome A. D. 238, is said to have been a poet in his 
younger days, and to have composed a poem in 30 books, entitled Antonias, 
of which Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were the heroes. — Some of the 
descriptive pieces of Ausonius (cf. § 385), a poet of the 4th century, were of 
the heroic kind. We might also rank in the same general class some of the 
productions of several of the Christian poets (cf. § 329) of the same century, 
as e. g. Juvencus, Victorinus, and Sidonius Apollinaris. 

On the Epic poetry of the Romans, see B'dhr, Geschichte der Rom. Lit. pp. 120-163. — Char- 
actere der vonuhmsten Dichter viii. 378 ss. — For references on Epic poetry in general, cf. § 20. 

§ 326. (c) Lyric Poetry. While the dramatic and epic productions of the 
Greeks were translated and imitated by the Romans as soon as a sufficient 
degree of intercourse existed between the nations, it was not until many years 
had elapsed that the Romans made any attempts in lyric verse. This was a 
form of poetry in which translation is less likely to be successful ; in which 
originality is perhaps more indispensably essential to merit. The early cir- 
cumstances of the Romans, and their peculiar habits and traits of character, 
were such as to render them less susceptible to the lively impressions of lyric 
poetry. It was not until the third period of our division, i. e. after the civil 
war of Marius and Sylla, that this form of poetry began to be cultivated. 

Cf. Dunloj), Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. 3d. Lond. ed. 1828. 

§ 327. Catullus, born B. C. 86, was the first to open to his countrymen this 
new field. Only four of his pieces now extant are called odes, yet in others 
there are passages of a lyrical cast. The third of the odes is a translation from 
Sappho. These few productions, however, have secured him a place in the 
catalogue of lyric poets (§ 358). — But the first rank in Roman lyrics belongs 
unquestionably to Horace, to whom the Greeks themselves can present a su- 
perior only in the bold and lofty Pindar. That Horace borrowed freely from 
the Greeks, the critics have clearly shown ; yet the universal admiration 
which his odes have awakened, demonstrates the power of his genius (cf. 
§ 363). 

§ 328. From the time of Horace, lyric poetry held an honorable place in the 
amusements of society ; but a writer who should rival or equal Horace him- 
self was not to be expected. Quintilian (Inst. Or. x. 1.) names Ccesius Bassus, 
in the next period after, as approaching him ; but we have no means of judg- 
ing for ourselves. Vestritius Spur inn a, who is repeatedly named in the history 
of Tacitus, is said to have written lyric pieces both in Greek and Latin. 
Pliny (Epist. iii. 1.) highly commends them. Statius is also sometimes named 
among lyric poets, on account of two odes contained in his Sylvce. >* one of them 
is addressed to Septimius Serenus. This Serenus, we may add, is cited by the 
grammarians as the author of a lyric poem, or a collection of lyric pieces, en- 
titled FaUsca, written in a peculiar metre invented by him. — There is extant, 

25 



290 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

probably from some author in this period, a poem of about a hundred lines, 
entitled Pervigilium Veneris, in imitation of the Carmen Saculare of Horace; 
it was formerly ascribed to Catullus. 

Gaspar Barth published in 1613, in the collection entitled Poetcc Latini venatici et bucolici, four 
odes, said to have been found by him in an old Ms. at Marbourg, which he ascribed to Spurin- 
na ; they were the production of a later age. — Screnus is also said to have written several 
small poems on the various labors of the field, opuscula ruralia; of which the Moretum, com- 
monly ascribed to Virgil (§ 362. 2), is supposed to be one.— The Pervigilium Veneris is a hymn 
in honor of Venus, and takes its title in reference to the festival of Venus in April, held during 
three successive nights, which were devoted to music, dancing, and pleasure (noctumue pervi- 
gilationes cf. Ovid, Fast. iv. 133) ; it has been ascribed to various authors ; the piece is given in 
Lemaire's Minor Latin Poets (cited $348.) 2d vol.— See Sch'dll, Litt. Rom. n. 340. in. 24. 

§ 329. After the 2d century, although a few lyric pieces may be found 
among- the remains of the minor poets, there is nothing worthy of particular 
notice, within the remaining period included in our division, except the songs 
and hymns of the Christian poets. Among the earliest of these authors of 
Christian hymns were Hilarius and Prudentius (cf. § 387). Those of the for- 
mer were expressly designed to be sung ; and are said to have been set to mu- 
sic by Hilary himself. Damasus, who attained to the Pontificate in the 4th 
century, left a number of hymns, among which is one in rhyme. The works 
of Ambrose bishop of Milan, in the latter part of the same century, contain a 
collection t>f sacred hymns. 

The collections of the Minor Latin Poets contain the lyric pieces above referred to: e. g. in 
Lemaire's (cf. § 348. 2.) are the Carmen defcrtuna, by Symposius : de beata vita, by Pentadius ; 
de cctate, by Lindinus.— On the Christian poets who wrote in Latin, we refer to the Supplement 

of Bdhr, cited $ 299. 8. For references on the subject of lyric poetry generally, and that of 

the Greeks, see §26. — On Roman lyric poetr3', Dunlop, as cited §299. 8. — Charactere der vorn. 
Dichter. v. 301 ss. — R. Schomberg, The character and writings of Pindar & Horace. Lond.1769. 
8.— Cf. § 363. 

$ 330. (d)Bucolic or PastoralPoetry. Virgil appears to have been the first among 
the Latin poets to attempt the composition of pastorals. He commenced, as 
did the poets in every other department, with an imitation of the Greeks. 
The Eclogues of Virgil are, in a great measure, borrowed from the Idyls of 
Theocritus. If the Roman poet has less of natural simplicity, and of that mi- 
nute accuracy and vividness which are the result of original observation ; he 
has, on the other hand, the merit of a more judicious selection of incidents, 
and a greater freedom from what is gross and offensive. The Bucolics were 
among the earliest of the poetical compositions of Virgil, and were greatly ad- 
mired by the Romans. The 6th Eclogue, entitled Silenus, was recited in the 
theatre, shortly after its composition, by Cytheris, the celebrated actress of 
mimes. 

§ 331. After Virgil we find no pastoral writer until the latest period in- 
cluded in our view of the Latin authors. Calpurnius, who lived in the latter 
part of the 3d century after Christ, composed eclogues in imitation of Virgil 
and Theocritus. He was probably the author of the pastoral pieces which 
have sometimes been ascribed to Nemesian, a poet of the same period. The 
eclogues of Calpurnius are not without merit, but he is far inferior to his 
models (cf. § 384. 2.). — The name of Idyl is given to a number of the poems 
of Jlusonius (§ 385), who flourished in the next century ; but the subjects and 
style of these pieces are not such as to bring them properly under the head of 
pastoral poetry. The same remark is applicable to the Idyls of Claudian 
(§ 386). There is a performance from Severus Sanctus, a Christian poet of 
the same century, which may perhaps more justly be considered as a pastoral 
poem, and which is not wholly destitute of merit. 

The poem of Severus, entitled De mortibus bourn, is given in Lem aire's Poetse Lat. Minores, 

cited § 348. On the Pastoral Poetry of the Romans, see Charaktere der vorn. Dichter. vn. 

S4&-256.— SchSll, Litt. Rom.i. 352.— Harrington, Essay upon Virgil's Bucolics. Loud. If 58. 12. 

—Diss, de Carmine Bucolico, in LcmairePs Virgil, vol. i. p. 53. On the Greek Pastoral Poetry, 

see references given § 30. About the time of the revival of letters there seems to have been 

a great fondness for pastoral poetry, and many pieces of this kind were composed in Latin. 
Before the middle of the 16th century, a Collection of no less than thirty-eight bucolic authors 
was published by J. Oporinus (in his JMto*. Bucol. Basil. 1546. 8). — Cf. Sulzcr, Allg. Theorie 
ii. p. 592. 

§ 332. (e) Elegiac Poetry. In this variety of poetical composition, the Ro- 
mans had many successful authors. Like the other departments of poetry and 
literature generally, it flourished most in the age of Augustus. It commenced 
with Catullus, whom we have noticed already as the first author of lyric pieces 



POETRY. PASTORAL. ELEGIAC. DIDACTIC. 291 

(§ 327). Cornelius Gallus succeeded and excelled him in the elegy; he was 
ranked among the best poets of this class (cf. § 359). — But Tibullus and Pro- 
j)ertius (cf. § 360, 361) are more celebrated names. " With reason did the 
ancients doubt to which of them to ascribe the first rank among the Latin ele- 
gists. Both possess many qualities which raise them above ordinary poets to 
a place of eminence ; while each has peculiarities of distinguished excellence. 
Tibullus has a high degree of elegance and propriety of expression ; Proper- 
tius a great richness, a great variety of poetic erudition. In the one the purity 
of his language shows a writer born and educated in the Roman capital ; in 
the other, the character of his diction indicates an author deeply versed in 
Grecian productions. The one is more delicate ; the other more nervous. 
The first has the appearance of having written with ready simplicity ; the 
other of having thought what he ought to write; if the one is more natural, 
the other is more careful. You may love the one, and admire the other." 

§ 333. There was another elegiac poet of the Augustan age, scarcely less 
eminent ; by some even considered as the superior. Ovid is less tender than 
Tibullus, and less chaste than Propertius ; but more original, and of a more 
free imagination, than either. His works generally are characterized by little 
imitation of the Greeks, and by independent reliance on his own resources. 
Ovid was one of the greatest versifiers among the Latin poets: his verse is 
like the flowing of the stream from a full fountain : in this respect both Ti- 
bullus and Propertius must be confessed to stand below him. Three of his 
works, the Amoves, the Tristia, and the Letters from Pontus, belong to the 
head of elegiac poetry (cf. § 364). — C. Pedo Albinovanus, a friend of Ovid, 
is usually placed in the list of elegiac poets, although it is not agreed by all 
the critics that he was the author of the elegies by some ascribed to him (cf. 

§ 366). After the Augustan age we find nothing important in this branch 

of poetry. Arborius, in the 4th century, a relative of Ausonius (§385) is said 
to have imitated Propertius ; an extant elegy ascribed to him is far inferior to 
its model. The Itinerary of Rutilius, in the 5th century, is in elegiac verse 
(cf. § 333). — Some of the Christian poets (§ 329) composed pieces in elegiac 
verse. 

1. The elegy of Arborius (ad Nympham minis cultam) is found in Lemaire's Poet. Lat. Minores, 
vol. ii. — There is extant an elegy by a writer named Lupercus Servastus, of the 5th century, 
(de cupiditatc) given in the same v r ol. of Lemaire. 

2. Before leaving this topic, it may be proper to allude to the songs called vesnia. They were 
sung to the flute, in funeral processions (cf. P. IV. § 340.) : but seem to have been more of a 
panegyrical than of an elegiac character. " We are not to suppose them," says Niebuhr, " like 
the Greek threnes and elegies ; in the old times of Rome, the fashion was, not to be melted into 
the tender mood and to bewail the dead ; but to pay him honor. We must therefore imagine 
the noma to have been a memorial lay, such as were sung at banquets (cf. § 27.) : indeed," the 
latter were perhaps no others than what had first been heard at the funeral." Perhaps we 
have some specimens or fragments of the vania, in such inscriptions as are found on the stones 
belonging to the sepulchre of the Scipios (cf. P. I. §133. 2).—JYicbiihr , s Hist. Rom. 1st vol. p. 194. 
Phil. ed. 

3. On the origin of elegiac poetry &c. see references §29. Respecting the elegiac poetry of the 

Romans, ScAd7/,Litt.Rom.i.324.— Fr.Aug, Wideburg, De Poetis Roman. Elegiacis. Helmst.1773. 4. 
— F. G.Barth, super Elegia, maxime Romanorum, in his ed. of Propertius, cited below § 361. 3. — 
Pack, Essay upon the Roman Elegiac Poets, in Addison's Dissertation upon the most celebrated 
Roman Poets. Lond. 1721. 8. Cf. Class. Journ. ix. 346. —E. C. Chr. Bach, Geist der rom. Ele- 
gie. 1809. 8. — Fraguicr, as cited § 29. — Suuchay, on Latin elegiac poets, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vn. 
384. xvi. 399. — Durini, Dissertatio cle carra. e\eg. natura &c. in the C o 1 1 e c t . of C. Michciler, 

cited § 348. 2. A collection of the modern Latin elegiac poets was published by Michciler. 

Vinddb. 1784. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 334. (f) Didactic Poetry. The Romans paid but little attention to didac- 
tic poetry, until the third period of our division ; i. e. from the civil war B. C. 
88 to the death of Augustus A. D. 14. In the previous period Ennius had in- 
deed composed a poem on eating (cf. §351), and translated a Greek philo- 
sophical poem. But the first who gained any distinction in this kind of poetry 
was Lucretius ; his poem on the nature of things has ever commanded especial 
notice as a didactic performance. Cornelius Severus is ranked among the di- 
dactic poets, on account of his poem entitled JEtna, although it is by some 
ascribed to a later author. ($ 335, 365). 

The most finished didactic poem is found in the Georgics of Virgil. It was 
composed on the suggestion of Maecenas ; the four books treat of agriculture, 
the culture of trees, the training of animals, and the keeping of bees. " It is 
in this work," says SchdU, "that Virgil shews all his genius. He commenced 



292 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

it at the age of 34, and did not cease to amend it until the end of life. The 
Latin language does not contain a more perfect work." It has been a model 

for imitation to modern poets of all nations. The name of Ovid must not 

be omitted in this place, as several of his works belong to the didactic class. 
His eminence in elegiac verse has already been noticed ; he is to be consid- 
ered also as one of the great didactic poets of the Augustan age. — Some may 
perhaps consider it proper to put Horace in the list of didactic authors on ac- 
count of his Art of Poetry. 

There were in this period several poets of .inferior grade who composed di- 
dactic verse. Gratius Faliscus wrote a poem on hunting, a fragment of which 
is still extant (cf. $ 367). Csesar Germanicus (cf. § 370), JEmilius Macer 
($ 371), and Marcus Manilius ($ 369), are included among the didactic poets of 
the Augustan age. We may mention also Varro Macinus, the author of a 
work entitled Chorographia, which was a sort of description of the universe, 
and another on navigation entitled Libri JVavales. 

The fragments of various poems of Varro Macinus are given in Lemaire's Poet. Lat. Min. vol. 
4th. — Cf. also Harles, Brev. Not. Suppl. i. 165. 

§ 335. In the next period, extending from the death of Augustus to the An- 
tonines, there was no very eminent production in this branch of poetry ; al- 
though we must assign to this period Terentianus Maurus, author of a poem 
on letters, syllables, feet, and metres, which Schbll pronounces ingenious and 
elegant. The ancients cite a poem on metres as the work of Caesius Bassus, 
who was much commended for his lyrical pieces ($328). There is extant a 
poem on weights and measures, by some ascribed to Rhemnius Fannius Palse- 
mon, said to have been a grammarian of the 1st century, but by others 
ascribed to Priscian, of a much later age. Lucilius Junior is mentioned by 
Seneca (Qusest. nat. iii.26) as a poetical friend, and is by some supposed to be 
the author of the poem entitled Mtna ($ 334). We may perhaps properly 
name here the tenth book of Columella ($ 500a), which is in hexameter verse, 
and is entitled Cultus hortorum ; it seems to have been suggested by a passage 
in the Georgics of Virgil (iv. 147), where he expressly says he shall leave the 
subject of horticulture for another writer. 

The poem of Terentianus is given in the Grammatical Collect, of Putschius, cited $ 422. — Cf. 
Fr. Reinert, De vita Terent. Mauri. Lemg. 1808. 4. — A fragment of Bassus is given in the same 
Collect. — The poem on Weights &c. (de ponderibus et mensuris) is given in the 4th voL of Le- 
maire's Poet. Lat. Minores. Cf. Harles, Brev. Not. p. 353. Suppl. i. p.12. — Fragments of Lucil- 
ius are also found in Lemaire's Minor Poets, vol. 3d. — The 7th vol. of the same also contains 
Columella on gardening. — Cf. Sclioll, Litt. Rom. n. 306 ss. 

$ 336. The last period included in our view of Roman literature is not with- 
out names of didactic poets ; but none of them are of special celebrity. JVerae- 
sian, of the 3d century, is probably the most important (cf. $383). Sammoni- 
cus, whom we shall have occasion to notice as a physician ($ 555), was the 
author of an inferior poem on diseases and their remedies. The last book in 
the treatise of Palladius on agriculture is a didactic poem in elegiac verse, up- 
on the art of grafting ($ 500b). The principal work of Avienus ($ 381. 4) was 
a didactic performance. Several of the Christian poets, as Commodian, Pru- 
dentius, and others, composed didactic poems. 

It may be suitable to remark, before leaving this topic, that we find among 
the Romans a few specimens of that kind of poetry which the Greeks termed 
Gnomic ; in which the composition consists of moral sentences or maxims (cf. 
§ 31). The principal gnomic author of the Romans Was Dionysius Cato, who 
lived in the 2d century ($ 382). The remains of Pubiius Syrus, a celebrated 
mime of the Augustan age ($ 319), may be ranked perhaps in the same class. 

For references on Didactic poetry generally, see P. II. $32. — On the Roman didactic poets, 
Sckbll, Litt. Rom. i. 246 ss. n. 306. — Dunlop, vol. m. Lond. ed. particularly on tho Georgics- 
of Virgil, and the didactic parts of Ovid. — See also the sections below, in which the poets 
above mentioned as didactic are noticed separately. — On the sententious poetry, J. Elphinstone* 
as cited below, $ 368. 3. 

$ 337. Since the Fable may be considered as a form of didactic poetry, it 
may be proper to notice it here. "The iEsopian fable," saj>s Scholl, " gained 
little attention from the Romans. The Roman orators either did not know 
the use made of it by the Greeks, or from their serious turn of character they 
rejected it. The fable of Menenius Agrippa (see Livy ii. 32) is a solitary in- 
stance, where it is employed for the purpose of rhetorical ornament. Aul'us 



POETRY. FABLE. EPIGRAM. 293 

Gellius (Noct. Att. ii. 29) relates that Ennius inserted adroitly, in one of his 
satires, the fable of the lark (cassita). His example was followed by Lucilius. 
But the first who treated the fable as a form of poetry having its appropriate 
rules, was Horace. His fable of the city-mouse and country-mouse (mus urba- 
nus and rusticus ; Sat. ii. 6) is well known. After him, Roman literature pre- 
sents us with no fables until the reign of Tiberius." 

In bis reign flourished Phadrus, who received his freedom from Augustus. 
He was the principal author of fables among the Romans (cf. § 372). " He had 
the merit of first making known to the Romans the fables of iEsop ; not that 
all his fables are translations of those of the Phrygian philosopher (cf. $ 184); 
but those which seem to be properly his own, or of which at least we do not 
know the Greek originals, are in the manner of iEsop. He is as original as 
La Fontaine, who like Phaedrus borrowed the subject in a great number of his 
fables." — The next author of fables in Latin verse is Flavius Avianus (cf. 
§ 381), who employed the elegiac metre instead of the iambic (cf. § 372). Ju- 
lianus Titianus, who lived under Caracalla, wrote fables in prose, or rather 
translated into Latin prose the fables of Babrius (cf. $ 31, 184). We find no 
other fabulists within the period included in our notice. 

There are extant 80 fables in Latin prose, under the name of Romulus, of whose person and 
age nothing is known ; Warton (Hist. Eng. Poetry i. 246) says the work was probably fabri- 
cated in the 12th century. They were published in the Ulm Collection, which was the earliest 
collection of Latin fables, printed at Ulm, 1473. fol. — There is also a collection of 60 fables, in 
elegiac metre, which are but so many of the fables of Romulus, versified by some unknown 
author; Fuhrmann (klein. Handb. p. 727) says probably by Hildebert, hp. of jTours, who died 
A. D. 1136. They were published under the title Anonymi Fabulce, by i". JVic. Nevelet, in his 
JMytholog. JEsop. Francft. 1618. 8. — There is likewise a collection of 67 fables in prose, which 
are merely variations or mutilations of those of Romulus. These were published by J.F. Nilant 9 
in his work styled Fabulce Antiqum &c. Lugd.Bat. 1709. 12.-^There are also 95 fables in Latin, 
considered by some as translations from a lost collection in Greek by Cyrillus, called also Con- 
stantine the Philosopher, bishop of Thessalonica in the 9th century ; they were in 4 books, and 
the Latin title is Quadripartitus J} polo picas, or Speculum sapicntla ; published by B. Cordicr, with 
the title Apolovi Morales. Vienna, 1630. 12. Cf. Sclidll, Litt. Grecque vi. 214. 

For notices of other fabulists, and of Collections of Latin fables, see Suher, Allg. Theorie 
vol. ii. p.l82ss. — On the Roman fabulists, see references given below, $ 372. 

§ 338. (g) The Epigram. In this form of poetry the Romans appear to 
have been very successful in the time of their first attempts in literature. 
Several epigrammatists flourished in the period preceding the war of Sylla 
and Marius (the second of our division § 301). Aulus Gellius (xix. 9) speaks 
of three in particular, viz Porcius Licinius, Q,. Lutatius Catullus, and L. Va- 
lerius iEdituus ; and remarks that some of their epigrams are not surpassed in 
elegance by anything known to him in Latin or Greek poetry. L. Pomponius, 
perhaps the same that has been noticed as an author of Atellane comedies 
(§318), is also mentioned as an epigrammatist by Priscian. 

§ 339. Many of the small poems of Catullus are properly regarded as epi- 
grams. The Garland of Meleager (cf. § 35) had been compiled before his 
time, and thus he might easily become familiar with the style of the Greek 
epigrams. Some of his pieces are allowed to possess distinguished merit; of 
the crowd of epigrammatists whose names occur in the period before the death 
of Augustus, he is decidedly the best. Among these names we find those of 
Virgil, and Cicero, and his brother Quintus ; of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and 
Maecenas ; from each of whom some remains are preserved in the Latin An- 
thology. Licinius Calvus was celebrated for the sarcastic tone of his epi- 
grams ; in the only one now extant in full, he satirizes Pompey's mode of 
scratching his head. Domitius Marsus was ranked among the best epigram- 
matists in the time of Augustus ; there seems to have been a collection of epi- 
grams by him, entitled Cicuta ; only two pieces now remain. 

§ 340. Passing by others of this period who have a place in the An- 
thology, we come to Martial, in the following period of Roman literature ; to 
whom the critics, almost without an exception, have awarded the palm in 
preference to Catullus and every other Latin epigrammatist. His pieces are 
marked by something of that point which is considered essential in a modern 
epigram (cf. § 34). Several less important names belong to this period. A 
number of epigrams are contained among the remains of Petronius Arbiter. 
The pieces in the Greek Anthology ascribed to an author called rairov?J.ios: 
and raiTov/.Lziog, are supposed by some to be the productions of Cornelius 
25* 



294 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. * 

Lentulus Gatulicus, whom Suetonius cites as a historian, and Martial names 
as a poet. L. Asinius Gallus, son of Virgil's friend Asinius Pollio; Alfius 
Flavus, mentioned by Seneca the rhetorician as an eminent orator of his time; 
Septimius Serenus, surnamed Faliscus (cf. $ 328) ; Vuicatius Sedigitus, so 
called from the number of his fingers ; and Sentius Augurinus, lauded by 
Pliny the younger fEp. iv. 27. ix. 9) for the delicacy and irony of his pieces; 
must be included in the catalogue of epigrammatists. We may add Pliny 
himself, and Seneca the philosopher, unless we suppose the epigrams con- 
tained in the writings of the latter to be interpolations by some scholastic au- 
thor. The emperor Hadrian or Adrian was the author of epigrams in Greek 
as well as Latin. There are some pieces from a poet by the name of Florus, 
who was living in the time of Adrian, and is by some supposed to be the same 
as L. Annteus Florus the historian (§ 536J. 

§ 341. In the last period included in our glance, from the Antonines A. D. 
,160 to the overthrow of Rome A. D. 476, there were many productions of an 
epigrammatic kind. The more distinguished authors were Ausonius and 
Claudian. In the works of the former fcf. § 385 J we find about 150 epigrams, 
generally framed after the manner of Martial, but inferior to their model in 
force and point. About 40 epigrams are ascribed to Claudian; 2 are in Greek; 
but some of these pieces are not considered as genuine fcf. §386A Several of 
the Christian poets might be mentioned among the epigrammatists. 

It is perhaps worthy of notice here, that in the later ages some of the Latin poets imitated 
the frivolous devices that were invented by certain Greeks of the Alexandrine schoolj who 
amused themselves in composing little poems, in which the verses were so formed and ar- 
ranged as to present the figure of an altar, egg, musician's pipe (cf. § 68. 2), or other object. A 
specimen of this sort of effort is given in a Latin poem by P. Optatiahus Porphyrius, who lived 
in the time of Constantine-the Great. He had been banished by that emperor ; but he regained 
his favor by the poem here mentioned. It was a eulogy on the emperor made up of a series of 
poems, having something of the epigrammatic character, but representing by their form differ- 
ent objects, one an altar, another a flute, another a sort of organ, &c. It included also other 
devices; e. g. in one poem the first line was composed of words of two syllables, the second of 
words of three syllables, and so on ; another poem was a complicated acrostic of 20 lines, the 
first letters of which, taken from top to bottom, formed the words Fortissimus Imperator ; the 
letters in the 14th place formed the words dementis simus rector ; and the last letters, Constautinus 
invictus. 

§ 342. Anthologies. This term has been applied to collections of Latin epi- 
grams as well as Greek. They include many epigrams from unknown au- 
thors. It should also be remarked that they include not only such epigrams 
as were preserved in ancient manuscripts, but many others which are epi- 
grams in the original sense of the term, i. e. inscriptions, placed on public or 
private monuments. The latter class have been drawn from monuments scat- 
tered over Italy and the Roman provinces, but found in greatest number in 

the region of Rome itself. Collections of the Greek epigrams began to be 

made more than 100 years before Christ. (See § 35J But it does not 
appear that the Romans thought much of similar collections of Latin epigrams. 
Perhaps we may consider the Priapeia as being something of the kind, since 
it consists of little poems pertaining to the god Priapus, very probably written 
by different authors, although sometimes ascribed to Virgil (§ 362A 

1. The modern Latin Anthologies seem to have originated in the collecting and publishing of 
actual inscriptions found on ancient monuments. An Italian of the 15th century, Pizzocolli, 
known also by the name of Cyriacus Anconitaniis , is said to have been the first to enter upon 
this work. Under the direction of Nicolas I. he traveled in Italy, Hungary, and Greece, for 
the purpose of copying inscriptions both Greek and Latin. He prepared a volume of prose in- 
scriptions, and another of inscriptions in verse ; and although no part of his collection was 
printed until about 200 years afterwards, yet his example influenced other scholars to pursue 
the study of inscriptions, and a number of collections were published during the 16th and 17th 
centuries. Ten or twelve such works, at least, preceded the first edition of Gruter's collection 
(cf. P. I. ft 130). .... 

2. The Anthology differs from the mere collection of inscriptions, not by excluding epigrams 
preserved only on monuments ; for, as has been observed, many such are admitted. But the 
Anthology properly admits only those pieces which seem to possess some merit as literary pro- 
ductions, while the collection of the other kind will receive the most insignificant or trivial 
inscription, although it may contain merely detached words, or proper names. Several collec- 
tions of these more select and choice pieces were published in the 17th and 18th centuries. 
The one which is considered the most complete, and the best in arrangement, is the Latin An- 
thology of Burmann, cited § 348. 2. The 1st volume of this is devoted chiefly to epigrams and 
small poems, drawn from manuscripts ; while a great part of the 2d volume is occupied with 
inscriptions properly so called, and originally taken from existing monuments. The pieces 

contained in the work are arranged in 6 books Of the collections that come under the class 

of the Anthologies, the earliest that is mentioned by Fabricius is that of P. Pithocus (entitled 
Epigrammata vetera &x). Par. 1590. 12. 



POETRY. ANTHOLOGIES. SATIRE. 295 

3. On Latin epigrams, see Bdhr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 320 SchUll, Litt. Rom. i. 153, 365. 

li. 349. m. 124. — Durdop, Rom. Lit. i. 319. ed. Phil. 1827. — Suher, Allg. Theorie, iv. 398. — 
Burmann, as above cited.— On the epigram generally, see references § 34, 35. On the sub- 
ject of Latin Inscriptions, cf. P. I. §130. 

§ 343. (li) Satire. There has been much disputing among the learned on 
the question whether the Satire of the Romans was borrowed from the Greeks, 
or was of their own invention. The word is derived differently by those who 
take the opposite sides on this question. Those who suppose that satire de- 
scended from the Greeks, derive the word from Suxvqoq, Satyrus, the imagin- 
ary being said to be composed of a man and a goat. Those who maintain the 
native origin of satire, generally derive the word from satura ; this term was 
applied to the platter or vessel filled with all sorts of fruits (l.anx satura), 
which was offered to Bacchus at his festivals ; and it might easily be- thence 
transferred and employed to designate a composition written in various me- 
tres and comprehending a medley or farrago of subjects. But whatever 

may have been the real derivation of the term, satura or satira, and whatever 
may have been the fact as to the question whether the Roman satirists imitated 
the Greeks and borrowed from them, two things may be here asserted. The 
first is, that the Roman satire was quite different in its character from the 
Greek dramatic satyre (cf. § 45). The other is, that the Romans exhibited 
in very early times the beginnings of their satire, in the rude taunts and rail- 
eries which were practiced at the festivals of their rural gods. 

§ 344. The invention of the Roman Satire is commonly ascribed to Ennius. 
He composed satires, which were not designed to be recited like the rude jests 
at the festivals, but to be read more privately. He employed a diversity of 
metres. Pacuvius imitated Ennius. Lucilius, who follows them in order of 
time, gave to satire something of a new form and character, and is therefore 
spoken of by some of the ancients as its inventor. He aimed less at mere 
comic effect, and more at the castigation of vice, and thus rendered the com- 
position more didactic; he also confined it much more to one kind of verse, 
particularly the hexameter. — Of the satires of these authors mere fragments 
now remain. 

In a work ascribed to Suetonius (De illust. gramm. c. 11. cf. below § 537), are preserved two 
fragments of another satirist of this period, viz. M. Furius Bibaculus, by some of the ancients 
placed by the side of Horace. — The name of Valerius Cato may be perhaps properly intro- 
duced here, on account of the poem entitled Diva in Battarum. It is given in Lemaire's PoeU 
Lat. Minores, 2d volume. 

§ 345. In the next period, that including the Augustan age, most of the 
writers who composed satires followed the manner of Lucilius. One author, 
M. Terentius Varro, whom we shall have occasion again to notice, preferred 
the manner of Ennius, especially in the use of various metres. He also ming- 
led prose and verse. His satirical compositions were termed Menipp can, from 
a certain Menippus of Gadara, not because Menippus had written pieces of 
this kind, but because Varro imitated his humorous and pungent style. These 
writings of Varro were not professed satires exactly ; although they may be 
ranked under this better perhaps than under any other denomination (cf. § 423J. 

Peculiarly eminent in the department of satire is the name of Horace 

(cf. § 363). He gave the finishing hand to the method introduced by Lucil- 
ius. The satires of Horace are wholly in the hexameter verse, of a familiar 
style, not much elevated above that of prose, and not unfrequently assuming 
the form of dialogue. Ridicule of foibles is a peculiar characteristic of his 
pieces, a trait well suited to the age in which he lived, which was marked by 
luxury, folly, and extravagance, rather than by the gross crimes and enormi- 
ties which called forth the keener severity of later satirists. 

Perhaps the Ibis of Ovid, (cf. § 364. 4), may require the mention of him as a satirical writer. 
It is a sort of imitation of the poem of Callimachus under the same title (cf. § 70. 1), written 
during his banishment at Tomi, and containing a series of imprecations against his enemies. — 
It is like the Dirce of Cato. 

§ 346. In the following period there were two authors of distinguished ce- 
lebrity for the composition of satires; Persius and Juvenal. The circumstan- 
ces of their times were such as demanded the strong tone of reproof and fear- 
less censure, with which they assailed the prevalent vices of Rome. They 
employed the metre and external form which the example of Horace had set- 
tled as appropriate to satire ; but neither of them retained the ease and simple 



296 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

city of his language ; yet in point of merit they are by no means unworthy of 

comparison with him (cf. § 380. 2). There are some other names which 

ought to be mentioned here. Martial (Ep. xi. 10) and other writers speak of 
a Turnus as an eminent satiric poet in the times of Nero and Vespasian. An 
existing fragment of a satire against Nero has been ascribed to him by a mod- 
ern critic. We have also a satirical poem from a female author, Sulpicia, who 
lived in the time of Domitian and after. The production of Petronius Arbiter, 
entitled Satyricun (cf. § 472), was a sort of romance made up of satirical pieces, 
after the manner called Menippean or Varronian, in mingled prose and verse. 
There is a Menippean satire, ascribed to Seneca (cf. § 374. 2), but its genuine- 
ness has been doubted. 

Cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 337. — Wernsdorf gives the fragment by him ascribed to Turnus in 
his Poet. Lat. Minores. It is also contained in Lemaire' s Minor Latin Poets, vol. 2d. The same 
vol. of Lemaire likewise contains the satire of Sulpicia, which treats of the banishment of the 
philosophers from Rome by Domitian. 

§ 347. In the subsequent history of Roman literature, we find no produc- 
tions strictly belonging to the class of satires. Two pieces of Claadian in the 
4th century, considered among his best performances, the invectives against 
Rufinus and Eutropius (cf. § 386), are commonly ranked here ; they are how- 
ever quite different from the satijre of Horace or Juvenal, the manner of treat- 
ing the subject being more full, and more conformed to epic description. g- 

The Satyricon of Marcianus Capella, of the 5th century, is a work composed 
partly in prose and partly in verse, and thus in form resembles what is called 
the Menippean or Varronian satire ; but it is a philosophical medley, or a sort 
of encyclopaedia, rather than a satirical performance (cf. § 473). 

On Roman satire and satirists ; — /. Ant. Vulpius, De Satyrae Latins nature etratione, ejus- 
que scriptoribus. Patav. 1744. 8. — Jo. Gerber, Diss, de Roman orum Satira. Jen. 1756. 4. — 
G. L. K'dnig, De Satira Romana ejnsque auctoribus praecipuis. Oldenb. 1796. 8, — /. CasauborL, 

De Satyrica Grsecorum Poesi et Romanorum Satira. Hal. 1774.8. i. Dacicr, Discours sur 

la Satire, in the Pref. to transl. of Horace, cited below § 363. 5 ; also in the 2d vol. of the Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. ct Belles-Lettres, p. 187. — J. Drydcn, Discourse concerning the origin and pro- 
gress of Satire, in his vers, of Juvenal cited § 380. — Da Saulx, Satyriques Latins, Mem. Acad. 

Inscr. vol. xliii. p. 157. — Cf. ScMll, Litt. Rom. r. 143. n. 311 See also references under 

§ 363, 380. 

§ 348. Before proceeding to notice the poets singly, we will refer here to a 
few works, which relate to them collectively, or to classes of them. 

1. Gyraldi, Historias Poetarum, cited § 47r. — G. J. Vossius, De vet. poet. Graec. et Lat. tem- 
poribus,— cited $ Mt.—L. Crusius, Lives of the Roman Poets. Lond. 1733. 2 vols. 8. Trans- 
lated into German, by C. T. Sckmid, Halle, 1777. 2 vols. 8.—F. Jacobs, Kurzer Abriss der 
Geschichte der romische Poesie, in the work styled CharaJctcre der vomchmsten Dichter &c 

cited $ 47i. J. C. F. Manso, Ueber Horazens Beurtheilung der altern rbmischen Dichter, in 

his Vermischten Abhandlnngen and Avfs'dtzcn. Breslau, 1821. 8. — Osann, Analecta Critica, Poesis 
Romanorum scenicae reliquias illustrantia. Berl. 1717. cf. p. 59 of Appendix to Danlop's Hist. 
Rom. Lit. cited § 299. 8. — Ziegler, de Mimis Romanorum. Gotting. 1789.— J. C. Wemsdorf^ 
Dissert, de poetis lat. satyricis, elegiacis, lyricis &c. prefixed to the 3d vol. of his Poet. Minor. 
below cited. Altenb. & Helmst. 1780-99. 6 vols. 8.— Connoissance de Poetes le plus celebres. 
Par. 1752. 2 vols. 8. — JV*. A. Heiden, Anleitnng zur Dichtk. des alten Roms und dessen vorziiglich- 
ster Dichter. Trans, from the French (Etrennes du Pamassc). Nurnb. 1815. 8. — Hawkins, In- 
quiry into the nature of Latin Poetry. Lond. 1817. — Polyc. Leyser, Hist. Poetarum et poema- 
tum medii aevi. Hal. 1721. 8 — J. Spence, Polymetis &c. cited P. I. § 151. 

2. The following are some of the various collections of Latin poetry. — Stephanus (R. 8f H.) 
Fragment. Vet. Poet. Par. 1564. 8.— If. Stephanus, Comicorum Lat. Fragmenta. Par. 1569. 8. 
— Almelovccn, Fragmenta comicorum Lat. Amst. 1686. 8. — M. A. Delrius, Syntagma tragcediae 
Lat. Lutel. Par. 1607. 4. — P. Scriverius, Fragmenta vet. tragicorura Lat. Amst. 1720. 8.— J*'. H. 
Bothe, Poetae scenici Latinorum. Halberst. 1822. Lips. 1834. 6 vols. 8. — J. B. Levee, (&. others), 

Theatre complet. des Latins, 15 vols. Gasp. Barth, Poetae Lat. Venatici et bucolici. 1613 — 

Poetae, Lat. rei venaticae scriptores et bucolici antiqui. Lugd. 1728. 4. — C. Michwler, Collect. 

Poetar. Elegiac. Aug. Vind. 1776. 2 vols. 8. M. Mattaire, Corpus Poetarum Lat. (opera et 

fragmenta vet. Poet. Lat. Profan. et Ecclesias). Lond. 1713. 2 vols. fol. — Rice. Malatesta &. Ph. 
Arvelati, Corpus omn. vet. poet. Lat. cum Italica versione. (Raccolta, di tutti gli antichi &c.) 
Mediol. 1731-1765. 35 vols. 4. cf. JYovelle della Repaid, delle Letter e, Anno. 1736. p. 88.— Collectio 
Pisauricnsis fomn.'poematum omn. poetarum &c.J Pisaur. 1766. 6 vols. 4. — P. Burrmann, An- 
tholog. vet. Lat. epigrammatum etc. Amst. 1759. 1773. 2 vols. 4. (cf. §342. 2. J — There is a recent 
edition of this, by H. Meyer, Lips. 1835. 2 vols. 8. "edit. Burmannian. digessit et auxit." — 

J. C. Wernsdorf, Poetae Lat. Minores. Altenb. 1780-99. 6 vols. 8. JV*. E. Lemaire, Poetae Lat. 

Minores. Par. 1824-26. 7 vols. 8.— G. S. Walker, Poetarum Latinorum Corpus. Lond. 1827. 
royal 8. — Poetae Lat. veteres, in unum vol. redacti. Flor. 1829. 8. 

§ 349. Livius Andronicus, who flourished about B. C. 230, was a Greek, born 
at Tarentum, and afreedmanof M. Livius Salinator. He was the first dramat- 
ic poet among the Romans, and brought the first play upon the stage, about 
B. C 239. His style had a degree of roughness, and was in part unintelligi- 



POETS. LIVIUS A. NiEVIUS. ENNIUS. 297 

ble to the later Romans. He wrote many poems of different kinds ; among 
them was one on the Roman history, and a translation of Homer's Odyssey. 
We have merely a few fragments of his writings. 

1. It is asserted, that when his country was conquered by the Romans, he 
was taken captive and carried to Rome, where he became the slave and after- 
wards the freedman of the consul Livius Salinator, from whom he took the 
name of Livius. He is supposed to have lived at least until about B. C. 220. 
In Cicero's dialogue De Senectutc (c. 14), Cato is introduced saying that he had 
seen old Livius, while he himself was a youth. Livius composed both trage- 
dies and comedies. Some of the titles which have been collected by Fabrici- 
us and others, are Achilles, Adonis, JEgisthus, Ajax, Andromeda, Antiopa, Cen- 
tauri, Equus Trojanus, (cf. Fuhrmami's Klein. Handb. p. 549), Hellene, Her- 
mione, Ino, Tenter. They indicate that most of his dramas were translated 
or imitated from the works of his countrymen of Magna Grsecia, or from the 
great tragic writers of Greece. A building was assigned to Livius on the 
Aventine hill, which served also for a theatre, and was inhabited by a troop 
of players. 

Cf. JDunZop , s Hist. Rom. Lit. (p. 54. vol. i. ed. cited § 299. 8. — Casp. Sagittarius, De vita et 
script. L. Andronici, Navvii etc. Altenb. 1672. 8. — Osann f cited § 348. 1), cap. 2. — Quintilian, 
L.x. c.2. 

2. The fragments of L. Andronicus are given in the collection of Mattaire, vol. 2d as cited 
§ 348. 2. — Also in those of Delritis, and Scriverius, as there cited. 

§ 350. Cneius JYavius, a native of Campania, nourished about the same 
time. Having been banished from Rome, be died in Utica, about B. C. 200. 
He wrote a historical poem on the first Punic War ; also tragedies, comedies, 
satires and epigrams; not without wit, but in a very rude style. A few frag- 
ments only are preserved. This poet must be discriminated from a later au- 
thor by the name of JYovius, who composed pieces belonging to the class of 
writings called Atellane plays (Fabulce Atellance.) . 

1. The tragedies of Nsevius were all translations from Greek dramatists^ ov 
close imitations : the following titles are preserved ; Alcestis,Danae, Dulores- 
tes, Hesiona, Hector, fphigenia, Lycurgus, Phcenissce, Protesilaus, Telephus. 
Nsevius was considered a better comic than tragic poet. His comedies partook 
of the personal satire and invective, which characterized the old comedy of 
the Greeks (§ 41), and which are seen in the plays of Aristophanes. His re- 
proaches against the chief men of the city caused his imprisonment, and per- 
severance in the same after a release, led to his banishment. — His poem on 
the Punic War was in the Saturnian verse (cf. $ 304), and his style in all his 
productions, is said to have been more rugged than that of L. Andronicus. — 
Nsevius has generally been considered as the author of the Cyprian Iliad (a) 
a translation from a Greek poem called the Cypria (r'u Kvtvqlu), a work of 
amorous fiction in 12 books. 

(a) Some, however, ascribe it to a later poet named Lsevius. Cf. Heyne, Excurs. I. ad Lib. 
II. ^Eneid. On Neevius, cf. Dunlop, i. p. 59.— Btihr, p. 76. — Sagittarius, as cited v) 348. 1. 

2. The fragments of Nasvius are found in the collections named in the preceding section, 
referred to above, § 349. 2. and others cited § 348. 2. 

§ 351. Quintus Ennius was born at Rudise in Calabria, B. C. about 240. 
The elder Cato brought him from Sardinia to Rome, where he was employed 
as a teacher of Greek. He contributed much to the improvement of the 
Latin language. He was the earliest epic poet in that tongue, and was highly 
valued by the later and better writers, particularly Cicero and Virgil. Enni- 
um, sicut sacros vetustate lucos, adoremus, in quibiis grandia et antiqua robora 
jam non tantum habcnt spcciem quantum rcligionem (Q u i n ti 1 . x. i). He 
composed a historical poem of Roman Annals, in 18 books : an epic poem 
called Scipio ; many comedies and tragedies ; also satires and other pieces. 
Of all these we have but brief and scattered passages, occasionally quoted by 
other authors. 

1. Ennius lived until about B. C. 170, when he died at the age of 70, of a 
disease (morbus articularis) probably brought on by intemperate drinking 
(Hor. Epist. L. I. Ep. 19. v. 7). But he is said to have lived generally in a 
frugal manner. His residence was on the Aventine hill. He enjoyed the 
friendship of many patrician families, and particularly of Scipio Nasica. 

A bust of him was placed (Cic. pro. Archia, c. 9.) in the family tomb of the Scipios fcf. P. L 



298 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 133. 2J ,• " a, laureled bust of Peperino stone, which was found in this tomb, and which now 
stands on the Sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican, is supposed to be that of Enni- 
us." Cf. Rome in the 19th century, Letter 36. 

2. Ennius surpassed his predecessors both in poetical genius and in versifi- 
cation, and is said to have been the master of three tongues, Oscan,, Latin 
and Greek. He professedly imitated Homer, whose spirit he pretended to 
possess, by a Pythagorean transmigration through the medium of a peacock, 
if we may rely upon a satire of Persius (vi. 10) ; destertuit esse — Mceonides 
Quintus pavone ex Pythagoreo. — In his tragedies he imitated from Euripides 
more than from the other Greek dramatists; perhaps, because the Romans 
preferred such plays as were crowded with action and the bustle of a compli- 
cated fable, The titles of some of these pieces were Ajax, Alcmceon, Alexan- 
der or Paris, Andromache, Erectheus, Hectoris Lustra, Hecuba. Iphigenia, 
Medea, Telamon, Telephus, Thyestes. Most of these were evidently bor- 
rowed from Euripides. The Medea was considered as one of the best pro- 
ductions of Ennius and was very popular. Attius, Varro, Ovid and Seneca, 
successively imitated from this tragedy. — Of the satires' of Ennius little is 
known, the remaining fragments being very short and broken. — The Annals 
seem to have been the great work of this poet ; written in hexameter verse, 
and devoted to the celebration of Roman exploits from the earliest periods to 
the conclusion of the Istrian war ; not completed until within a few years of 
his death. It was a work highly gratifying to the national pride, and continu- 
ed long popular at Rome ; much relished in the age of Horace and Virgil, 
and even down to the time of Marcus Aurelius, recited in the theatres and 
places of public amusement. — Ennius wrote a didactic poem on eatables, en- 
titled Phagetica ; and another entitled Epicarmus, being a translation from 
the Greek work of Epicharmus the comedian, on the nature of things. He 
also left a prose translation of the work of Euhemeres (cf. § 222. 4), on the 
ancient mythology ; some passages of which are preserved in Lactantius. 

Dunlop, i. 64.— W. Fr. Kreidmann, Orat. de Q,. Ennio. Jen. 1754. 4. — Scholl, Hist, de la Litt. 
Rom. 1. 114, 141, U5.—Biihr, p. 94, 120. 

3. The fragments of Ennius were first published bv H. Columna, Fragm. poet, veter. Lat. 
Nap. 1590. 4.— A full and good edition, by Fr. Hessel. Amst. 1707. 4.— Recent, by J. A. Giles. 
Lond. 1835. 12. — The Medea separately, by H. Plank. Gbtt. 1807. 4. with a commentary. 

§ 352. M. Accius Plautus, a native of Sarsina, in Umbria, also flourished 
about B. C. 200 ; being born B. C. 227 and dying B. C. 184. He became so 
straitened in his circumstances, that he worked for daily wages at a hand-mill. 
He possessed eminent talents for a comic writer, a rich vein of cutting wit, a 
happy invention, and great force of humorous expression. The Greek comic 
writers Epicharmus and Diphilus were his chief models. He was particular- 
ly successful in the low comedy ; but in this, out of compliance with the 
taste of the age, he often transgressed the limits of propriety. From the 
multitude of his comedies, which Gellius numbers as high as 130, only twen- 
ty now remain ; these have frequently been used and imitated by modern 
dramatists. 

1. Plautus was the son of a freedman, and received his name from his 
splay feet (a pedum planitie sive Ti?.arvrijri). He is said to have realized a 
considerable fortune by the popularity of his plays, and to have lost it in spec- 
ulation, or expended it in splendid decorations as an actor ; thus he was reduced 
to the necessity of laboring like a slave, when a famine at Rome diminished 
the general resort to theatrical amusements. Plautus like his predecessors 
borrowed from the Greek writers ; from Philemon and Menander as well as 
from those named above. Although he took his plots and incidents freely 
from the middle comedy, his spirit and manner in execution, his coarse wit 
and personal satire, agreed more fully with the character of the old. Cf. §41. 
Many of the comedies which passed under the name of Plautus, were proba- 
bly spurious. Aulus Gellius (JVoct. Alt. Lib. in.) quotes a work of Varro, 
Quaistiones Plautincc, much of which was devoted to a discussion concerning 
the authenticity of the plays commonly ascribed to Plautus ; twenty-one w T ere 
admitted in this discussion to be unquestionably genuine. These were sub- 
sequently termed Varronian, and included the twenty still extant. The titles 
of these, with an analysis of each, and a notice of the principal modern imi- 
tations, may be found in Dunlop' s Roman Literature. Amphitryon, Mcnachmi^ 



POETS. PLAUTUS. PACUVIUS. ATTIUS. 299 

Capteivei and Miles Gloriosus, are among the most distinguished of the plays ; 
some of the others, however, were more popular on the Roman stage. The 
wit, drollery and buffoonery of Plautus were so captivating to the people, that 
his pla}~s were still favorite pieces on the Roman stage, even after those of 
Terence began to be represented. — Moliere, Shakspeare and Dryden, may be 
named among the moderns who have copied from Plautus. 

2. The comedy entitled Famulus for Little CarthagmitmJ has famished occasion fos much 
philological speculation, in the specimens of the Punic language, which it contains. In these 
scanty remains, commentators have found traces of various different tongues, according to 
their fancy, or favorite system. — «/. J. Bellei-mann published three Programms on the subject ; 
(Einen Versuch die punischen Stellen in Pbnulus des Plautus zu erklaren). Berl. 1809. 8. — 
Cf. Schbll, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. 123.— Vallanccy, Essay on the antiquity of the Irish language (cf. 
P. V. § 136). Dubl. 1772. 8. — Southern Review, Aug. 1829. p. 37. where are given several ver- 
sions of the Punic Monologue. — W. Gcsenius, tiber Phoenische und Punische~&c. as cited P. I. 
§ 45. 2. 

3. Editions.— Best ; F. H. Bothe. Berl. 1810. 4 vols. 8. " Beautiful and truly admirable. 
(Dibdin).-Bv same, Halberst. 1821. 2 vols. 8. and Stuttg. 1829. 4 vols. 12.— B. F. Schmieden 

Gott. 1804, 1805. 2 vols. 8. Princeps or earliest ; G. Merula, (Findelin de SpiraJ. Ven. 1472. 

fol.— Second ; Paul dc Ferraria, Tarvis, 1482. fol.— Of many others, the most important are, 
J. Camerarius, Bas. 155S. 8.— D. Lambinus. Par. 1577. fol.— F. Taubmann. Witteberg, 1622. 4. 
with a good commentary. — Variorum, fed. J. F. Gronovius,) Amst. 1684. 8. — Miller. Berl. 

1755. 3 vols. 8. with a Lexicon Plautinum. Editions of single plays have been numerous; 

we mention on account of their emendations in reference to metre, F. W. Reitz, the Eudens. 
Leipz. 1789. 8. and G. Hermann, the Trin u m nus. Berl. 1800. 8— F. Gbller, the Trucu- 
lent u s. Colon. 1824. 8. There is a neat ed. of the C a p t i v i (mere text), Cambridge, 

1832. 12. 

4. Translations.— German.— Ch. Kvfner (metrical). Vienn. 1806, 7. 5 vols. 8.— *G. G. S. 

Kopke. Berl. 1809, 1820. 2 vols. 8.— J. T. L. Dam, Lat. & Germ. 1806-11. 4 vols. 8 French. 

Mich. Marolles, Par. 1658. 4 vols. 8.— H. Ph. Dc Limiers, Lat. & Gall. Amst. 1719. 10 vols. 12. 
H. Gucdevillc, Levd. 1719. 10 vols. 12. English.— Lawr. Echard. Lond. 1716. 12.— B. Thorn- 
ton (blank verse),* 2nd ed. Lond. 1769. 2 vols. 8 R. Warner. Lond. 1772-74. 5 vols. 8. 

5. Illustrative. — D. Chr. H. Schmid, Anweisung der vornehmsten Bucher in aller Theilen 
der Dichtkunst. Lpz. 1781. — Leasing, Abh. Tiber Plautus Leben und Schriften, in his icorks. 
cf. P. I. § 168. 2.— Thos. Cooke, Amphitryon, (Lat. et. Angl.) with a Dissert, and the Life of 
Plautus. Lond. 1750. 12.— Hard, The opinion of Cicero and Horace respecting Plautus com- 
pared, in his Commentary on the Art of Poetry. Lond. 1766. 8. (p. 214. vol. i). — Cf. Suiter's 
Allg. Theorie &c. vol. in. p. 706 — G. E. Rost, Opuscula Plautina. Lpz. 1836. vol. i. Com- 
mentationes. 1837. vol. n. Translations. 

§ 353. Marcus Pacuvius, of Brundusium, was a nephew of Ennius, born B. 
C. about "220. He was celebrated at Rome both as a painter and a tragic poet. 
Quintilian praises the dignity of the thought, expression, and characters in 
his tragedies. Of these, however, we have but a few unimportant fragments. 

1. Pacuvius in advanced life retired from Rome to Tarentum, where he 
died at the age of nearly ninety. The epitaph inscribed upon his tombstone, 
placed by the side of a public road, is quoted by Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. L. i. 
c. 24). — The ancients speak of 19 tragedies written by him; the titles are 
given by Dunlop. Pacuvius, like his predecessors, chiefly borrowed from the 
Greeks. " His Paulus, however, was of his own invention, and was the first 
Latin tragedy formed on a Roman subject ; " only five lines of it are extant. 
The tragedy entitled JLntiope was one of the most distinguished of his pieces. 
A scene in the lliona, where the ghost of Polydorus who had been assassina- 
ted appears to his sister lliona, was greatly admired by Roman audiences. — 
Pacuvius was one of the earliest of the Romans who attained any eminence 
in the art of painting (cf. P. I. § 224). 

Dunlop, i. p. 209.— Scholl, i. p. 115. — Cf. Cicero, Brut. 64, 74. De Orat. i. 58. n. 37. De 
Divin. i. 57. n. 64. — Quintil. x. I, 97. — Hor. Ep. lib. n. i. 55. — Also, Annibal dc Leo, Delle 
Memorie di M. Pacuvio, antjchissimo poeta tragico, dissertazione. Napl. 1736. 8. 

2. The fragments of Pacuvius may be found in the collections, already cited (§348. 2), of 
Stephanus, Delrio, Scriver, Mattairc. 

§ 354. Lucius Accius, or more correctly Attius, a native Roman, was a tragic 
poet > a contemporary of Pacuvius, but younger. He also wrote, in verse, An- 
nals of the Roman History. Of his tragedies a few remaining fragments are 
found. 

1. Attius is said to have brought forward his first play at the age of 30, B. 
C. 138, the same year in which Pacuvius gave to the public his last, at the 
age of 80. The story related by Valerius Maximus (m. 7), of Attius refusing 
to rise on the entrance of Julius Csesar into the College of poets, is supposed 
by some to show that this poet did not live so early ; others suppose that this 
anecdote refers to another poet, or to a Julius Caesar earlier than the conqueror. 
Attius is exposed to the charge of vanity ; " though a person of diminutive 



$00 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

size, he got a huge statue of himself placed in a conspicuous niche in the tern* 
pie of the Muses." He was highly esteemed by the Romans. He wrote many 
plays ; the titles of above fifty have been collected. Most of these were drawn 
from Grecian sources ; two, however, his Brutus and Decius, were founded 
on Roman subjects ; written probably in honor of Decius Brutus, consul B. 
C 137, who was his warm patron and friend. 

Dunlop, 1. 214. — SchUll, i. 116. — Fabricius, (cited § 299. 8), in. 235. — Cf. Cicero, Brutus, 
28,63. Pro Archia, 10. — Aldus Gellius, Noct. Att. xm. 2. — Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 5. — ' 
Quintil. v. 13. — Hor. Ep. n. i. 55. 

2. The fragments of Attius are contained in the collection of Scriver, and others, before 
cited. 

§ 355. Publius Terentius Afer was born, B. C. 192, in Africa, perhaps at 
Carthage, and died B. C. 159. He was a freedman of the senator Terentius 
Lucanus, and an intimate friend of Leelius and the younger Scipio Africanus. 
As a dramatist he was an imitator of Menander and Apollodorus. His six 
comedies still remaining are of remarkable excellence, in respect to the char- 
acters, the truth and refinement of the dialogue, and the management of the 
plot. He professed less invention, and less of comic power than Plautus ; but 
on the other hand he had more taste, a better style, and a finer knowledge of 
human nature. We find no trace of any other than the six comedies now ex- 
tant ; yet it is related that he lost 108 plays in a shipwreck. Of the ancient 
commentators upon Terence, the most worthy of notice are Mlius Donatus, 
a Grammarian of the 4th century, and Eugraphius, of the 10th century. 

1. It is not known how Terence was brought to Rome, or became the slave 
of the Terentius whose name he has preserved from oblivion. After giving 
to the Roman stage his six comedies, he made a visit to Greece, whence he 
never returned. According to one account, he perished at sea, on his voyage 
from Greece to Italy, with the 108 comedies he had translated from Menan- 
der ; others state, that having sent the same comedies before him by sea to 
Rome, and they being lost by shipwreck, he died of grief in Arcadia. 

Suetonius, Vita Terentii. Cf. p. xxiii. 1st vol. of Lemaire' s ed. of Terence, cited below. 

2. The titles of the six plays are Jlndria, Eunuchus, Heautontimorumenos 
{tavrovxiuwqov^voq), Jldelphi, Hecyra, Phormis. An analysis of these is giv- 
en by Dunlop, with a notice of the imitations by Moliere and other modern 
dramatists. The Jlndria was the earliest and is usually called the best of the 
pieces. In respect to style Terence has been regarded as a model of correct 
composition. " It is a singular circumstance, and without example in the lit- 
erary history of any other country, that the language should have received its 
highest perfection, in point of elegance and grace, combined with the most 
perfect simplicity from the hand of a foreigner and slave. But it so happened, 
that the countryman of Hannibal and the freedman of Terentius Lucanus gave 
to the Roman tongue all those beauties, in a degree which the courtiers of the 
Augustan age itself did not surpass." As to versification, it is generally al- 
lowed, that Terence used very great liberties. 

Cf. Dunlop, l. 175-209. — Bdhr, r. p. 104ss. — Suher's Theorie der Schonen KUnste. iv. 522. 

— F. Wullner, De Terentii Vita et Scriptis. Monast. 1829. 4. 

3. Editions. — Best; JV. E. Lemaire. Par. 1827. 3 vols. 8. included in his Bibliothcca Class. 
Latina. — Zeuuius, (republished with additions, by Priestley). Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — Wester- 
hovius. Hag. Com. 1726.2 vols. 4. " In his account of the various editions of Terence he lias 
enumerated not less than 248." — G. Stallbaum. Lips. 1830. 8. commenced ; Westerhovius 
with additions. — Bentley. Amst. 1727. 4. specially^ valuable in reference to metre. — Prin- 
cess ; an edition printed at Milan 1470. fol. is generally called the first ; Dibdin decides for the 

following, Mentelin (pr.), Argent, supposed before 1470. fol. Valuable editions of. present 

century ; F. H. Bothe. Berl. 1806. 8. also in the 4th vol. of his Poetm Scenici (cf. § 348.' 2). — 
Bruns. Halle, 1811. 2 vols. 8. — Schmieder. Hal. Sax. 1819. 8. — A. Rossi. Mil. 1820. 2 vols. 8. 

— F. C. G. Perlet. Lpz. 1821. 12 (text highly valued), ed. auctior. 1827. 8. — A. J. Valpy. 
Lond. 1823. 8. — The various editions of single plays cannot be mentioned. 

4. Translations. — German. — J. C. 0. Neide. Lpz. 1784.2 vols. 8. — J.J. Roos. " Giessen. 
1794. 2 vols. 8 (most eminent according to Fuhrmann). — F. H. Von Eindesel (metrical). Lpz. 
1806. 2 vols. 8. — Five other Germ, translations cited by Lemaire. — There is another, v ,by A. F. 
Wolper, in the Prenzlau collection of translations. — French. — Mad. Dacier. Par. (with orig. 
Lat.) 1688. 3 vols. 8. — (metrical), Anonymous. Par. 1806. 2 yols. 8. — Six others named by Le- 
maire. — Italian. — Ant. Cesari. Veron. 2 vols. 8. — Lemaire cites three others. — English. — 
C. Hoole (Lat. & Angl.). Lond. 1676. 8. — (metrical), G. Colman. Lond. 1765. 2. vols. 8. — 
(Lat. & Angl.), S. Patrick. Lond. 1767^2 vols. 8.— Cf. Harles. Brev. Not. Supp. i. p. 145. 

5. Illustrative. — E. Burton, in his Ancient Characters deduced from Classical Remains. Lond. 
1763. 8. — L. Echard ; comparison of Terence and Plautus, in his translation cited § 352. 4. — 
£ C. Briegleb, Programmata de lectione Terentii, philosopho non indigna. Coburg, 1769-1778, 



POETS. LUCILIUS. LUCRETIUS. 301 

4, — L. Schopen, Diss. Crit. de Terentio et Donato ejus interprete. Bonnse ad Rhen. 1821. 8. — 
D. Heiiisius, Diss, ad Horatii de Plautoet Terentio judicium. Amst. 1618. 12. given in Lemaire's 
edition above cited. — Gailierc, Apologie de Terence. Par. 1728. 12. — J. JWCaul, Remarks on 
the Terentian Metres, with a sketch of the History of anc. Comedy. Lond. 1828. 8. 

§ 356. Cains Lucilius, of Suessa in Campania, was a Roman knight, born 
B. C. 150. With a great knowledge of language he combined a great talent 
for satire. He was the first among the Romans to cultivate satiric poetry in 
the more didactic form. He wrote 30 books of poetry, or more probably 30 
single pieces, rich in wit, and keenly severe, although in some measure defi- 
cient in accuracy of style. He also wrote hymns, epodes, and a comedy. 

1. Lucilius, in early youth, served at the siege of Numantia, in the same 
camp with Marius and Jugurtha, under Scipio Africanus the younger. He 
afterwards resided at Rome in the house which had been built at public ex- 
pense for the son of Seleucus king of Syria, when that prince was a hostage 
at Rome. Little is known of the life and manners of this poet. He died at 
Naples, at the age of 45, as is commonly stated. He enjoyed the friendship 
and protection of Scipio Africanus and Lsslius. 

Ot his writings only detached fragments remain ; "these however are suffi- 
cient to show something of his spirit and manner. His peculiarities are also 
frequently mentioned by ancient writers ; one of the most striking was his ve- 
hement and cutting satire. Horace acknowledges his merits, yet censures his 
versification as loose and prosaic. The third book of Lucilius contains an 
account of a journey along the coast of Campania to Naples and thence to 
Rhegium and the straits of Messina, which Horace seems to have imitated in 
his description of a journey from Rome to Brundusium. 

Dunlop, i. 238-248. — Scholl, Hist. Abreg. de la Litt. Rom. r. 148. — Charaktere der vornehm. 
Dichter, iv. 419. — Cf. Quintil. x. 1. 93. — Hor. l. Sat. iv. 1-13. x. 1-6. 46-49. — Aul. Oell. vn. 
3. xvii. 21. — J'uveru i. Sat. i. 165. 

2. The fragments of Lucilius were published by F. Dousa (Douza). Lugd. Bat. 1597. 4. — 
Ant. Vulpius. Patav. 1735. 8. — Haverkamp (annexed to Censorinus) . Lugd. Bat. 1743. 8. — 
Found also in the Bipont edition of Juvenal and Persius. 1785. 8. — also in C. J. Christ. Reuvens. 
Collectanea literaria, S. Conjecture in Attium, Lucilium et cet. Lugd. Bat. 1815. 8. 

§ 357. Titus Lucretius Carus, a Roman knight, born about B. C. 95, ended 
his life by suicide. His philosophical poem, On the nature of tilings (De rerum 
natura), in six books, contains the principles of the Epicurean school, of which 
he was a zealous disciple. These principles are here combined and arranged 
with much art, and set forth in their most dazzling and imposing features. — 
The work is not wholly free from monotony and dulness ; but this is the fault 
of the subject rather than of the author, whose poetry in particular passages is 
very florid and rich in imagery. — Cardinal Polignac wrote a poem in opposi- 
tion to it, called Anti- Lucretius, which, although more correct in its views of 
God and of providence, is inferior in poetical merit. 

1. Lucretius lived in a period full of important political events, but seems 
to have kept himself retired from public affairs. He was sent, according to a 
prevailing custom at the time, with other young Romans of rank, to study at 
Athens, where he attended on the instructions of Zeno and Phsedrus given in 
the Gardens of Epicurus. Cicero and his brother Quintus, also Cassius and 
Pomponius Atticus, and Memmius afterwards governor of Bithynia, are said to 
have been at this time his fellow students. Lucretius was specially attached 
to the latter, and it is supposed accompanied him to Bithynia. His poem is 
dedicated to Memmius. He is said to have committed suicide, in the 44th 
year of his age, in a paroxysm of insanity produced, according to some, by a 
philtre or love potion given him by Lucilia, his wife or mistress, but according 
to others, caused by melancholy resulting from the exile of Memmius and 
other calamities. 

Lambinus, Life of Lucretius, in the Bipont Edition cited below (2). — Good, in his transla- 
tion below cited. 

2. Directly opposite judgments have been passed upon the poem of Lucre- 
tius; some pronouncing it " dry, prosaic, without interest, and without imag- 
ination ; " others calling it an elegant and almost unrivaled production. An 
analysis of it is found in Dunlop, and copied in Anthons Lempriere. 

Dunlop, i. 250. — ScliJbll, i. 246. «=- Charaktere dcr Vornehm. Dichter, vn. 310. — Villemain, 
Nouveaux Melanges, (p. 189. Par. 1827. 8. — Busby, below cited. 

3. Editions. — B. — Gilbert Wakefield. Lond. 1793. 3 voU. 4. Censured by some of the Re- 
views, but highly commended by some German critics (Dibdin, u. 205). — Duncan. Glasg- 

26 



302 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, 

i i 

1813. 4 vols. 8. Chiefly a reprint of Wakefield's ; " the best critical edition extant " (Dfbditt, 
■1827). — Eichst'ddt. Lpz. 1801. 8. Based upon Wakefield's, containing the text of the six books 
in the 1st volume ; but the 2d not published. — Of earlier editions, the best is that of Haver- 
camp. Lugd. Bat. 1725. 2 vols. 4. Pronounced by Dunlop the best edition that has yet ap- 
peared. — The Bivontinc, reprinted, Argent. 1808. 8, is considered good. — The Oxford, 1816, 
is a reprint of Thomas Creech, first published Oxf. 1695. 8. — Princeps, Ferandus, Brescioe. 
1473. fol. — The first Ms. of Lucretius known to the moderns was discovered by Poggio Brac- 
ciolini, in the monastery of St. Gal, about 20 miles from Constance, in 1414. 

4. Translations. — German. — J. H. F. Meinecke, metrical with the original and notes. Lpz. 

1795. 2 vols. 8.— K. L. Von Krebel, with the original, Wakefield's text. Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. 

French. — D. La Grange, prose. Par. 1799. 2 vols. 12. — Le Blanc de GuiUet, metrical, with 

Lat. text. Par. 1788. 8. Italian. — Mcx. MarchettL (best ed.) 1779. 4. — English. — 

Th. Creech, in verse. Oxf. 1683. 8. Lond. 1776. 2 vols. 8. — Th. Busby, in verse, with the orig- 
inal. Lond. 1813.2 vols. 4. with " enormous prolegomena on the Life and Genius of Lucretius, 
and the Philosophy and Morals of his poem " (Dunlop). cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xi. 88. — J. M. 
Good, blank verse, with the Latin (Wakefield's text). Lond. 1805. 2 vols. 4. containing a life 
of Lucretius, and an account of his philosophy, (cf. Gregory's life of Dr. Good, p. 103. Bost. 

ed. 1829). For further notices of translations and editions, see Dunlop, n. Appendix, p. 35-39, 

and the Bipontine edition of Lucretius. — Cf. Drake's Literary Hours. — Dryden's Poetical 
Miscellanies. 

5. The Anti-Lucretius (tive de Deo et Natura) of Polignac was published at Paris, 1747. 2 
vols. 8. It consists of nine books, of about 1300 lines each, in Latin hexameter. The author 
studiously imitates Lucretius. An English translation was published by G. Canning, Lond. 
1766. 8. — There is another poem, written in opposition to Lucretius, De animi immortalitate, by 
Aonius Palearius (Lyon, 1536. 8.), which is " almost a cento made up from lines or half lines of 
the Koman bard." The same imitation of Lucretius is seen in various Latin poems composed 
by the French Jesuits of the 17th century to illustrate different phenomena of nature. Sev- 
eral are published in the Pocmata Dtdascalica, Paris, 1813. 3 vols. — Dunlop, i. 270. 

§ 358. Caius Valerius Catullus was born in the peninsula Sirmio, in the 
territory of Verona, B. C. 86. Little is known of the circumstances of his 
life, excepting his intimate friendship with Cicero, of which a proof is given 
in one of his poems. As a lyric poet he has much that is excellent in the 
softer kind of writing, much refinement of feeling and expression. But he 
yielded too much to the already corrupt taste of his age, and not unfrequently 
sacrificed both propriety and morality. Many of his poems are lost. 

1. Catullus was invited to Rome in early youth, and there wasted much of 
his fortune in dissipation. He accompanied Caius Memmius, the patron of 
Lucretius, to the province of Bithynia; but did not derive the pecu- 
niary or other benefits which he had expected. After his return to Italy, his 
time seems to have been passed in idleness or in licentious amours, in his 
costly residence at Tibur, or his delicious villa on the peninsula of Sirmio. 
He died when not far from the age of 30. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. I. 310. 

2. The numerous small pieces extant, that are ascribed to Catullus, consist 
of odes, songs, satires, elegies, and epigrams. ( Some of these are not consid- 
ered as genuine ; the editions usually contain 116 pieces. Although once 
distributed into three classes, they are now generally published without any 
attempt at systematic arrangement ; and their miscellaneous character renders 
any such arrangement almost impossible. The poetry bears evident marks of 
close imitation of Greek authors, especially of CalHmachus ; yet all the critics 
award to Catullus the praise of much originality and of great elegance. In 
respect of literary merits, he has been ranked above all the Latin poets except 
Virgil and Horace. — One of the most pleasing of his pieces is that (xxxi) ad- 
dressed to Sirmio, the peninsula where his favorite villa was situated. 

Dunlop i. 271-321.— Man. so in the Charaktere der vorm. Dichter i. 158-171. — also D'Arnaud's 
Essay sur Caiulle ahnexed to the edition (p. 410) of Naudet cited below. — Arnauld in the Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 239. — Bibl. Rcpos. No. xxn. p. 495. 

3. Editions.— B.—F. W. D'orhnr. Lpz. 1788-92. Repr. in Lond. 1820. {Anthon.)—C. J. Sillig. 
Gbtt. 1823. 8.— Especially, J. JVaudet. Par. 1826. 8. forming vol. lxxv. of Lemaire's Bibliotheque 
Classique Latine. — Ofearlier editions, the best is that of Vulpius. Patav. 1737. 2 vols. 4. — 
Princeps, Corallus. Parm. 1473. fol. — An excellent edition for schools, F. M. Hubbard. Bost. 
1836. containing select pieces, with notes. — Catullus has often been published with Ti- 
bullus & Proper tius; one of the latest editions, A. J. Valpy. Lond. 1822. 8. — For fur- 
ther account of editions, see Naudet above cited. 

4. Translations. — German. — B.— K. W. Ramler. Lpz. 1793. 8. 1810. 8. French.— F. J. 

Noel. Par. 1805. & 1813. 2 vols. 8. containing thp original Latin, and a Dlscours Preliminaire on 
the life, poetry, editions and translations of Catullus. — C. L. Mollerault (in verse, with Tibul- 

lus & Propertius). Par. 1816. 3 vols. 18. English. — Anonymous, (supposed Dr. Nott) with 

Lat. text and notes. Lond. 1795. 2 vols. 8. — Lamb. cf. Dunlop ii. App. p. 42. 

§ 359. Cornelius G alius, a native of Gaul, nourished about the same time 
with Propertius. He was a friend of Virgil, who addressed his 10th eclogue 
to him. He was one of the most happy poets in elegy, although in his diction 



POETS. CATULLUS. GALLUS. TIBULLUS. 



303 



less pleasing than Propertius or Tibulhis. His poems, however, are lost; the 
six elegies, which have been ascribed to him, are certainly from a later and 
inferior poet ; probably from Cornelius Maximianus Gallus, who lived under 
Anast.asius, about A. D. 500. 

1. Gallus was born of poor parents, probably at Forum Julii, in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, about B. C. 70. He first came into notice as a follower and partisan 
of Octavius. in his measures to avenge the assassination of Julius Cossar. He 
seems to have soon obtained the confidence of Octavius, and was one of his 
counsellors after the battle of Philippi. After the battle of Actium, Gallus 
was entrusted with an important command in the invasion of Egypt against 
Antony, and it was by an artifice of Gallus that Cleopatra fell into the hands 
of Augustus. Egypt being reduced, Gallus was appointed prasfect or viceroy 
over it. His successes rendered him vain ; his government of the province 
was soon marked by mismanagement and plunder ; and in the fifth year of his 
authority he was recalled, charged among other offences with having plotted 
against the life of Auo-ustus. His property was confiscated, and he was sen- 
tenced to perpetual exile. Thus disgraced, he committed suicide in the 43d 
year of his age, B. C. 26. 

2. The elegies of Gallus consisted of 4 books. He is said to have translated 
several pieces from the Greek epigrammatist Euphorion. He is by some con- 
sidered as the author of the poem called Ciris, falsely ascribed to Virgil. 

Fuhrmann, Handbuch, p. 585. — Scholl, i. 326.— B'dhr, p. 273.— Warton, Hist, of Engl. Poetry. 
Lond. 1824. 4 vols. (4th, p. 233.) 

3. The elegies ascribed to Gallus are found in the Collections of the Minor Latin poets by 

Jtfaitaire, and by Wernsdorf ; also in Lcmaire's Biblioth. Poet. Lat. Minor es, vol. n. & vi. 

The Impotent Lover, accuratelv described in six elegies upon old age. Made English from the 
Latin of Cornelius Gallus, by H. Walker. Lond. 1693. 8. 

§ 360. Albius Tibulhis, born at Rome, and belonging to the order of knights, 
flourished about B. C. 30. He was a favorite of Messala Corvinus, and 
esteemed by Horace, Ovid, and other poets of his age. According to Quin- 
tilian, he is entitled to the first rank among the Roman elegiac poets. He 
combines soft, tender feeling with a noble and accurate expression, with a 
charming variety of invention, of images and turns, without labored, far- 
fetched, or unnatural ornaments. His elegies are arranged in 4 books; those 
in the last, however, are ascribed to Sulpicia, and other authors. 

1. The time of his birth is not known, but supposed to be about B. C. 54 or 
56. He is said to have died about the same time with Virgil, B. C. 19. He 
inherited a considerable fortune, which w^as greatly impaired, partly by the 
partitions of the lands in Italy made to the soldiers of the Triumvirs, and 
partly perhaps by his own extravagance. He accompanied Messala in several 
military expeditions, in the last of which he suffered a dangerous sickness 
that detained him at the island Corcyra ; but on his recovery he visited Syria 
and Egypt. After his return from the east, he lived on his paternal estate at 
Pedum. 

2. We have, in the 4 books under the name of Tibullus, 35 elegies and a 
panegyric addressed to Messala. The genuineness of the 3d book as well as 
the principal part of the 4th, has been doubted. According to Scholl, only the 
first two books and the panegyric in the commencement of the 4th, and the 
two elegies at its close, are indisputably the production of Tibullus. De Gol- 
bery denies the genuineness of the panegyric. The elegies in the 3d book 
are ascribed by Voss, to a poet called Lygdamus. But Fuhrmann remarks that 
Lygdamus as a poet is'unknowm in Roman literature, and is wholly an imag- 
inary person. Tibullus evidently had studied the Grecian elegiac writers; 
but was not a close imitator. A melancholy tenderness is a prominent trait 
in his poetry. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 326. — De Golbcry (in his edition cited below) De Tibulii vita et carminibus. 
— Charakt. vorm. Dicht. n. 190. — Dissemus, De vita et Poesi Tib. in his ed. below cited. 

3. Editions. — B.— C. G. Heyne (4th ed. by F. E. Wunderlich). Lpz. 1817. 2 vols. 8. to which 
belongs the Supplement entitled Tibulii carminum edition'^ Hapna-Wunderlichiance Supplement urn. 
(Ed. L. Dissenius) Lips. 1819. S.—Lnm. G. Huschke. Lips. 1819. 2 vols. 8. very valuable (Fuhr- 
mann) ; cf. Harles Supplem.- KVugling, p. 175. — De Golbery. Par. 1826. 8. forming the 78th vol. 
of Lemaire's Bibliotheque ; containing an Es^say on the life and writing of Tibullus, Mythologi- 
cal Excursuses, and an account of Mss. &. editions. Among the best of earlier editions, are 

Broukhusius (with Catullus). Amst. 1727. 4. and Vulpius (Volpi). Patav. (Padua) 1749. 4. 

We can only mention further, J. H. Voss, Tibullus & Lygdamus. Hiedelb.1811. 8. two editions 



304 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

the same year, one with a critical commentary. See enumeration by Golbery, above cited. 

L. Dissenhis. Gbtt. 1835. 2 vols. 8. 

4. Translations. — German. — Best, by J. H. Voss. Tubing. 1810. 8. — metrical, by F. K. v. 

Strombeck. Gbtt. 1799. 8. French.— Best, by C. L. Mollerault, metrical. Par. 1808. 12. 

English. — James Grainger (with orig. Lat.) Lond. 1759. 12. — S. Henley. 1792. 8. a specimen of 
a proposed edition ; one elegy, with Lat. text, and Eng. notes.— G.Lamb. Lond. 1821. 2 vols. 12. 

5. Illustrative. — J. A. Gorentz, Tentamen Criticum in loca quagdam carm. Tibnllianorum. 
Zwick. 1806. 4. — E. C. Chr. Bach, Epistola critica in Tibullum et Propertium. Gotha;, 1812. 8. 
— Fr. A. Willi. Spohn, De Tibulli vita et canninibus. Lips. 1819.— Cf. Wolf's Liter. Analekten. 
i. p.164.— I. Jortin, Tracts, Philological and Critical. Lond. 1790. 8. vol. 2d. p. 448. 

§ 361. Sextus Aurelius Propertius, a native of Umbria, was a favorite of Mae- 
cenas, and died in the year B. C. 15. From him there are also 4 books of 
elegiac poems yet remaining. Their chief merits consist in pathetic expres- 
sion, with rich poetic feeling, and correctness of style. But he often trans- 
gresses the limits of nature and propriety, and is too profuse in poetical orna- 
ment. Philetas, whose Greek elegies are lost, and Callimachus, were espec- 
ially his models. 

1. Of seven towns claiming the honor of being the birth-place of this poet, 
Mevania is by some supposed to be entitled to the preference. Others give 
the preference to Hispellum, on the ground of an inscription there found, 
which is inserted in the edition of Burmann cited below. The time of his birth 
is Uncertain, probably about B. C. 53. Having lost much of his inheritance, 
as Tibullus did, by the distribution of land made to the soldiers of the Trium- 
virs, he went to Rome in early life to qualify himself for a civilian. But poetry 
was more congenial to his taste. He seems to have been a friend of Cornelius 
Gallus, Virgil, Tibullus, and Ovid. His elegies procured for him the patron- 
age of Maecenas. He is supposed to have gone to Athens in the train of Mae- 
cenas & Augustus ; after which, little is known of his life. 

Gillet de Moivre, La vie de Properze. Par. 1754. 8. 

2. The elegies of Propertius are nearly 100 in number. Three of the four books he made pub- 
lic in his life time ; the fourth is less occupied with amatory subjects, the elegies being chiefly 
of a heroic character, more didactic and moral. Mythological story and fable are frequently in- 
troduced. — See Manso's description in the Charakt. d. v. Dichter iii. 1. — Souchay, in Mem. Acad. 
Inscr. et Belles- Lettres. vol. vn. p. 386. 

3. Editions. — Best, Pet. Burmann, completed by Santenius ( Santen). Ultraj. (Utrecht) 1780. 
4. " the best yet published" (Dibdi.n.1827). — Chr. Gottl. (Theoph.) Kuinbl. Lpz.1805. 2 vols. 8. 
commended by Dibdin ; less approved by Kli'igling. — F. Jacobs, 1827. 12. in Teubner's Collec- 
tion. — In Lemaire's Bibliotheca. Among the best of earlier, Bronkhusius (Broukhuis). Aras. 

1727. 1,— Vulpius. Patav. 1755. 2 vols. 4.— F. G. Barth. Lpz. 1777. 8. 

4. Translations. — German. — K. L. von Krcbel. Lpz. 1798. 8. — F. K. von Strombeck. (2d impr. 

ed.) Braunschw. 1822. 8. with original. French. — P. B. Baron, metrical. Par.1813. 12. ~ 

English. — Anonymous ; Lond. 1782. 8. 

§ 36,2. Publius Virgilius Maro, of Andes near Mantua, lived from B. C. 70 
to B. C. 19. He was the greatest of the Roman poets in pastoral, didactic, 
and epic poetry. His 10 Eclogues are imitations of Theocritus, but are full of 
peculiar beauties. His Georgics, in 4 books, are rich in instruction and ele- 
gance. His JEneid, in 12 books, although an imitation of Homer, is neverthe- 
less the production of nature, genius, and taste ; its diction is more finished, 
and better suited to a refined age, than that of Homer, although the latter may 
be more original in itself. Virgil's easy and most agreeable versification 
should especially be mentioned ; and his remarkable skill in making every- 
thing he borrowed completely his own, and weaving it all with the rest, so 
happily into one whole. — There are also several other poetical performances 
ascribed to him, usually included under the name of Catalecta Virgilii ; but 
their genuineness is altogether doubtful. — Of the older commentators on Vir- 
gil, the grammarian S ervius Honoratus Maurus & Tib. Claudius D o natus 
are the most worthy of notice. 

1. Virgil at at an early age studied at Cremona, but was chiefly educated at 
Naples, where he is said to have been instructed in Greek letters by Parthe- 
nius (§ 226), and in the Epicurean philosophy by Syro. He was deprived of 
a paternal farm at Mantua by the Triumviral partition of lands ; but recovered 
his property by the favor of Maecenas and Augustus. He was introduced to 
them, it is said, by Cornelius Gallus. Virgil afterwards resided at Rome, on 
the Esquiline hill. Subsequently he retired to a villa, owned by him, near 
Nola, about 10 miles from Naples. He visited Athens, intending to devote 
three years in Greece to a revision of the iEneid, which he had not yet pub- 
lished. But ill health soon compelled him to return, and he lived but a few 



POETS. PROPERTIUS. VIRGIL. 305 

days after landing at Brundusium, B. C. 19. — His tomb is supposed to lie 
about two miles to the north of Naples, on the hill of Pausilippo. 

Several biographies of Virgil are given in Lemaire's edition (cited below) vol. vu. — A Life 
of Virgil, by "William Walsh, prefixed to Drydcn's Translation. — On the fictitious Virgil the Ne- 
cromancer, *cf. Warton , s Hist, of Poetry, m. p. 62 (cited § 359. 2). 

2. The title of Catalecta (xar ulexra) is given to a collection of 14 little pieces 
ascribed to Virgil, including several epigrams and an elegy addressed to Mes- 
sala. Several larger pieces are extant, which are also ascribed to Virgil, and 
sometimes comprehended under the general name Catalecta Virgilii. Their 
titles are Culex (the Gnat), Moretum, Dirce in Battarum, JEtna, Ciris (§ 359. 
2), Copa, Priapeia. Some have endeavored to vindicate the genuineness of 
these pieces by supposing them to have been composed while Virgil was 
young. 

Cf. Fuhrmann, p. 584.— Lemaire's ed. vol. v. — Scholl, i. 360, 375. — Also respecting Virgil, see 
Manso's treatise in the Cliarakt. d. v. Dichtcr, vol. vu. p. 241. — Dunlop, 3d vol. Lond. 1828. — 
Bahr, p. 127. 

3. In Virgil's 4th Eclogue, addressed to Pollio, there is a very striking resemblance in thought 
and figures to certain passages in the prophecies of Isaiah and Ezekiel. This coincidence is 
an interesting fact, and has excited much curiosity. See S. Henley, Observations on the sub- 
ject of the 4th Eclogue &c. Lond. 1788. 8. — R. Lowth, Lectures on the Sac. Poetry of the He- 
brews, lect. xxi. (p. 299. ed. Bost.1815.) — Jortin's Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. — 
Cudworth's Intellectual System, ch. iv. sect. Id.— Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. 378. — Class. Journ. 
vol. v. 55. — LaJVauzs, Mem. in the Histoire de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres. xxxi. 189. — 
On the Eclogues generally, cf. § 331. — The grammarian Probus left scholia on the Eclogues and 
the Georsics (cf. s$ 419). 

4. Editions.— Best ; Heyne, 3d ed. Lips. 1800. 6 vols. 8. Repr. Lips. 1803. 4 vols. 8. Also (by 
Priestley) Lond. 1821. 4 vols. 8. — Lemaire. Par. 1820-22. 8 vols. 8. containing the whole of Heyna, 
with the commentary of Servius and other additions. — Of the earlier editions, the following 
may be named ; Baskerville. Birmingh. 1757. 4to. of beautiful typography. — Burmann. Amst. 
174*6. 4 vols. 4. once highly extolled. — P. Marmoreus (ed. Bottarius) Rom. 1741. fol. a fac-simile 
of the famous Codex-Valicanus (see P. I. §143), with plates engraved by Bartoli. — Princeps. Rom. 
1469. — Not fewer than ninety editions have been enumerated, which were published before the 
year 1500 ; to name those since published would require a volume. — See the Notice Raisonnee 
in Lemaire , s Virg. vol. vu. — Many school editions have been published in this country ; that of 
J.G.Cooper is among the best. N. York (5th ed.) 1835. 8. ; that of B. A. Gould. Bost. 1834. 8. is 
good. — The Dclphin ed. by C. Ruceus, a truly valuable ed. has been repeatedly reprinted for 
schools ; the reprint, Phil. 1817. 8. is on miserable paper, but has a very useful Clavis Virgiliana 

annexed. The Catalecta & Minor poems have been published separately ; the best euition, 

by F. Lindenbrogius ( Lindenbruch J entitled P. V. Mar. Appendix. Lugd. Bat. 1617. 8. — These 
pieces are given in Heyne. — The separate editions of the Bucolics, Georgics, or JEneid, we can- 
not notice here. 

5. Translations. — German.— J. H. Voss, in hexameter verse. Brunsw. (2d ed.) 1821. 3 vols. 
8. highly esteemed. — His translations of the Bucolics and Georgics were first published sepa- 
rately (Germ. & Lat.) Bucolics, Altona, 1797. 2 vols. 8. ; Georgics, Altona, 1800. 2 vols. 8, 

French. — Rene Binct, prose. Par. 1804. 4 vols. 12. " celebrated" (Harks). Malfilatre, verse 

(Maradan, printer). Par.1810. 4 vols. 8. the translations of different parts by different authors ; 

with notes by S. A. M. Miger, and Extracts from Lemaire's Lectures on Latin Poetry. 

Italian. — Vittorio Alfieri, verse (iEneid). Pisa, 1804. 2 vols. 8. — Gins. Solari, verse. Geneva, 

1810. 3 vols. 8. English. — Dryden, verse. Lond. 1697. fol. often reprinted. — Davidson, 

prose. Lond. 1743. 2 vols. 8. often reprinted with the Latin, for schools. — J. Martyn, Bucolics 
and Georgics. Lond. 1749. 2 vols. 8. with Latin text, and notes specially illustrating the botany. 
— For an enumeration of the various versions in different languages, see Lemaire's ed. vol. vu. 
549-574 ; where are noticed translations into not only the German, French, Italian &. English, 
but also the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Hungarian, Polish, Swedish, Danish, and Greek ; be- 
sides numerous travesties or burlesque versions of the iEneid, or parts of it. The number of 
French versions, of which the list is most complete, is as follows : of the whole of Virgil, 5 in 
verse, and 12 in prose ; of the Bucolics, 26 in verse, and 7 in prose ; of the Georgics, 8 in verse, 
and 3 in prose ; and of the JEneid, 12 in verse, and 10 in prose ; besides many of particular 
books. 

6. We can name but a few of the vast number of other volumes and treatises illustrative of 
this author. — H. Midler, Homer und Virgil, eine Parallele. Erf. 1807. 8.—./. Martyn, Disserta- 
tions and critical Remarks upon the ^Eneid. Lond. 1770. 8. — Spcncr, Remarks and Disserta- 
tions of Mr. Holdsworth on Virgil, with notes <fec. Lond. 1768. 4. — Hclliei, Geographie de Vir- 
gile. Par. 1771. 12 ; reprinted, Par. 1820, with " Geographie d' Horace " added,~and 4 maps. — 
Ed. Gibbon, critical observations on the 6th book of the ^Eneid. Lond. 1770. 8. (also in his 
Miscellaneous Works. Lond. 1796. 2 vols. 4). — Cf. Warburton, Divine Legation of Moses, vol. i. 
B. ii. Sect. 4. — also Heyne^s Excursus x. — also J. Whistun,Six Dissertations on different subjects. 
Lond. 1755. 8. (6th Diss). — C. Lamotte, History of the works of the Learned &c. Lond. 1737. 
8. (on the question whether iEneas ever was in Italy.) — Cf. Niebuhr's Hist, of Rome, p. 136. 
vol. l. ed.Phila. 1835.— Vicaire (Prof, d' Eloq. et Rect. de 1' Univ. de Paris), Plan de 1' Eneide 

de Virgile. Par. 1788. 12. ibbe Fraguicr, Discours sur la maniere dont Virgile a imite Hc- 

inere ; in the Mem. de V Acad, des Inscr. vol. n. p. 141. — Vatry, La fable d' Eneide, Mem. Acad. 

Inscr. xix. 345. We may add R. Schomberg, The life of Maecenas. 2d ed. Lond. 1766. 8 — 

Some remarks of Niebuhr on the ^Eneid (Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 149. ed. Phil. 1835), and of 
Dunlop, (Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. 3d. ed. Lond. 1828) are given in Anthon's Lempriere, under 
JEneis. 

26* 



306 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 363. Quintus Horatius Flaccus a native of Venusia, a municipal town in 
Apulia, was born in the year B. C. 65. He passed the greater part of his life 
at his country seat in the Sabine or Tiburtine territory, and died B. C. 8. He 
was a particular favorite of Augustus and Maecenas. His moral character has 
often been censured ; the best defence of him, that has been made, is by Les- 
sing. The greatest power of Horace was in lyric poety. His four books of 
Odes and look of Epodes, now extant, continue still to be surpassing models 
in this species of composition. In his Satires and poetical Epistles there 
reigns a noble earnestness seasoned with the most refined pleasantry and hu- 
mor. Of the Epistles, that addressed to the Pisos, on the Art of Poetry, is the 
most finished and instructive. — The most noted of the earlier interpreters of 
Horace are Acron and Porphyrio (§ 421). 

1. When Horace was at the age of 9 or 10, his father, who was a freedman, 
and in low circumstances, removed to Rome, in order to afford his son advan- 
tages for study. At the age of 21, Horace was sent to Athens for the purpose 
of completing his education. He was a pupil at the Academy, but the Epicu- 
rean philosophy was more congenial to his feelings. "When Brutus and Cas- 
sius attempted to restore the republic, Horace with others of the Roman youth, 
then studying at Athens', joined their standard. He was at the Battle of Phi- 
lippi and shared in the defeat and flight of the party. Virgil was a kind friend 
and recommended him to the notice of Maecenas. Horace soon was admitted 
to the intimate society both of Maecenas and Augustus. He survived the death 
of the former but a few months. 

J. Masson, Vita Horatii. Lugd. Bat. 1708. 8. — L. Walch, Horaz, als Mensch und Burger &c. 

from the Dutch of Rich. Van Ommeren. Lips. 1802. 8 G. F. Seiz, G>. Horatius Flac. nach 

Seinen Leben und Dichtungen. Norimb. 1815. 8. — J. H. M. Ernesti, Parerga Horatiana, qui- 
bus continenter vita etc. Hal. Sax. 1818. — The life of Horace ascribed to Suetonius is found 
in many of the editions of Horace. — Respecting the residence of the poet, Anthon's Inquiry 
relative to the Tiburtine Villa and Sabine Farm, p. 9 of his ed. below cited. Lessing's de- 
fence of Horace (Rettungen des Horaz) is found in his Fermischt. Schriften (Miscellaneous Wri- 
tings). Berl. 1784. 8. — Cf. M. Aug. Weichert, Commentatio de Q,. Hor. Flac. obtrectatoribus. 
Grimm. 1821. 4. — P. F. Boost, Untersuchung iiber eine Anklage des Q,. Horatius Flaccus. 
Frankft. 1807. 8. — Klotzius (Kloti), Lectiones Venusinas. Lips. 1770. 8. 

2. " The lyric poetry of Horace displays an entire command of all the 
graces and powers of metre. Elegance and justness of thought, and felicity 
of expression, rather than sublimity, seem to be its general character, though 
the poet sometimes rises to considerable grandeur of sentiment and imagery. 
In variety and versatility his lyric genius is unrivalled by that of any poet 
with whom we are acquainted." Elton (a). — The odes of Horace are of a 
very miscellaneous character, and not capable of being reduced to any system- 
atic classification ; yet most of them may be included in a division into four 
classes, which has been proposed; viz. Amatory, Convivial, Moral, and Polit- 
ical. By far the greatest number will come under the first class. Dunlop (b). 

(a). In his Specimens of the Classic Poets. — (b). In his Rom. Lit. 3d vol. ed. Lond. 1828. 

Cf. Ch. A. Kloti. Defelici audacia Horatii. Jenee 1761, found also in Classical Journal, vol. xm. — 
On the Ivrical poety of Horace, see also Manso's remarks in Charakt. d. vorn. Dichter, vol. v. 

p. 301-334. — Scholl, Hist, de la Litt. Rom. i. p. 322. — Schombcrg, as cited § 362. 6 On 

his Satires and Epistles, Manso in the Charaktere &x. vol. iv. p. 409-496. Cf. vol. vi. 395. — 
O. Lud. Konig, D. Satira Romana. Oldenb. 1796. 8. — D. C. Morgenstern, De Satire atque 
Epistolae Horatianas discrimine. Lips. 1801. 4. — Boscawcn, in his translation below cited. — 
Cf. Suiter's Allg. Theorie &c. iv. 142. 

3. There has been much discussion among the learned respecting the real 
design of Horace in the Letter to the Pisos which has borne the title of the 
"Art of Poetry," from the time of Quintilian. One of the most celebrated 
theories is that of Hurd, who considers the whole piece as referring solely to 
the drama, and forming a regular and connected treatise on the subject. Wic- 
land, and other modern critics, interpret it as not being restricted to the drama 
exclusively, and as chiefly designed to dissuade the elder son of Piso from de- 
voting himself to poetry. 

Cf. Sclidll, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. p. 305. — Dr. Hard's Commentary and Notes on the Art of Po- 
etry (with Latin text). Camb. 1757. 2 vols. 8. transl. inta German by J. J. Eschenburg. Lips. 
1772. 2 vols. 8. — Wieland's German translation of the Epistles, with Introductions and Notes. 
Lpz. 1787. 1818. 2 vols. 8. — 6. Colman, The Art of Poetry, Translated from Horace, with 
Notes. Lond. 1783. 4.—C. G. Schreiter, De Horatio Platonis aemulo (ejusque epistolae ad Piso- 
nes cum hujus Phaedro comparatione). Lips. 1789. 4. — Jerome de Bosch, vol. 4. p. 139 of his 
Greek Anthology (P. I. $ 35). Cf. H. C. A. Eichstddt, censura novissimarum obs. in Hor. Epist. 
ad»Pisones. Jenas, 1st Prog. 1810. 2d Prog. 1811. fol. — Hieron. (Jer.) de Bosch, Cans Secundas 
in Hor. Epist. ad Pisones. Jenae, 1812, fol. — C. G. Schelle, Q. Hor. Flac. de Arte Poetica liber, 
prsemissa disput. de consilio etc. Lips. 1806. 8. 



POETS. HORACE. OVID. 307 

4. Editions. — One of the best is T. W. Daring's. Lips. 1824. 2 vols. 8. Reprinted Glasgow, 
1826. 8. — That of C. Fea. Rome, 1811. 2 vols. 8. is highly commended by some (cf. Klvgling's 
Suppl. p. 196) but less approved by others {Dibdin, it. 121) ; the reprint by F. H. Bothc. Heidelb. 
1820. 2 vols. 8. is considered preferable. — That of Baxter (Lond. 1725) as improved by Gessner 
(Lpz. 1752) and Zeune (Lpz. 1815) and especially F. H. Bothe. Lpz. 1822. 8. is well spoken of.— 
Among the editions which have been highly celebrated, R. Bcntley. Amst. 1728. 4. (first publ. 
Cambr. 1711). — Cuningamius {Cunningham, bitter opponent of Bentley). Lond. 1721. 2vols.8. — 
Cruquius. Antw. 1611. 4. — D. Lambinus. Par. 1567. 1596. fol. — Geo. Fabricius. Bas. 1555. 
2 vols. fol. with the commentaries of Acron and Porphyrio and others. — The supposed Prin- 
ceps is a 4to vol. without printer's name, date or place of publication. — Above 600 editions of 
Horace have been printed. — In our country there have been three impressions of the Delphin 
edition (Z. Desprez. Par. 1691. 4) ; stereotyped Phil. 1823.8. This is valuable chiefly for its Inr- 
dex Vocabulorum ; the notes, in Latin, are often very good ; the text is not approved. — The 
edition of B. A. Gould. Bost. 1831. 12. has been much used in schools; the exceptionable 
parts of the original being omitted. — That of C. Anthon. N. York, 1830. 8. has been ranked 
-amojig the best editions of Horace. It contains full notes, with valuable prolegomena and ex- 
cursuses. Cf. Jlmer. Quart. Rev. vol. vm. p. 72. Valuable editions of the Odes alone ; C. 

D. Jani. Lpz. (ed. Schdfer) 1809. 2 vols. 8. — C. W. Mitscherlich. Lpz. 1800. 2 vols. 8. — C 
Vonderbourg, Latin and French. Par. 1812. 2. vols. 

5. Translations. — German. — Best, of whole works, J. H. Voss. Brunsw. (2d. ed.) 1820. 
2 vols. 8. — Of Odes, Ramler. Berl. 1800. 2 vols. 8. — Of Epistles and Satires, Wieland, Lpz. 

1818. 1819. 4 vols. 8. French.— whole, Darn, verse. Par. (5th ed.) 1820. 4 vols. 8. — And, 

Dacicr, prose. Par. 1681. 10 vols. 12. often reprinted ; now esteemed less than formerly. — 

Sanadon, prose. Par. 1728. 8 vols. 12. — Vanderbourg above cited. English. — Verse, Rev. 

Phil. Francis. Lond. (7th ed.) 1773. 4 vols. 8. ed. by Du Bois. 1807.— Chr. Sm art, prose. 
Lond. 1767. — Watson, prose. Lond. (5th ed.) 1792. 2 vols. 8. containing Dr. Douglas's cata- 
logue of about 500 editions of Horace ; this gentleman, a physician in the lime of George II., 
had a curious library consisting wholly of editions and translations of Horace. — W. Boscawen, 

verse. Stockd. 1793-97. 2 vols. 8. Some years ago, a translation of Horace into Hebrewwas 

announced as about to be printed in Germany (Anthon's Hor. p. 95). 

6. Illustrative. — H. Wagner, Carmina Horatii Collatione Scriptorum Graecorum illustrata, 
Halae, 1770, 71. — Cf. Anthon's Originality of Hor. p. xxxi. of his ed. above cited. — /. E. Imm. 
Walchius, Diss, de philosophia Horatii Stoica. Jense, 1764. — P. F. A. Nitsch, Vorlesungen iiber 
die klassischen Dichter der RSmer. Lips. 1792. 4 vols. 8. — Henrici Progr. de Graeca dictione 
poeseos Horatii lyrics ornatrice. Witteb. 1791. 4. — Gaillard in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vok 
xlix. p. 262. — J. A. Wendel, Vorlesungen iiber die Horazischen Oden und Epoden. Cob, 
1825. 8. 

§ 364. Publius Ovidius Naso, of Sulmo in the territory of the Peligni, was 
of an equestrian family. He nourished in the reign of Augustus, and died 
A. D. 16. His personal history is given by himself (Trist. L. iv. Ed. 10). — 
The most remarkable incident is his banishment from Rome to Tomi on the 
coast of Thrace; the real cause of which cannot be certainly determined. As 
a poet, he is distinguished especially by a very fertile imagination and a live- 
ly blooming wit ; this, however, too often degenerates into wantonness, and 
thus detracts from the just expression of feeling. He also had the talent for 
easy and agreeable versification. His largest and most beautiful poem is the 
Metamorphoses, or mythical transformations, in five books. Besides these, we 
have from him 21 pieces styled Heroides ; 3 books on the Art of love (de Arte 
amandi) ; 3 books of amatory Elegies (Amores) ; 1 book on the Remedy for 
love (De Remedio Amoris) ; 6 books styled Fasti, a poetical description of the 
Roman festivals in the first half of the year; 5 books of elegiac Complaints 
(Tristia) ; 4 books of Epistles (Epistola e Ponto) ; and some doubtful smaller 
pieces. Of his lost productions the tragedy entitled Medea seems to have 
been the most important. 

1. Ovid was at an early age brought to Rome with an elder brother to be 
educated for an orator and civilian. He had a preference for poetry, but by 
the wish of his father studied and practiced according to the usual methods in 
the rhetorical schools at Rome under eminent teachers. He afterwards went 
to Athens. Subsequently he visited the chief cities of Asia, with JEmilius 
Macer, and afterwards spent some months at Syracuse in Sicily. On his re- 
turn to Rome he for a short time engaged in legal and civil business, but soon 
renounced it for the service of the muses. Horace and Propertius were his fa- 
miliar friends. He enjoyed the favor of Augustus for many years, until very 
suddenly, at the age of 51, he was banished. Ovid had adopted and practical- 
ly followed the Epicurean philosophy. He betrayed much weakness of char- 
acter under his banishment, and employed much adulation to procure a recal, 
but in vain. He died at Tomi at the age of 60. 

J.Masson, Vita Ovidii. Amstel. 1708. 8. — Aug. S. Gerber, Ovids Schicksale w'ahrend seiner 
Verbannung. Rigse, 1809. 8. — Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. in. — Rosmini, Vita di Public 
Ovidio Xasone. Ferrarre, 1789. 8. 

2. Different conjectures have been formed respecting the cause of Ovid's ban- 



308 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

ishment. The ostensible reason was the licentious tendency of his poetry ; 
but the true reason was something else. Some of the earlier critics imagined 
that it was because Ovid cherished an illicit attachment for Julia the daughter 
of Augustus. Dryden conjectured, that Ovid had intruded into the bath of 
Livia, the wife of Augustus. Tiraboschi supposed that Ovid had observed ac- 
cidentally some instance of gross immorality in Julia the emperor's daughter. 
Scholl adopts the idea that it was because Ovid had witnessed some scene, 
which revealed to him a state secret relating to the domestic jealousies in the 
family of Augustus. 

See Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. 240.— R. Ouvens, Noctes Hagaiue. Franek. 1780. 4. (lib. ir- 
c. 5). — Cf. Harles, Suppl. ad Brev. Notil. Litt. Rom. I. P. p. 445. — Bayeux, in his translation, 
below cited. 

3. The Metamorphoses of Ovid were chiefly derived from Greek books, 
which are lost; the work is highly valuable as a record of ancient mythology. 
The Fasti may be viewed as a sort of continuation of the Metamorphoses, fur- 
nishing a store of information respecting the superstitions of the Romans and 
the Greeks. 

J. W. L. Mellman, Comment, de causis et auctoribus narrationum de mutatis formis. Lips. 
1766. 8. — The Metamorphoses ; With AbbeBanier's Explanation of the History of Mythology, 

in English. Lond. 1747. 8. Qbbe Banier, Remarques &c. in his translation below cited. — 

Gierig, Diss, on the Fasti and Metam. in his editions below cited. — Edw. Gibbon, in his Mis- 
cellaneous Works, (cited § 362. 6). — Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. 266. — Bohr, Gesch. Rom. Liu 
p. 171. — F. H. G. Gesenius, Symbols observationum in Ovidii Fastos. Alton. 1806.8. — Rob. 
Hooke, Physical Explanations of several Fables in Ovid's Metamorphoses &c. in his works ed. 
by Rich. Waller. Lond. 1705. 8. 

4. Other pieces ascribed to Ovid, besides those already named, are the Ibis, the Halieutica, on 
Fishes, and the Medicamina Faciei, or means of preserving beauty. The Ibis, or Dirce in Ibis, is a 
poem of above 600 lines, a sort of imprecation upon an ungrateful friend (cf. § 345), supposed to 
be directed against Hyginus ; and written during the author's exile. The genuineness of the 
Halieutica is doubted. Of the third, a mere fragment remains. An Elegy entitled Nux has also 
been ascribed to Ovid, but its claims to such an authorship are doubted. — There are several 
productions that have been falsely ascribed to Ovid (Supposita Ovidio) ; among them, three books 
entitled de Vetula, fabricated in the middle ages, and said to have been brought from the tomb 
of Ovid to Constantinople. Cf. Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. i. 463-469. — Harles, Supplem. aS 
Brev. Not. i. 478. 

The name of Aldus Sabinus should be mentioned here. He was a contemporary and friend 
of Ovid. He commenced a work, which death hindered his finishing, entitled Dies, and which 
perhaps suggested to Ovid the idea of his Fasti. Sabinus composed three Epistles in answer to 
three of Ovid's Epistolce Heroidum; which are commonly published with those of Ovid ; and 
some critics have considered Sabinus as the author of six of the twenty-one in the collection 
commonly ascribed to Ovid. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 345. 

5. Editions.— Whole Works.— Best ; P. Burmann. Amst. 1727. 4. vols. 4. Oxf. 1825. 5 vols. 8w 
with selected notes. — J. A. Amar. Par. 1820 ss. 9 vols. 8. in Lemairc's Bibl. — Ch. W. Metscher- 

lich. Gbtt. 1819. 2. vols. 8. Good. — JV. Heinsius. Amst. 1661. 3 vols. 12. — J. F. Fischer. 

Lpz. 1758. 2 vols. 8. — Bipontine. Argent. 1811. 3. vols. 8. Princeps. lioguidi. Bonon. 

1471. fol. no perfect copy known to exist. Metamorphoses. — G. E. Gierig. Lpz. 1806. 

2 vols. 8. 3d ed. irnpr. by J. C. Jahn. Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. — E. C. Ch. Bach. Han. 1832-36. 
2 vols. 8. — Fasti. — G. E. Gierig. Lpz. 1812-14. 2 vols. 8. — Tristia and Epistolse e Ponto. — 
J. J. Oberlin. Strasb. 1778. 8. — Epistolte Heroidum. — D. J. Van Lennep, 2d ed. Amst. 1812, 

12. — Amores. — Ch. G. Wemsdorf. Helmst. 1788. 2 vols. 8. Numerous editions of the 

Metamorphoses and of selections from Ovid have been published for schools. — We mention 
B. A. Gould, Excerpta ex scriptis P. Ovidii nasonis. Bost. 1835. 8. 

6. Translations. — German.— Whole works, by JV. G. Eichhoff. Frankf. 1796—1823. 5 vols. 8v 

— Metamorphoses, by J. II. Voss. Bed. 1798. Brunsw. 1829. 2 vols. 8. French. — Whole' 

works, by Fran, de Pompignan. Par. 1799. 7 vols. 8. — Metamorphoses, Abbe Banier, (avec des 
Remarques et des explications, & figures gravees). Par. 1767—1771. 4 vols. 4. — G. Th. Villc- 
ncuve. Par. 1806. 4 vols. 8.— Fasti.— F. Desaintange (de St. Ange), verse. Par. 1804.2. vols. 8.— 

Bayeux, avec des Recherches d' Histoire &c. Par. 1783-88. 4 vols. 8. lialian. — G. SolarL 

Gen. 1815. 3 vols. 8. English.— Fasti, W. Massey, verse. Lond. 1757. 8. not highly approved. 

— Tristia, J. Sterling, (Lat. & Engl). Lond. 1752. 8. — Heroides, J. Ewen, verse. Lond. 1787. 
8. — Cf. Suher, Allg. Theor. n. p. 572.— Metamorphoses, bv Pope, Gay, Philips, Sf others. Lond. 
1732. 12. — Jos. Davidson, prose. Lond. 1759. 8. — Cf. Sulier, n. p. 123. — A. Golding. Lond. 
1575. — Cf. Warton's Eng. Poetrv, iv.235, of ed. cited $359. 2. — JV. Bailey, Lat. & Engl, with 

notes. Lond. 1822. 8. There is a Greek version of the Metamorphoses, made by Manuel 

Planudes, first published by Boissonade. Par. 1822. 

7. Illustrative. — Edm. Burton, Genius and writings of Ovid ; in his Ancient Characters de- 
duced from Classical Remains. Cambr. 1763. 8. — J. Jortin, in Tracts Philological &c. cited 
§ 360. 5. — J. Fr. Pfaffius, De Ortibus et occasibus siderum apud auctores classicos. Gbtt, 
1786. 8. — Manso, on the poetry of Ovid, in the Charaktere d. vorn. Dichter, in. 325. — Gaillard, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 279. 

§ 365. Cornelius Scverus was a poet or rather a versifier of the same period, 
who died very young, B. C. 14. Had he lived longer, it is altogether proba- 
ble that he would have risen to the rank of an acknowledged poet. For in 
the poem entitled JEtna, the only production by him of which we have the 
whole, there are various happy passages, that indicate a lively fancy ; this 



POETS. SEVERUS. PEDO ALBINOVANUS. PUBLIUS SYRUS. 309 

work is by some, however, ascribed to the younger Lucilius. The fragment 
upon the death of Cicero is perhaps a part of his poem on the Sicilian War, of 
which he had completed the first book. 

1. This youth was a friend of Ovid, and is mentioned by Quintilian. (x. 1.) 
as of very promising genius. Ovid alludes to a poem of Severus, which he 
calls carmen regale (Ep. e Pont, iv.) ; of its character and design nothing is 
known. — The JEtna consists of 640 verses, on the eruptions of that volcano. 
Schbll assents to the criticism which ascribes this poem to an author in the 
time of Nero. 

Cf. $ 334, 335. — Schbll, Hist. Litt. Rom. ii. p. 306. — Wernsdorf, vol. 4. of Poet. Lat. MiD. 
cited $ 348. 2. — Schmid, Meinecke &• Jacobs, as cited below. 

2. Editions. In Stcphani Frag. vet. poet, cited $ 348. also in Wernsdorf. above cited, and in 
Lemaire's Poet. Lat. Min. vol. in.— Separately, Th. Cor alius (J. ClericusJ Amst. 1715. 8.—C. A. 
Schmid, fwith Germ. Trans,). Brunsw. 1769. 8. — J. H. F. Meinecke, (with Germ. Trans,)* 
Quedl. 1818. 8. — F. Jacobs. Lips. 1826. 8. ascribing the poem to Lucilius Junior. 

3. Translations. — French. — J. Accarias de Serionne, L' Etna de P. C. S. et les sentences de 
Publ. Syrus traduites etc. Par. 1736. .12. 

§ 366. Caius Pedo Albinovanus, a contemporary and friend of Ovid, is ranked 
among the elegiac poets. There is extant a poem entitled Consolatio ad Liv- 
iam, addressed to Livia Augusta in condolence upon the death of Drusus Ne- 
ro, which is supposed to be from this poet, but which some ascribe to Ovid ; 
there is also a fragment on the voyage of Drusus Germanicus in the North 
sea. His epigrams are lost. Both of the elegies by some attributed to him, 
that on the death of Maecenas (De obitu Macenatis) and that on the last words 
of Maecenas {De Macenate moribundo), do not appear worthy of this author. 

1. Nothing is known of the life of Albinovanus. He seems to have been 
distinguished for his efforts in heroic verse. Ovid applies to him the epithet 
sidereus. The Consolatio ad Liriam, of 64 lines, is preserved in Seneca the 
rhetorician (§ 414), and is considered a production worthy of the Augus- 
tan age. 

Respecting the pieces ascribed to Pedo Albinovanus, cf. Bnrmann, Anthol, Lat. cited $ 248. &. 

— Beck, as below cited (2) —Lion, Msecenatiana. Gbtt. 1824 Schbll, Litt. Rom. i. 342. CC 

Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. i. 376. 

2. All the -pieces are found in some editions of Virgil, among the Catalecta. Also in Lemaire's 
Poet. Lat. Min. vol. 2d & 3d. — Separately, Th. Corallus (i. e. J. Clericus). Amst. 1715. 8 — 
J. H. F. Meinecke, with Germ, trans, in verse. Gluedl. 1819. 8. — The elegies, by /. C. Bremer, 
Helrnst. 1774. 8. — Consolatio adLiviam by Ch. D. Beck. Lpz. 1801. 8. 

§ 367. Gratius Faliscus, a Roman poet of the first century of the Christian 
era, is mentioned by Ovid in his Epistles from Pontus, but by no other an- 
cient writer. We have from him a didactic poem on Hunting (Cynegetica), 
which was first discovered by Sannazaro in France. 

1. From a passage in his poem, Gratius is supposed to have been born in 
the territory of the Falisci. The portion of the poem now extant consists of 
540 lines in hexameter. It is not without merit. There is also a fragment on 
Fishing, which has been ascribed to him. 

Cf. Scheell, Hist Litt. Rom. vol. i. p. 273. — Bdhr, p. 204. — Wernsdorf fy Lcmaire as cited 
below. 

2. Editions. — Princeps, by G. Logus (apud heredes AldiJ. Ven. 1534. 8. with Nemesian &. 
Calpurnius. — It is found in Wernsdorf s Collection fcited § 248,) ; also in Lemaire's Min. Poets, 
vol. i. f cf. § 248,). — See likewise, Poetce Latini ret venaticce Scriptores etc. cited $248. 2. — Cf- 
§ 383. 2. " 

3. Translations. — English — Christ. Wase. The poem of Hunting by Grat. Faliscus ; transk 
into English verse. Lond. 1654. 12. 

§ 363. Publius Sijrus, a Roman slave from Syria, lived in the time of Au- 
gustus. He obtained his liberty on account of his peculiar talents. His Mimes, 
or mimic plays of the kind which Cicero calls ethological or moral, were highly 
valued by the Romans. We have only some detached passages and sentences, 
which are in general recommended by their own moral excellence. 

1. Having obtained celebrity by his representations in the provincial towns 
of Italy, he was invited to Rome to assist in the public spectacles given by 
Caesar. His popularity was very great, and enabled him to live in splendor 
and luxury. The names of none of the Mimes of Publius have been preserved. 
Their nature and subjects are not precisely known. The sentences or max- 
ims now extant are most of them brief, seldom exceeding a single line ;. they 
amount to eight or nine hundred in number. La Bruyere, in his Characteris- 
tics, has made a free use of the maxims of Publius. 
Dunlop, i. p. 332. — Schmll, i. 203. — Bdhr, 116. 



310 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

2. Editions. —Often given in the editions of Phcedrus, e. g. in Bentley's (cited § 372.2). — 
Separately ; J. Gruter fas ed. by S. Havercamp) Lugd. Bat. f LeydenJ 1727. 8.—J. F. Kremsier. 
Lpz. 1809. 8. with the comm. of Erasmus, and Germ, version. — Probably best, J. C OrellL 

Lpz. 1822. 8. with a Supplement Lips. 1824. Cf. Bdhr, p. 776. The yrincevs, Des. Erasmus- 

Bas. 1502. 4. 

3. Translations. — German. — J. L. Schwartz, metrical. G'dtt. 1813. 8 French. — J. Ac~ 

carias de Scrionne, f with the JEtna of P. Corn. SeverusJ. Par. 1736. 12. English. — J. El- 

phinstone, in his Poetce Sententiosi Latini fLat. & EnglJ. Lond. 1794. 12. 

4. There were two writers of Mimes, contemporary with Publius Syrus, 
who may be mentioned here, Decimus Laberius, and Cneius Matius. — Labe- 
rius was a Roman knight, who at the age of sixty was requested by Julius 
Ceesar to act on the stage the Mimes, which he had written merely for amuse- 
ment. Mortified by the preference given by Csesar to Publius, he retired from 
Rome to Puteoli where he died not long after the assassination of Caasar. The 
titles and a few inconsiderable fragments of 43 of his mimes are still extant. 
The principal fragment is the Prologue to the first piece he acted ; it consists 

of 29 lines, preserved by Macrobius. Matius, wrote chiefly in iambic metre, 

whence his pieces were termed Mimiambi. Only a few lines from them are 
preserved. He is said to have translated the Iliad of Homer. 

5. Respecting these writers, cf. Dunlop, i. 330 ss. — Scholl, i. 206. — W. C. L. Ziegler, De 
Mimis Romanorum. Gbtt. 1789. 8. containing the fragments of Laberius 8f Matius — B\ L. Be- 
cker, D. Laberii Mimi Prologus. Lips. 1787. 8. 

§ 369. Marcus Manilius, a native Roman, probably belongs to the age of 
Augustus, but little is known of his history. A poem which has come down 
from him to us, is entitled Astronornicon ; treating of the supposed influence 
of the stars on human destiny. It consists of five books ; the fifth, however, 
is imperfect, and probably was not the last of the poem. It is more valuable 
for the history of astronomy than for poetical merit; to which only a few pas- 
sages, chiefly the introductions to the several books, can hold a claim. The 
obscurity of many passages is owing to the defective state of the manuscripts. 

1. In two verses Manilius speaks of Rome as his own city, but Bentley the 
celebrated English critic, pronounces them both interpolations, and maintains 
that he was born in Asia. Some critics have assigned this writer to an age 
later than that of Augustus. 

Scholl, Hist. Litt. P.om. i. 276.— Pingre, as below cited.— M. Dan. Huber, Observ. in M. Ma~ 
nilii Astronom. Bas. 1789. 4. — Jortin's Tracts &c. cited Q 360. 5. 

2. Editions.— Best ; A. G. Pingre, Par. 1786. 2 vols. 8.— R. Bentley. Lond. 1739. 4. Bent- 
ley's criticisms are opposed in the edition (not highly approved by Harles) of E. Barton, 
Lond. 1783. 8. — Contained also in the Bipontine Virgil. Bip. 1783. 8., and in Lemaire's Poet. 
Lat. Min. vol. vi. — The Prineeps by Jo. Regiomontanus, Norimb. (probably) 1472. 4. 

3. Translations. — French. — By Pingre, in his ed. just cited. English. — Ed. Sherburne. 

(metrical.) Lond. 1675. M.— Thomas Creech (metrical.) Lond. 1697. 8. 

§ 370. C(Bsar Germanicus was grandson to Augustus, being the son of Dru- 
sus who was a son of Livia, the wife of Augustus. He was adopted by Ti- 
berius, but afterwards by command of this emperor, was poisoned at Antioch. 
His bodily and mental endowments are highly celebrated in history. He is 
known as a poet, by his translation of the tpaivotieva of Aratus, and by some 
fragments, particularly of a poem called Diosemeia, or Prognostica. There 
are also some epigrams from him, included among the Catalecta of Virgil. 

1. The name Germanicus was derived from his celebrated victories over 
the Germans. Tiberius was jealous of his popularity, and on this account, 
after calling him from Germany under pretence of granting him a triumph, 
sent him on a military expedition into Syria. Germanicus died at the age of 
35, A. D. 19. — He was well acquainted with Greek letters, and was a good 
orator. We have a considerable fragment of Aratus, accompanied with 
Latin scholia drawn from the Catasterisms of Eratosthenes ; the translation 
is not exact. Of the Diosemeia, four fragments are extant ; it was derived 
from several Greek works of different authors. 

Scholl, i. %7A.—Encyclop. Americana.— L. D. B. (Louis de Beaufort), Histoire de Cesar German- 
Ludg. Bat. 1741. 8.— J. C. Schaubach, De Arati Solensis interpretibus Romanis, Cic, Cces Ger- 
man, et R. F. Avicno, Commentatio. Meining. 1817. 4. 

2. Editions.— .7. C. Schwartz. Coburg. 1715. 8.— Given in Lemaire's Min. Lat. Poet. vol. vi. 
—Prineeps, (with Manilius) Bonon. 1474. fol. 

§ 371*. JEmilius Macer, a native of Verona, was a friend Tibullus and Ovid. 
He died in Asia, B. C. 17. He wrote a poem, entitled Theriaca, an imitation 



POETS. PH^DRUS. PERSIUS. 311 

of that of Nicander (§ 74) ; a poem on birds ( Ornithogonia) ; and another on 
the war of Troy, a completion of the Iliad. The ancients also speak of an- 
nals written by him. A few lines oply are extant of all his works. — Some 
consider the friend of Ovid, and author of the completion of the Iliad, to 
have been a different person from the author of the other pieces. 

1. The poem De Herbarum virtutibus, in 5 books, by some ascribed to Macer, is a production 
of the middle ages.— Of. Bdhr, p. 176, 202. 

2. Editions.— The fragments of Macer are given in Mattaireh Op. et Fragm. vet. Poet. Lat. 
vol. u-— Cf. Wcmsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min. vol", iv. — The fullest edition of the De Herb. Virtuti- 
bus, (cum G. Pictorii expositionej. Bas. 1581. 8. 

§ 372. Phcedrus, according to the common account a native of Thrace, and 
a freedman of Augustus, is celebrated for his five books of JEsopian Fables. 
They are in Iambic verse of six feet, related with much natural ease and Sim- 
plicity. Notwithstanding the slightness of the accounts we have of him, and 
the silence of the ancient authors concerning him, his existence cannot justly 
be questioned, as has been done by some. 

1. Phasdrus is not mentioned by any ancient writer, unless by Martial (iii. 
20), down to the time of Avienus ; and all that is known of him is drawn 
from his own writings. His fables were unknown till 1595, when Fr. Pithou, 
discovered a copy in the library of St. Remy at Rheims and sent the manu- 
script to his brother Pet. Pithou, who published the first edition. This is sup- 
posed to be the only manuscript in existence, another at Rheims having been 
consumed by fire in 1774. But there is a manuscript of Nicolas Perotto (who 
was archbishop of Manfredonia, about the middle of the 15th century), con- 
taining a collection of fables for his nephew, which includes all those that 
bear the name of Phsedrus. Prof. Christ, of Leipzig, in two treatises, pub- 
lished in 1746 and 1747, questions the existence of Phsedrus, and ascribes the 
fables to Perotto. 

ScJioll, Hist. Litt. Rom. n. 343-348.—/. F. Christ, De Phsedro ejusque fabulis Prolusio. Lips. 
1746. 4. — /. JV. Funk, (Fanccius), Apologia pro Phaedro. Rintel. 1747. — Christ, (in answer to 
Funccius) Expositio ad eruditos etc. Lips. 1747. 8. — Schwabe, in his ed. below cited. 

2. Editions.— Best ; J. G. S. Schwabe. Bruns. 1806. 2 vols. 8. containing also the fables of 
Romulus. This is the basis of the ed. by Valpy. Lond. 1822. 8. — T. B. de Xiorey. Par. 1830. 
8. — That of P. Burmann. Leyd. 1727. 4. is celebrated.— Deserving of mention also, R. Bentley. 
Lond. 1726. 4. with Terence and the Mimes of Syrus. Cf. Fr. Hare, Epistola Critica etc. 
Lond. 1726. A.—Dibdin, n. 281.— A good school edition, W. Lange. Halle. 1823. 8.— <5 C. J. 
Hoffmann. Bed. 1836. 8. Princcvs, by Pithanis (Pithou), Augustod. Tricass. 1596. 12. 

3. Translations. — German. — C. A. Vogelsang, metrical, 2d ed. Lpz. 1823. 8. ^ceteris facile 

falmam praecipit, Klvgling). -French. — J. B. Gail. Par. 1798. 4 vols. 12. with iEsop and 
.a Fontaine. English. — Th. Dyche. Lond. 1715. 8. — Stirling. Lond. 1771. 8. — J. P. Satt- 

Ur, iambic verse. Norimb. 1798. 12. 

4. Illustrative.— J. F. Gruner, Spicilegium Observ. ad Phaedri priores librosduo. Jenae, 
1745. A.— Th. J. A. Schvtz, Obs. crit. in Phaedrum. Laub. 1770. 8.— L. Horstel, Grammatisches 
Lexicon, fiber den Phaadrus. Lips. 1808. 8.— Jacobs, Lat. Fabulisten, in Charaktere d. vorn, 
Dichter, vi. 29. 

5. In 1808, a supplement to Phasdrus was published at Naples by Casitto, consisting of 32 
fables, found by him in the manuscript of Perrotto above mentioned, which was deposited in 
the Royal library at that city. About 30 of the fables however had been discovered in the 
same manuscript by J. Ph. Dorville, and by him transcribed and submitted to Burmann, be- 
fore the publication of his edition of Phasdrus. Burmann viewed them as spurious. Cf. Pref. 
to his ed. below cited. Dorvillc^s copy seems to have been long forgotten, but at length it 
came into the hands of Prof. Eichstddt at Jena, and was used by him in preparing his edition 
of the new fables in 1812. In 1811, the discovery of the same fables was claimed by Janelli 

or GianelU, in an edition of the manuscript of Perrotto. Klvgling, Suppl. to Harles, p. 285. 

— Eichstddt, Phaedri quae feruntur Fabulre xxxii. etc. Jen. 1812. fol. denying their genuine- 
ness ; which is defended in the ed. entitled Phcedri Fabulae novae et veteres, etc. Par. 1812. 8. 
— Theed. of Janelli is entitled Coder Perrottinus, etc. Naples, 1811. 8. In the same year, Ca- 
sitto published his 3d edition. — Cf. Vanderbourg. on the fables lately ascribed to Phasdrus &c. 
Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d' Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. vm. p. 316.-^3. Mai, Fabulae novas xxxn. e 
cod. Vaticano redintegratae, &x. Zurici, 1832. 8. 

§ 373. Aulus Persius Flaccus, a native of Voltenae in Etruria was a pupil 
of the Stoic Anneeus Cornutus, about A. D. 50. He died in the 28th year of 
his age. We have from him only six satires, and Quintilian speaks of him 
only as author of one book of satires, by which however he has acquired, 
much celebrity. They are specially remarkable as containing earnest and 
impressive castigations of the then prevalent corruption of morals, enforced 
with rather more of Stoic severity than of true poetic spirit. The frequent 
allusions and references to peculiarities of his own age render many passages 
obscure to us; and this difficulty is the greater because the style in general is 
concise and hard. 



312 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

1. Persius is said to have commenced his studies at Rome at the age of 12. 
A fine personal appearance and an excellent character are ascribed to him ; 
his health was delicate. On his death, A. D. 62, he left his library of 700 
volumes and a sum of money, to his preceptor Cornutus ; who accepted, how- 
ever, only the books. — Cornutus, from regard to the reputation of his pupil, 
advised the mother of Persius to destroy all his writings except the satires, 
which were committed to Ccesius Bassus, himself a lyric poet, for the purpose 
of publication. 

Respecting the character and poetry of Persius, cf. Scholl, n. 313. — Sells, Dissertation sur 
Perse. Par. 1783. 8. — Fr. Passow, Ueber das Leben und die Scriften das Persius, in his ed. 
below cited. — Manso's Character &c. in Charaktcre d. vorn Dichter, vi. 81. — Gamier in the 
Mem. de PAcad. des Inscrvpt. vol. xlv. 

2. Editions. — Persius is very commonly printed with Juvenal. Separately, Best ; G. L. 
Kanitr. Gbtt. 1804. 8. (with a commentary in separate volume) — Basis of that by A. J. Valpy. 
Lond. 1820. 8.—F. Plum. Havn. 1827. 8.— § F. Diibner, Lips. 1833. 8.—Achaintre. Par. 1812. 
8. — In Lemaire , s Coll. That of Casaubon. Par. 1605. 8. celebrated for Casaubon'' s Commen- 
tary. Repub!. Lond. 1647. 8.—Princeps, by Uldaricus Gallus, probably Rome, 1468 or 70. small 
fol. (Fuhrmann). 

3. Translations.— German. — Franz. Passow, metrical, with Lat. text. Lpz. 1809. 8. — J. Fr. 

Wagner. Ltineb. 1811. 8. -French.— Sells, metrical. Par. 1775.— P. Pletre. Par. 1800. 8.— 

Raoul. Par. 1812. 8. Italian.— Marc. Aurel. Soranus. Ven. 1778. 8. English.— Dryden. 

Lond. 1693. fol. with Juvenal.— E. Oioen. Lond. 1786. 8 — W. Drummond. Lond. 1798. 8.— 
Also by Sheridan, by Gifford, and by Madan. Cf. § 380. 4. 

§ 374. Lucius Annmus Seneca, son of the rhetorician M. A. Seneca (§ 414), 
flourished about the middle of the 1st century, and was celebrated as a philoso- 
pher. He was a native of Corduba in Spain, but was removed to Rome while 
yet a child. After many vicissitudes he became the instructor of the emperor 
Nero, by whom he was finally sentenced to death, under the charge of having 
participated in the conspiracy of Piso. Seneca was allowed the privilege of 
determining himself the mode of his execution, and chose to have his veins 
opened ; but as the blood did not readily flow, he took poison (cf. § 469. 1). 
That he was a poet is well known from the testimony of other writers. The 
ten tragedies which are ascribed to him, are certainly in part the production 
of others, as their style is extremely unequal. The last of them, entitled Oc- 
tavia, cannot be from him, as is evident from its subject and contents. In 
general, these pieces are far removed from the noble simplicity of the Greek 
tragedies, and are defective in plan and execution, although by no means des- 
titute of particular beauties. 

1. The tragedies ascribed to Seneca have afforded for the critics much mat- 
ter of debate, on the question of their genuineness and their merits. Among 
the testimonies that Seneca was a poet, are Quintilian {Inst. Or. x.) and 
Tacitus (Ann. x-iv. 52). "Lipsius maintained that the Medea, regarded by him 
as the best of the 10 tragedies, was the genuine production of Seneca the phi- 
losopher ; but that the other 9 were from another Seneca who lived in the 
time of Trajan. The majority of critics attribute to the philosopher not only 
the Medea, but also Hippolyfris, Agamemnon, and The Trojans (Troas or Tro- 
udes) ; and some consider the last as the best tragedy. The six other pieces, 
Hercules Furcns, Thyestes, Tliebais or Phcenissae, (JEdipus, Hercules (Etceus, 
and Octavia, they do not regard as being the work of one poet; but think them 
to have proceeded from several authors, and to have been added to those of 
Seneca by copyists. The last mentioned, Octavia, is the only one constructed 
of materials furnished by Roman history, and is an instance of the fabula to- 
gata (cf. § 316) ; all the others are founded in Greek traditions." In this 
piece Nero is introduced as a speaker, and in one^assage (vs. 732) there seems 
to be a plain allusion to the mode of his death. 

Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. n. 267. — H. G. Pilgramm, De vitiis tragoediarum, qua? vulgo Seneca? 
tribuuntur. Gbtt. 1765. 4. — Schlegel, Lect. on Dramat. Literature. — J. G. C. Klotzsch, De An- 
naso Seneca, uno tragoediarum qua? supersunt omnium auctore. Viteb. 1802. 8.~~Beck, in Pref. 
to his ed. below cited. — F. Jacobs, in the Charakt. d. v. Dichter iv. 332. — ./. Jortln, Remarks on 
Seneca, in Tracts &x. cited §330.5. — J.J.Scaliger, Animadv. crit. in his Opuscula. Par.1610. 4. 

2. There is extant a satirical piece ascribed to Seneca, entitled ' A-no/.olo- 
r.vvxoiOiQ (Metamorphosis of a Gourd), or more properly Ludus de morte Claudii. 
It is a mock Apotheosis, a satire on the emperor Claudius, partly in prose and 
partly in verse ; considered as unworthy of Seneca, and probably spurious. 
Several epigrams are found also in his name, but they are not received as gen- 
uine. — The Prose writings of Seneca are noticed in another place (§ 442, 
469). 



POETS. SENECA, LUCAN. VALERIUS ELACCUS. 318 

3. Editions. — Whole Works, see S 469. 4. — Tragedies.— Best, Fr. H. Botlic. "Lyj.. 1819. 
3 vols. S.— TorkM Baden. Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. — Noted among the earlier, J. C. Schrceder. Del- 
phis (Delft), 1728. 4. — J. Fr. Gronovius. Amst. 1682. 8. [This is call"ed by Dibdin a reprint of 
the 3d edit, of the Variorum, Lug. Bat. 1651 ; it has an engraved frontispiece representing the 
subjects of the several plays. [ have before me a copy of it, which was given in the year 1694 
to a pupil of the Gymnasium of Doit (Gymnasu Dordraceni) as a " Premium literarium.'''' ( li boni 
perfects sui hostimsntiim") ; the testimonial is in a printed Latin formula, with the actual sig- 
natures of the Examiners and Rector ; on the outside of the cover is an impression in gold leaf 
representing the goddess of letters, with her ancient symbols, in the act of presenting a book 
of modern form, surmounted by the inscription Minerva Dordracena.] — Plantin, Antw. 1588.8. 

- — Qldus. Ven.1517. 8. — Princeps. A.Gallus, Ferrara, 1484. fol. Of single plays we can only 

mention here Hercules, T. Baden. 1798. 8. — T h v e s t e s , Fr. Horn, with Germ, version. 
Penig. 18')2. 8. — M e d e a , Charles Beck. (Prof. Lat. in Harv. Un.) Bost. 1834. ]8. — The epi- 
grams and the Satire are. found in some of the editions of the Tragedies ; also in the editions of 
whole works. — The Satire C Ludus &.C.), Fr. Ch. JYcubur, Lat. & Germ. Lpz. 1729. 8. It Was 
first published about 1515 by Rhenar.us (cf. the J^Totiti a Liter aria, of the Bipont edition of Seneca, 
p. lix). — Fr. E. Guascus. Vercell. 1787. 8. — Cf. Dan. Hcinsius, De Senecee ApocQlocyntosi, 
in his Orationes. Lugd. Bat. 1627.8. 

4. Translations. — German. — J. W. Rose, in his Tragische BHhne, cited § 312. French. 

— L. Coupe", Theatre de Seneque. Par. 1796. 2 vols. 8. — J. J. Rousseau, of the Ludus de morte 
Claudii, in his Works, cited P. I. $ 12. 1. vol. 14th. — - Entrlish. — Studley, Heywood, Sf others. 
Lond. 1581. See an account of this curious version in T. Warton s s Hist. Eng. Poetry, p. 205, 
vol. l v. ed> Lond. 1824. — Fr. Sherburne* Lond. 1708. 8. — Agamemnon, Blackmore, in his 
Miscellaneous Poems. 1718. 8. 

§ 375. Marcus Annceus Lucanus, a poet of the 1st century, was a native of 
Corduba. He was born A. D. 38, and died A. D. 65. His father was a brother 
of Seneca the philosopher. Nero was jealous of his poetical talents ; and Lu- 
can, having taken part in a conspiracy against Nero, was by him condemned 
to die. The subject of his poem entitled Pharsalia, in 10 books, is the civil 
war between Caesar & Pompey, which was terminated by the battle fought in 
the plain of Pharsalia. It is historical rather than epic ; too strictly limited to 
real occurrences, and too uniform in the style of narrative. But it contains 
excellent delineations of character, and finely wrought speeches. 

1. Lucan was educated at B-ome and Athens. At the early age of 14, he 
was accustomed to declaim in Greek and Latin verse. By his uncle Seneca, 
the preceptor of Nero, he was brought into some intimacy with that prince. 
Nero bestowed on him the offices of qucsstor and augur. Lucan imprudently 
became a competitor with the prince in a poetical contest, and received the 
prize ; but he was soon forbidden to declaim again in public. This perhaps 
instigated him to join the party of Piso. Lucan is charged by Tacitus (Ann. 
Xv. 56; with having betrayed his mother Anicia as an accomplice in the con- 
spiracy, for the sake of propitiating the favor of Nero. But he did not thus 
secure his own life ; Nero only allowed him to choose the mode of his death. 
He left a widow named Polla Argentaria, highly praised for her character. 

Schbll, Hist. Litt. Rom. n. 286.— The Life of Lucan, ascribed to Suetonius, is found in several 
editions ; also in some another Life drawn from a very ancient commentary.— Cf. Murphy, Note 
lo Tac. Ann. xv. 56. containing an apology for Lucan. 

2. We have the titles of several pieces by Lucan, which have perished ; among which are, 
Saturnalia, Burning of Rome, Medea, an unfinished tragedy, and Combat of Hector fy Achilles, 
composed at the age of 12. — There is extant a poem in 261 verses, containing a Eulogy on Piso, 
author of the conspiracy against Nero, which has been ascribed by some to Lucan, by others to 
Ovid, but by m<»st critics to Saleius Bassus. 

Sclwll, ii. 292. — Fabricius, vol. n. p. 151.— Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min. 4th vol. — Lemaire, Poet. 

Lat. Min. 3d vol. Respecting Lucan's work*, see also the C'tnrakt. d. v. Dichter vii. 340. — 

G. Meusel, Diss, de Lucani Phars-Uiis. Halm, 1768. 4 G. JVaddel, Animadvers. criticae &c. 

Edinb.1734. 8. — Jortin, as cited § 360. 5. — Marmontcl, in Preface to his transl. below cited. — 
La Harpe, in his Melanges Litteraires. Par. 1765. 12.— H. Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric &c. lect. 
xliii. 

3. Editions. — Best, C. F. Weber. Lpz. 1821-31. 3 vols. 8. On the basis of G. Corte. Lpz. 
1726. 8. which was published before the editor's plan was completed (Dibdin ii. 186) R. Bent- 
ley (published by his grandson R. Cumberland, after B.'s death). Strawberry-Hill, 1760. 4. cele- 
brated for its beauty chiefly (D.biin). Reimpr. Gla=g.l8!6. 8. — Noted among the earlier, P. 
Burmann. Lucrd. Bat. 1740. 4. The text of Btirnrinn is partly fallowed in the Bipontine. Strassb. 
(Argent.) 1807. 8. — Fr. Oudendorp. Leyd. 1728. 4. — H. Grotius. Ant. 1614. 8. Grotius was a 
great admirer of Lucan, and is said to have carried a copy always with him (semper in sinu). — 
The Princeps, by Smeynheym fy Pannartz (print.) Rom. 14^9. fol. 

4. Translations. — German. — Ph. L. Hints. Mannh. 1792. 2 vols. 8.— Ci. B. H. Pistorius, 

(7th book, describing the battle). Perl. 18)2. 8. French — J. F. Marmontel fprosej. Par. 

1766. 2 vols. 8. also in his (Euvrcs Completes. English — * Ntc. Rowc (verse). Lond. 1718. 

fol. 1807. 3 vols, 12. 

§ 376. Caius Valerius Flrrccvs, probably a native of Patavium (Padua), lived 
in the reign of Vespasian and Dimitian, nnd died while younor. A D 88 — 
After 4,he example of Apollonius P-hodius f§ 73), he selected the Argonautic 

27 



314 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

expedition as the subject of an epic poem, of which 8 books are now extant. 
The conclusion of the 8th book is wanting; and the work probably included 
several other books. The general tenor of this poem is not sufficiently anima- 
ted and interesting ; and the style is also frequently obscure and abrupt. — ■ 
Some of the descriptions, however, are not destitute of poetic merit; and it 
contains particular passages that are beautiful. 

1. The idea that Valerius was born at Patavium is founded on passages in 
Martial (Ep. L 62, 77). — The name of Setinus Balbus is added to the other 
names of this poet, in the manuscripts. Hence some have supposed his birth- 
place to have been Sctia in Campania. Others suppose that Setinus Balbus 
was a grammarian who revised the text of Valerius, or perhaps owned a re- 
markable manuscript. — Some critics rank the Argonautica of Valerius next 
to the iBfcieid. Quintilian ( Inst. Or. X. 1) speaks of his death as a great loss 
to letters. 

Cf. $ 73. — ScMll, Hist. Litt. Rom. n. 294.— Charaktere der vornehm. Dichter, vm. 296. 
The Prefaces of Burmann and Wagner, given in Lemairc's ed. below cited. — J. A. Weichert, 
Epistola Critica de C. Val. Flac. Argonaut. Lpz. 1812. 8. 

2. Editions. — Best; Lemaire. Par. 1824. 2 vols. 8 fin his Biblioth. Class. Lat.J. It contains 

the Prefaces of the most important previous editions. T. A. Weichert. Misen. 1818. 8. — J. A. 

Wagner. Gbtt. 1805. 2 vols. 8. — Earlier editions noted, P. Burmann. Leyd. 1724. 4. — J. Bapt. 
Pius for Pio). Bonon. 1519. fol. containing 2 books, 9th and 10th, fabricated by the editor. 
(Scholl). The Princep s, (print, by) U. Rugerius fy D. Bcntochus. Bonon. 1474. fol. — Poggio 
first discovered a Ms. of Valerius, containing the first three books only, in the convent of St. 
Gall, near Constance. 

3. Translations. — German. — E. K. F. Wunderlich, (verse, with orig. text). Erfurt, 1805. 8. 

Italian — M. Buiius'm the corpus etc. of Malatesta fy Argelati, cited <S 348. — M. A. Pinde- 

monte. Verona, 1776. 8. French — A. Dureau De Lamalle, verse, with Lat. text. Par. 1811. 

3 vols. 8. — J. J. A. Causin de Percival, Lat. & Gall, (prose). Par. 1818. 8. 

§ 377. Cains Silius Italicus, whose birth-place is not certainly known, was 
a. poet of the first century. He seems to have received his surname from the 
place called Italica, in Spain. Under protracted disease, having become weary 
of life, he ended it by voluntary starvation, A. D. 100. In oratory he was an 
imitator of Cicero ; in poetry of Virgil. But in his epic poem, entitled Punica, 
on the second Punic war, in 17 books, he has fallen far short of Virgil. It is 
properly a historical poem, and a work of diligence rather than of genius. On 
account of its historic fidelity, many circumstances pertaining to the period to 
which it refers may be learned or illustrated from it. 

1. Some suppose Silius to have been a native of Corfinium, in Italy, which 
Was sometimes called Italica. He is said to have acquired great reputation as 
a speaker, at Rome. He rose in the regular course of offices to the rank of 
consul, and under Vespasian was proconsul of Asia. Having received these 
honors and acquired an ample fortune, he retired to Campania, where he com- 
posed his poem. He had purchased the estate that belonged to Virgil, near 
Naples, as also that of Cicero at Tusculum. He lived to the age of 75. 

Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. it. 296. Bdhr, p. 151. — Gentleman's Magazine, vol xlii. p. 200. — < 
Cellarius, Heyne, Sf Ruperti, in the editions of Ruperti and Lemaire, below cited. — Ernesti, De 
Carmine Siliano, in his edition below cited. — Charaktere d. vorn. Dichter, vn.369 

2. Editions. — Best ; G. A. Ruperti. Gott. 1795-98. 2 vols. 8. — Lemaire. Par. 1823. 2 vols. 8 
(in his Bibl. Class. Lat.). — Valuable, J. Ernesti. Lpz. 1791. 2 vols. 8. — A. Drakenborch. 
Utrecht, 1717. 4. The text of this is followed by J. P. Schmid. Mitau, 1775. 8. and in the Bi- 
font, 1784. 8. -«■> The Princeps, by Swcynheym fy Pannartz (printers). Rom. 1471. fol. — The ed. 
of D. Heinsius, Lugd. Bat. 1600. 8. (republ. Camb. 1646. 12. ) contains notes cf some value under 
the title of Crepundia SMana. 

3. Translations. — French. — J. B. Lefebure de VilUbrune, with the Latin. Par. 1781.3 vols. 
12. English. — Th. Ross. Lond 1658. 1672. — Also by Alsop. 

4. At the revival of letters there was a general conviction that the poem of Silius was lost. 
Under the idea of replacing it, the celebrated Petrarch composed his Africa, the subject of which 
is the second Punic war Villebrune, however, has imagined, that Petrarch had a copy of Sil- 
ius and concealed the fact in order to add to the glory of his own work. Poggio found a man- 
uscript of Silius, probably in the convent of St. Gall, during the sitting of the council of Con- 
stance. A copy of this, taken by himself and one of his friends, was the original from which 
the fiivt editions were drawn. About 1575, Louis Carrio discovtred another manuscript at 
Cologne, of the age of Charlemagne as he supposed. A thiid, of less ancient date, was found 
at Oxford. — Cf. Scholl, u. 302. — Respecting the Mss. found by Poggio, near Constance, see 
Fabricius, Biblioth. Lai* ii. p. 259. 

§ 378. Publius Papinius Statius, of Neapolis, flourished in the last half of 
the first century and was a favorite of Domitian. His greatest poem is an 
epic, entitled Thebais, the subject of which is the contest between the Theban 
brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the capture of Thebes by Theseus. We 



POETS. STATIUS. MARTIAL. 315 

do not find in it richness of invention, consistency, or conformity to nature ; 
and the language is deficient in classical exxellence. The Achilleis, which is 
another epic poem, on the adventures of Achilles before the Trojan war, is in- 
complete. Besides these, there are extant five books of miscellaneous pieces 
under the title of Sijlva, which are of very unequal merit. 

1. Statius was educated at Rome, where his father became a preceptor of 
Domitian. He had a great facility in composing verses. Three times he 
gained the prize in the Alban games. Yet he is said to have been poor, and 
obliged to sell dramatic pieces to the actors for means of subsistence. He re- 
tired from Rome, to a small estate, given to him perhaps by the emperor, and 
there died, while young, A. D. 96. 

Scholl, ii. 303. — Bdhr, p. 155. — L. G. Gyraldus, Life of Statius, in his Dial, cited $ 348, 
and in the ed. of Lemaire below cited. 

2. The Thebaid consists of 12 books : it is an imitation of Antimachus, 
whose poem in 24 books, under the same title, is chiefly lost (cf. § 19^). Of 
the Achilleis there are but two books, although sometimes divided into more. 
The collection termed Sylvce, includes 32 pieces, chiefly in hexameter, on va- 
rious subjects, composed hastily. 

• See the Testimonia et Judicia de Statio, in Lemaire's edition. — Rolliv, Polite Learning or the 
Belles Lettres, in his Anc. Hist. p. 491. ed. N. Y. 1835.— Charaktere der vorn. Dichter, viii. 344. 

3. Editions. — Best; Whole works. — Amar fy Lemaire (m Lemaire , s Bibl. Class.J. Par. 
1825. 4 vols. 8. — The Bipovtine, 1785. 8. and that of J. Aiken. Warrington, 1778. 2 vols. 12. 
are considered as respectable. — Of the earlier ; most noted, Casp. Barthius (ed.by Ch. Daum). 
Cygnse (ZwickauJ, 1664. 3 vols. 4. — J. F. Gronovius. Amst. 1653. 8. repupl. Manheim, 1782, 

2 vols. 8 The Princeps f according to Harles). Romae, 1475. fol. without name of printer ; 

f according to DibdinJ Scotus. Ven.1483. fol. Separate poems were printed earlier — SylvaB, 
J. Markland. Lond. 1728. 4. — F. Hand. Lpz. 1816. 8. — Sillig. Dresd. 1827. 4. 

4. Translations. — French. — Mich, de Marolles. Par. 1658. 3 vols. 8. — P. L. Cormilliole. 
2d ed. Par. 1805. 4 vols. 12. — Rinn, Achaintree, <$• Boutteville (Lat. & Gall.). Par. 1832. 4 vols. 8. 
— Cournard (Achilleis). Par. 1800. 12. — De la Tour (Sylvs, with Lat. text> Par. 1803.8. -**£* 
English.— Rob. Howard, Achilleis. Lond. 1660. 8.— T. Stevens, 5 books of the Thebaid. Lond. 
1648. 8. — W. L. Lewis, Thebaid. Oxf. 2d ed. 1773. 2 vols. 8. in verse, with a dissertation on 

Statius prefixed. German. — J. G. Dolling, Die erste Sylve ubersetz und erl'autert. Plau. 

1838. 8. 32pp. 

5. Illustrative.— J. M. Lochmann, Programma de. P. Statio. Cob. 1774. 4. — Dodwell, Annales 
Statiri &c. O.xf. 1698. 8.— J. Jortin, as cited § 360. b.—J. Fr. Gronovii, in Statii Sylv. libros 
v. Dia tr ibe, etc. ed. by F. Hand. Lpz. 1812. 2 vols. 8. This work contains the literary 
controversy between Gronovius and Cruceus, including the Diatribe (first publ. 1637. 8), the 
Ant.idiatribe of Cruceus (1639), the Elenchus Antidiatribes, by Gronovius (1640), and the Musca- 
rium, by Cruceus (1640). Cf. Fab?-icius, Bibl. Lat. u. p. 335. 

§ 379. Marcus Valerius Martialis, of Bibilis in Celtiberia. was a poet of 
the same period. He wrote his Epigrams in the reign of Titus and of Do- 
mitian. These pieces are arranged in 14 books. Prefixed to them is a sepa- 
rate book on the public shows or spectacles ; but the pieces in it are perhaps 
the productions of several authors. Most of the epigrams are uncommonly 
ingenious and appropriate ; their multitude and excellence cause us to ad- 
mire the ever lively and almost exhaustless wit of this poet. 

1. Martial was obliged to obtain subsistence by his personal exertions, and 
preferred to devote himself to poetry for the purpose, rather than to oratory 
and pleading. At about the age of twenty-two he fixed his residence at 
Rome. Having passed there thirty-five years he returned to Spain, having 
received from Pliny the younger the means of defraying his traveling ex- 
penses. In Spain he married a woman named Marcella, who had rich posses- 
sions on the river Salon, a branch of the Iberus. His birth has been dated 
A. D. 43, his death A. D. 101. — The epigrams in the 14 books amount to about 
1200 in number. The 13th book is styled Xenia as containing mottos or de- 
vices for presents bestowed on friends ; and the 14th, Apophoreta, containing 
mottos for such presents as were distributed at various festivals. There are 
some other pieces ascribed to this poet. Many of Martial's epigrams are 
very obscene.. 

Scholl, Rom. Litt. n. 349.— Bdhr, p. 327,— Cf. Pliny, Epist. lib. in. e. 21. 
2. Editions.— Best ; Lemaire, (in his Bibl. Lat). Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8.—L. Schmids, Amst. 
1701.8. An ed. publ. at Vienna (Vindob), 1804. 2 vols. 8. is considered good (Klugling); 
another, Lond. 1816. 12. (Fuhrmann). — The more important of the earlier, C. Schrevel. ° Leyd. 
1670. 8.— P. Scriver. Leyd. 1619. 12. Amst. 1621. followed in the Bipontine, 1784. 8.— M. Rader, 
Moguntiacum (Maynz). 1627. fol. with a commentary highly valued. — Princeps, Laver. Rom. 
without date. 4. (Dibd.in, n. p. 226).— For the epigrams not included in the 15 books, see Bur- 
fltann. Anthol. Lat. vol. i. 



316 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 4 

3. Translations.— German.— C. W. Ramler, (select epigrams with Lat. text). Lpz. 1787-91. 

5 vols. 8. with a supplem. vol. entitled Nachlese. Berl. 1724. 8. French. — Costar (selection). 

Toil). 1689. 2 vols. 12.— E. T. Simon, with orig. Par. Idl9. 3 vols. 8 English.— Tim. Kendal. 

Lond. 1577. 12. Cf. Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetrv iv. 259.— Th. May, 1629. 12.— Th. Scott. 1773. 
8.— J. Elphinston. Lond. 1782. 4. 

4. Illustrative. — P. Zornius, Diss, ds Scholis publicis antiq. Judreorum. Plcsnee. 1716. con- 
taining a notice of various explanations of the term Anchialus in Martial ii. 94. — R. M. v. 
Goens, Epist. Crit. de locis quibusdarn M. V. Martialis. Traject. 1764. 8. (also in Harles, Brev. 
Not. Suppl. ii. p. 126). — 9nt. de Rooy, Andimadv. Crit. in M. V. Martialis Epigram. Harder- 
ovici, 1788. 8.—Nic. Perotti, Comu Copiac (a commentary on Martial), first publ. Ven. 1489. 
fol. 

§ 380. Decirnus Junius Juvenalis, a native of Aquinum, applied himself 
first to eloquence, and afterwards to poetry. He lived from A. D. 38 to A. D. 
119. He published his satires but one year before his death, in the reign of 
Hadrian. Sixteen of these are now extant, which are sometimes unnecessa- 
rily divided into five books. With a noble and animated spirit he inveighs 
against the vices and follies of his times, but he paints them with too great 
freedom. His style is less elegant than that of Horace, and less difficult and 
obscure than that of Persius. 

1. Our knowledge of Juvenal's history is derived from a short biography 
ascribed to Suetonius. He is supposed to have employed his talent for satire 
first, at about the age of 40, in the reign of Domitian. Most of his satires 
were composed in the reign of Trajan. Two of them, the 13th and 15th, 
were written after Hadrian received the empire, when Juvenal was in his 
79th year. On reciting his satires publicly, which he did now for the first 
time, he excited great admiration. His 7th satire, which was the first compos- 
ed by him and which was directed against a favorite of Domitian, awakened 
the jealousy of Hadrian. Under pretext of bestowing an honor, the emperor 
appointed him to a military command at Syene in Egypt, according to some, 
or according to others at the great Oasis (cf. P. V. § 176), which was a resi- 
dence for exiles ; here Juvenal died a few years after. 

J. V. Franke, Exam. crit. D. J. Juvenalis vitae. Lpz. 1820. 8. — Also same, Brief an Cra- 
mer, iiber ein Einschiebel Tribonians bevm Ulpian die Verbannung nach der grossen Oase 
betreffend. Kill. 1819. 8.— Schbll, Hist. Litt. Rom. n. 329.— G. A. Rupert, in Prolegomena to 
his ed. below cited Manso's Character of Juvena), in the Charaktere d. vorn. Dichter, vi. 294. 

2. Horace, Persius and Juvenal form the illustrious trio of Roman satirists. 
Most of the critics and translators of either have made comparisons, in which 
each writer has labored apparently to show the superiority of his favorite. 
Heinsius and Dacier exalt Horace ; Scaliger and Rigaltius plead the cause of 
Juvenal ; while Persius finds a defender in Casaubon. Dryden has attempted 
a comparison with these various opinions in view ; and Gifford, with the Ded- 
ication of Dryden, the preface of Dussaulx, and the prolegomena of Rupert 
before him, has endeavored to exhibit in a complete manner the characteris- 
tics of each poet. 

Burgess, Tractatus var. Lat. (containing Rigaltius de sat. x. Juv.) Lond. 1788. 8. — Heinsius, 
De Sat. Horatiana, first published in his ed. of Horace. Lug. Bat, 1612. 8.— Dussaulx, Sur les 
Satyriques Latins, in his ed. and version below cited.— J. F. Laharpe, Lycee, ou Cours de 
Litterature ( torn. 2. § $). Par. 1799. f An. 7 J.— Dryden and Gifford, in translations below 
cited. 

3. Editions.— Best ; G. A. Rupert. Lps. 1820. 2 vols. 8. (first ed. 1801).— That of JV*. L. 

Achaintree. Par. 1810, 2 vols. 8. is highly commended.— In Lemaire's Bibl. Among earlier 

editions noted, Henninius. Traject. 1685. 4.— Pithaus. Lutet. 1585. 8. — lldus, Ven. 1501. 8. — 
There were many editions before 1500, usually including Persius. — The Princeps, by V. de 

Spira. Ven. 1470. fol. (Fuhrmann) The Delphin ed. by L. Prateus, 1st ed. Par. 1684. 4. 

has been reprinted in this country. Phil. 1814. 8. containing Persius.— Some of the approved 
editions as containing both Juvenal and Persius ; Bipontine, Zweibriich. (Bip). 1785. 8. — Sandby, 
Cambr. 1763. 8. with plates.— Th. Marshall. Lond. 1723. 8.— C. W. Blocker. Oxf. 1837. 8. with 
English notes. 

4. Translations.— German.— C. F. Bahrdt. Nurnb. 3d (ed). 1821. 8.— J. J. C. Dorner. Tu- 
bing. 1821. 8. French.— J. Dussaulx, with orig. text. Par. 1796. 2 vols. 4. Reprinted (JV. 

L. Achaintree ed). Par. 1820. 2 vols. 8.— L. V. Raoul. Tournay, 1818. 2 vols. 8. English.— 

R. Stapleton. Oxf. 1644. fol. W. Gifford, in verse. Lond. 1802. 4. improved ed. Lond. 1817. 

2 vols. 8.— Ch. Badham. Lond. 1814. 8. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xi. 377.— Sinclair. Lond. 1815. 
12.— Dryden, cf. $373. 3.— T. Sheridan. Lond. 1739. 8.— Madan. Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. 8. with 
Persius. 

5. Illustrative. — C. Fr. Hcinrich, in his three Commentation es, printed successively, Kilon, 
1806, 1810, 1811. 4. — T. C. Fr. Manso, Observ. in loca aliquot dirndl. I). J. Juvenalis. 1812. 
4.— A. G. Cramer, in Juvenalis satiras Conunentarii vetusti. Hamb. 1823. 8.— Cf. Moss, Man- 
ual of Bibliogr. ii. 165. 

§ 381. Flavius Avianus lived probably in the 2d century, in the reign of the 
Antonines. We have, under his name, 42 fables in elegiac verse. The text 



I 

POETS. JUVENAL. AVIANUS. CATO. NEMESIAN. 317 

is in a very imperfect state ; and, in natural ease of expression, the fables are 
far inferior to those of Phaedrus. 

1. Avianus, from his censure of idolatry in one of the fables, is by some 
supposed to have been a Christian. Respecting the age in which he lived, the 
critics are not agreed ; some assign him to the 4th century. 

See Cannegieter, Diss, de state F. Aviani, in his ed. below cited. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 67. 

Harles, Brev. Not. Suppl. ii. 333. — Fr. Hvlsemann, De codice Fabularum Aviani Lunensi &c. 

Gott.1807. 8.— Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 61ss.— F.A. Ukert, Geograph. der Griech. und Rom. Weim. 
1321. Q.— Wemsdorf, Comment, de R. F. Avieno, in his Poet. Lat. JVlin. vol. x.—Buhle, in Pref. 
to his ed. of Aram's (cf. § 71). — Schaubach, cited $ 370. 

2. Editions.— Best, J.'Ji. No dell, Amst. 1787. 8.— H. Cannegieter. Amst. 1731. 8.— Found also 
in the Bipontine ed. of Phmdrus. 1785. 8.— and in Mattaire's Phtedrus. Lond. 1773. 12. 

3. Translations. — Italian.— G. C. Trombelli (with the fables of Gabrias, cf. §184). Ven.1735. 
8. English.— W. Caxton. 1484. fol. 

4. The fables have sometimes been published under the name of Rufus Fes- 
tus Avienus, who was a different person from Avianus, although often con- 
founded with him. Avienus probably flourished about A. D. 400; most that 
is known respecting him is drawn from his writings, especially an inscription 
found at Rome, and contained in Burmanns Latin Anthology, consisting of 
eight verses addressed by Avienus to Kortia, an Etruscan deity. — The princi- 
pal work of Avienus was a translation of the <£>aivu t usra of Aratus (§ 71) ', 
sometimes entitled Carmen de Jistris. He also translated the IIsQu'iyyjOig of 
Dionysius of Charax (§ 217), in a poem of 1394 hexameter lines, entitled De- 
scriptio orbis terra. Another production was called Ora Maritima, a poetical 
description of the Mediterranean coast from Cadiz to the Black sea ; a frag- 
ment only remains, of about 700 lines. There remains also three other short 
pieces by Avienus. He is said likewise to have reduced the History of Livy 
to Iambic verse. — There is a poem in about 1100 hexameters, called Epitome 
lliudos Homeri, which some have ascribed to Avienus. 

5. Editions of Avienus. The Princeps, G. Valla. Ven.1488. 4. — A more complete ed. P. Me- 
lian. Madrit. 1634. 4.— Best, in Lemaire, Poet. Lat. Min. vol. v. (Par. 1826.) and in JVernsdorf, 
above cited. The smaller pieces are found in Burmann, Anthol. Lat. 

§ 382. Dionysius Cato, a writer of whose history nothing is known with 
certainty, belonged, as some suppose, to the same age with Avianus. He was 
the author of moral maxims or sentences, which are composed in Distichs, 
and are chiefly valuable for their instructive character. It is not impossible, 
however, that they were of a much later origin, and were marked with the 
name of the Roman moralist Cato, on account of the sentiments contained in 
them. 

1. The chief authority for assigning D. Cato to the age of the Antonines is 
a passage, in which M. Aurelius Antoninus (cf.§196) appears to speak of him. 
Some have supposed the Distichs (Disticha de moribus, in 4 books) to be that 
work of Cato the censor which is mentioned by Pliny & Aulus Gellius. The 
work was held in very high estimation in the 14th and 15th centuries. 

Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. in. 31.— Bernhold, in Pref. to his ed. below cited. — Dissertations of 
Bozhorn, Cannegieter, & Withof, in the ed. oiArntzen below cited. — Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry 
iii. 2. 

2. Editions. — Most complete, Koznig <fe Kcenigsfeld. Amst. 1759. 2 vols. 8.— J. M. Bernhold. 
Schweinfurt (Marcbr.) 1784. 2 vols. 8. — O. Arntzen. Amst. 1754. 8. — The Princeps, Sermones 
super. Catonis Ethica &c. Augustas, 1475. {Harles, Brev. Not. p. 697). 

3. Translations. — German.— C- B. H. PUtorius (metrical). Stralsund, 1816. 8. French.— 

Maturinus Corderius (Corderoy), dedicated to Rob. Stephens, Lat. et Gall. Par.1561. 8. — A. M. 
H. Boulard (ed.) Lat. French, & Greek. Par. 1802. 8. The Distichs were translated into Greek 
by Mazimus Planudes at Constantinople ; his version was printed with the orig. Antw. 1568. 

English. — W. Caxton. Lond. 1483. ; in the preface, he pronounces Cato's Morals " the best 

boke for to be taught to yonge children in schole" (Warton). 

§ 383. Marcus Aurelius Olympius jYemesianus, a native of Carthage, lived 
in the latter part of the 3d century. He strove successfully for the prize in a 
poetical contest with the emperor Numerianus. We have from him a poem 
on Hunting ( Cynegetica), which in point of style and skill in execution ap- 
pears to great advantage among the works of that age. There also remain two 
fragments of a poem by him on Fowling (De Aucupio). The four pastorals 
ascribed to him were probably written by Calpurnius. 

1. Little is known respecting the life of Nemesian: the chief notices are 
found in the life of Numerian by Vopiscus (cf. § 542.6). Vopiscus states that 
he composed poems entitled Cynegetica, Halieutica, and JYautica, and that he 
27* 



318 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, 

gained various prizes. — There is a small poem in honor of Hercules, De lem* 
dibus Herculis, which some ascribe to Nemesian. 

Schcell, Litt. Rom. in. 34. Respecting the Pastorals (Bucolica, EclogceJ; cf. Wernsdorf, in 

his Poet. Lat. Min. and Mvller, in his Einleitimg &x. cited § 299. 8. They were first ascribed 
to Nemesian, in the ed. of Angelas Ugoletus. Parm. without'date (about 14U3), fol. 

2. Editions. — Best ; whole remains, Lemaire, Poet. Lat. Min. 1st vol. — Wernsdorf, Poet. 
Lat. Min. — The Cynegetica ; often printed with Gratius Faliscus, as in the Princeps ed. by 
Logus. Ven. 1534. 8. (cf. $ 367) ; this contained also the Bucolics, first printed by Schweynheim 
Sf Pannartz. Rom. 1471. 4. — K. A. Kvttner. Mittau, 1775. 8. with Gratius. — Bucolica, with 
notes of P. Burmann & others. Mitt. 1774. 8. including also Calpurnius. 

3. Translations. — French. — Of the whole Remains, by S. M, de la Tour. Par. 1799. 8. 

Italian. — J. G. Farsetti, in his Discorso sopra il Trattato della Natura dell' Egloga di Fonte- 
nelle. Ven. 1752. 8. 

§ 384. Titus Julius Calpurnius, born in Sicily, was a contemporary of Ne- 
mesian. There are extant seven Eclogues by tbis poet, composed in the 
manner of Virgil, and distinguished by an easy versification. They are dedi- 
cated, as some suppose, to Nemesian. 

1. The Eclogues themselves furnish what we know respecting Calpurnius. 
The protector and friend to whose honor he seems to have dedicated his poema 
was not, probably, the poet Nemesian ; as this protector was a man in high rank 
at the emperor's court (magister qfficiorum, Eel. iv. 150,159). — The four Ec- 
logues, sometimes ascribed to Nemesian, there is little doubt, belong to Cal- 
purnius, making the whole number eleven; which were all published as his, 
in tbe editions preceding that of Ugoletus (cf. § 383. 1). 
Schcell, Litt. Rom. in. 36.— Bdhr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 303. 

2. Editions.— Best; C.D.Beck. Lpz.1803. 8.— Lemaire, Poet. Lat. Min. 1st vol.— Contained also 

in Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min. Princeps, Schweynheim &■ Pannartz fpr .J Rom. 1741. 4. Cf, 

$ 383. 2. 

3. Translations. — German. — Best f according to Fuhrmann) by G. E. Kkmsen, Altona,1807„ 

8. with original.— Fr. Adelung. Petersb. 1804. 4.— Ch. G. Wiss. Lpz,1805,8. French.— Mai- 

raut. Bruxelles, 1744. 12. -Italian.— G. Farsetti. Ven. 1761. 8. 

§ 385. Decimus Magnus Ausonius, a native of Burdigala (Bourdeaux) , and 
probably a Christian, was a grammarian, rhetorician, and poet, of the 4th cen- 
tury. He was preceptor to the emperor Gratian, under whom he afterwards 
held the office of consul at Rome. Subsequently, he lived in literary ease in 
his native city. Some of the smaller poems, which we have under his name, 
belong to the general class of epigrams ; others are mere epitaphs and memo- 
rial verses ; the 20 Idyls may be entitled to the name, because they are truly 
little pictures , short pieces of a descriptive character ; but they are not, prop- 
erly speaking, pastoral poems. 

1. The evidence that Ausonius was a Christian is drawn from his poems, 
particularly the first Idyl. Yet some have questioned whether he really was, 
on account of the manner in which pagan mythology is employed in some of 
his pieces, and especially on account of their licentious character. — The me- 
morial verses, in honor of the Professors of Burdigala (eommemoratio profes- 
sorum Burdigalensium) , are of considerable interest to literary history ; they 
celebrate teachers of rhetoric and grammar otherwise unknown. — Among the 
epitaphs are some upon Grecian heroes, which are supposed to have been 
drawn from the ninXog of Aristotle (cf. §191. 2). After these, are epitaphs 
upon the Roman emperors. We find some valuable information in the poem T 
or poems, entitled Ordo nobilium urbium, giving a description of 17 principal 
cities of the Roman empire. — The 10th Idyl, on the river Moselle, is consid- 
ered one of the best pieces of Ausonius. The 13th, cento nuptialis, is com- 
posed of verses or hemistichs taken from Virgil ; it does no honor to the pu- 
rity of the author's imagination. 

Schcell, in. 45. L L. E. Pvttmann, De Epocha Ausoniana &c. Diatribe. Lips. 1776. 8. fcon- 

taining also E. Corsinus, De Ausonii Consulatu Epistola. Pis. 1764.) — Ch, G. Heyue, Censura 
ingenii et morum D. M. Ausonii &c. Gbtt. 1802. fcL Also in his Opusc, Acad. vol. vi. GotU 
1812.— De Labastide & Z>' Ussieux, Histoire de i'a Litteratme Francoise, Par. 1770. _ 

2. Editions. — Among the best ; J. B. Souchav,, (m visum Delph..; Par.1730.4.— Valpy, m his 
Delphin $• Variorum Classics. — The Bipontine. Bip. 1785. 8. is correct, and its MMia Literana 
valuable.— J. Tolling. Amst. 1671. 8. the Variorum ; valued highly.— The Princeps, B„ Girardi- 
nus. Ven. 1472. fol. containing also Calpurnius & Proba Falconia.— Some of the poems are given 
in Lemaire's Poet. Lat. Min. . . . . 

3. Translations. — German.— Of the 10th Idvl, by L. Tross, metrical', with one. Lat. Hamm. 
1824 8. French.— Of whole works, by Joubert. Par. 1769. 4 vols. 12. English.— Of some 

fthe epigrams, by T.Kendall, Flowers of Epigrammes out of sundrie the most singular authors 

* L Proba Falconia was a native of Horta, and lived at the close of the 4th century. She is 



POETS. AUSONIUS. CLAUDIAN. PRUDENTIUS. 319 

mentioned here on account of her Biblical History, composed (like the 13th Idyl of Ausonius) 
by uniting centos of Virgil, employed so as to designate events related in the Old & New Testa- 
ment. — The Centos were published by L. II. Teucher. Lpz. 1793. 8. with a Greek work styled 
f OutjfJuiCtvT^a fcf. § 78. 5). — Cf. J. Fontaninus, De Antiquitatibus Hortae. Rom. 1708. 4. con- 
taining a Dissertation on Proba. — J. Chr.Wolf, Mulierum Grsecarum, qua? orat. prosa usa? sunt, 

Fragmenta. Lond. 1739. 4. containing a catalogue of ancient distinguished women. Several 

works of similar device, i. e. composed of lines or clauses taken from Virgil, have been pre- 
served. Cf. Schall, Litt. Rom. in. 53. — P. Burmann, Anthol. Lat. cited § 348. 

§ 386. Claudius Claudianus, of Egypt, was an author of Greek and Latin 
poetry, under Honorius and Arcadius, in the 4th and 5th centuries. Besides 
several panegyrical poems, we have from him two small epic productions ; 
one entitled De Raptu Proserpina, in 7 books ; the other, Gigantomachia, or 
the War of the Giants, not completed ; and also two historical poems, De bello 
Gildonico and De hello Getico. There are likewise two satires, each divided 
into two books, written by Claudian against Rufinus and Eutropius, rivals 
of Stilicho. Among his epigrams and other smaller pieces, some are happy 
performances. In general, however, his thoughts, images, and expressions, 
bear the marks of the unnatural and artificial taste belonging to the age, 
although his own genius and poetical ability shine through them. 

1. Claudian was born probably about A. D. 365, at Alexandria, where he 
was educated. Subsequently he lived for a time at Rome, and at Mediolanum, 
which was then the residence of Honorius, the emperor of the West. He en- 
joyed the patronage of Stilicho, the guardian and minister of Honorius; and 
was elevated to important civil offices. His wife was a rich heiress from Al- 
exandria. He continued in favor at court until the ruin of Stilicho, who was 
accused, perhaps unjustly, of a design to place his own son on the throne, 
and was put to death A. D. 408. How far the poet suffered from this catas- 
trophe is not certainly known ; but he did not long survive it. 

Cf. E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of Roman Emp. ch. 30. A statue was erected to Claudian 

during the time of his prosperity, in the forum of Trajan, on the request of the senate, by Ar- 
cadius and Honorius. The pedestal, with an inscription, was discovered at Rome in the 15tl» 
century ; there are, however, doubts respecting the authenticity of the monument. The in- 
scription is given by ScIheII, Hist. Litt. Rom. in. p. 82. 

2- The first compositions of Claudian are said to have been in Greek ; the 
Gigantomachia was originally written in that language ; a few verses of this 
poem and two epigrams, with some other trifling fragments, are now extant in 
Greek. Besides the poems named above, we may mention two Epithalamia, 
one on the marriage of Honorius with Maria, daughter of Stilicho; Jive poeti- 
cal epistles, and seven descriptive pieces termed Idyls. Several of the epi- 
grams under his name are considered as the productions of some Christian au- 
thor ; from the contents of these, it has sometimes been imagined that Clau- 
dian was a Christian ; but Augustine and Orosius state with regret that he 
was a Pagan. 

For a view of his writings and character, see Gibbon fy Schcell, as just cited above. — AIso> 
Classical Journal, vol. xxni. — B. G. Walch, Comment, de Claudiani carmine etc. specimen. 
Gbtt. 1773. 4. — Gessner, Merian, 8f Konig, as cited below. 

3. Editions. — Best ; P. Burmann. Amst. 1760. 4. the text of this followed by A. J. Valpy. 
Lond. 1821. 3 vols. 8. — In Lemaire's Bibl. — R. Hcber (finished by H. Drury). Lond. 1836. 
2 vols. 12. also on large paper. — J. M. Gessner. Lpz. 1759. 8. 2 vols. — G. L. Konig. Gbtt. 
1808. 8. 1st vol. only published ; containing valuable prolegomena. — More celebrated of the 
earlier editions, C. Barthius. Frankf. 1650. 4. with a distinguished commentary. — JVic. Hein- 
sius. Amst. 1665. 8. "the best variorum edition" (Dibdin). —Princrps, B Celsanus. Vincentias, 
1482. fol. not containing the epigrams ; which were first published by Tliad. Ugoletus. Parm. 
1494. 4. 

4. Translations. — German. — Ch. II. Schvtze, Raub der Proserpine, ('metrical^). Hamb. 

1784. 8. — J. F. Ratschky, Gedicht wider Rutin ('with Lat. text). Vien. 1808. 8. Italian. — 

JV. Berengani. Ven. 1716. 2. vols. 8. also in the Corpus of Malatesta fy Argelati cited § 348. 

French. — H. B. Merian, L' enlevement de Proserpine, avec un Discours &c. Bed. 1767. 8. — 
A. M. Delteil, GEuvr. diverses de Claudian, Lat. & Franc. Par. 1818. 2 vols. 8. — De la Tour. 

Par. 1798.8. English. — J. G. Strutt (De rapt. Pros.). Lond. 1814. 8. — A. Hawkins (verse). 

Lond. 1817. 2 vols. 8. — Wm. King (Sat. in RufinumJ. Lond. 1730.8. 

5. The Anti-Clau.dianvs is a Latin poem of 9 books, by Alanus (Alain) of Lille, who died A. D. 
1202 ; it was written in defence of divine providence, in reply to a passage in Claudian's sat- 
ire on Rufinus, and was a famous book in the middle ages. — Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, i. 169* 
ii. 227. ed. Lond. 1824. 

§ 387. Aurelius Prudentius, surnamed Clemens, was a Christian poet of the 
4th century, a native of Spain. His Hymns are not destitute of good poetical 
expression, but are more distinguished for their pious and devotional contents. 

1. He was born A. D. 348, at Calagurris, now Calahorra, or according to 



320 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

some at Csesaraugusta, Saragossa. After practicing as a lawyer, and holding 
some civil offices, he obtained a military rank, which brought him near the 
person of the emperor. When above fifty years old, he retired from the world 
and passed the rest of his days inhabits of piety. 

The Hymns or lyric pieces of Prudentius form two collections ; one enti- 
tled KuQtjitsQiviov liber, containing 12 hymns on certain days of festival or cer- 
tain parts of the day ; the other, TLsql OTscpuvwv, De coronis, containing 14 
hymns in honor of as many martyrs. — Besides these, we have from him the 
following poems ; Apotheosis, written against the Sabellians and other here- 
tics ; Hamartigenia {uuaqrifivia), on the origin of sin ; Psychomachia, on the 
conflict between virtue and vice in the human soul ; Adversus Symmachum, in 
2 books, occasioned by the controversy between the Pagans and the Chris- 
tians respecting the altar dedicated to the goddess of Victory (cf. § 444. 1). 
To this author is also commonly ascribed the work entitled Diptychon seu En- 
chiridium utriusque Testamenti, a metrical abridgment of the sacred history ; 
although some have referred it to a Spanish writer of the 5th century by the 
name of Prudentius. 

Schcell, Litt. Rom. in. 72. — J. P. Ludovicus, Diss, de vita Prudentii. Viteb. 1692. 4. also 
found in his Opusc. Misc. Hal. 1720. — Teoli, 8f Arevalli, in Proleg. to their editions below- 
cited. — Rollin, Polite Learning, Art. ii. Sect. 3. — Bdhr, Die christlich-rdmische Literatur. 
Carlsr. 1836. 8. p. 41. 

2. Editions. — Best ; F. Arevalli (Arevalus). Rom. 1789. 2 vols. 4. These two volumes in 
connection with three others in the same form and by the same editor contain the works of the 
Ancient Christian Poets. — Variorum in Valpifs Latin Classics. — The Parma ed. is splendid and 
valuable, by Teoli. Parm. 1788. 2 vols. 4. — Noted among the earlier, Ch. Cellarius. Hal. 1703. 
8. — JV. Heinsius. Amst. 1667. 12. the Elzevir. —Aldus. Ven. 1501. 4. forming the 1st vol. of 
his PoetcB Christ. Veteres. This has been called the Princeps ; but those of R. Langius were 
earlier, the 2d, Davent. 1495. the 1st, ib. about 1490. 4. ( Dibdin fy Harles comp.J 

3. Translations. — German. — J. P. Silbert, the Hymns (Feiera-esdnge und Siep-eskronenJ. 
Wien. 1820. 8. 

§ 388. Codius Sedulius, who lived in the 5th century, was probably a na- 
tive of Scotland, or rather of Ireland which at that, time was included under 
the same name. He was an elder or presbyter in the church. His poems are 
ranked higher in respect to religious and moral worth than in respect to poet- 
cal merit. 

1. The principal work of Sedulius is entitled Mirabilia divina, or Carmen 
paschale, a poem of 5 cantos in hexameter. It is preceded by a letter in prose 
addressed to the Abbe Macedonius, in which Sedulius explains his design. — 
There is also a piece in elegiac verse entitled Collatio veteris et novi Testamenti, 
marked by the structure called epanalepsis, in which the first words of the 
hexameter lines are repeated at the end of the pentameters. There is like- 
wise a hymn to Christ in 23 strophes, each of which begins with one letter of 
the alphabet. — Another piece, a fragment in 12 lines, under the name of this 
poet, is preserved by Dicuil, a monk of Ireland in the 9th century; the frag- 
ment is interesting only as it refers to a map of the world derived from materi- 
als furnished by officers employed by Theodosius 2d. 

Schcell, Hist. Litt. Rom. m. 103, 248. Arevalli, Preface to ed. below cited. — Bdhr (as cited 

§ 387. I), p. 54. 

2. Editions. — Best ; F. Arevalli. Rom. 1794. 4. Cf. § 387. 2. — H. F. Arntzen. Leu warden, 
1761. 8. — Contained also in the Poet. Christ, of Aldus.' Ven. 1501. — The Hymn (in natalem 
ChristiJ is contained also in M. J. Weitzius, Heortologium, s. hymni festivales. Francof. 
1643. 8. — The writings of Sedulius are supposed to have been given to the public after his 
death, by Tardus Rafius Apronianus Asterius, who was consul A. D. 494 ; there was formerly 
in the library of Rheims a manuscript of Sedulius corrected by Asterius. — Cf. Schall, i. 365. 
Arevalli, p. 71. 

§ 389. Claudius Rutilius Kumatianus, a poet of the 5th century, was a na- 
tive of Gaul, and a consul at Rome under Honorius. He at length returned 
from that city to his own country. This return, by a voyage along the coasts 
of the Mediterranean, he described in a poem, entitled Itinerarium, or De Red- 
itu, consisting of 2 books in elegiac verse. It has come to us in a defective 
state, but is not without intrinsic value. 

1. Tolosa {Toulouse) is supposed to have been the birth-place of Rutilius. 
His Itinerary confessedly entitles him to a high rank among the later Roman 
poets. Gibbon honors him with the designation of " an ingenious traveler ; " 
but the infidel historian seems always ready to praise an author who affords 
him an opportunity for a thrust at religion ; and he quotes, with manifest 



HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 321 

pleasure, this poet's " hideous portrait " of the monks of Capraria. Rutilius 
is also violent against the Jews. 

Schtell, Hist. Litt. Rom. in. 93. — Gibbon, Dec. & F. Rom. Erap. ch. xxiv. cf. his MiscelL 
Works, vol iv. p. 345. — J. Jortin, Tracts, Philological &c. Lond. 1790. 2 vols. 8. — Lemaire, as 
below i.2) cited. 

2. Editions. — Best ; Wernsdorf, in vol v. of his Poet. Lat. Min. — Lemaire, in vol. iv. of his 

Poet. Lat. Min. The poem has been published separately often ; one of the latest and best, 

J. G. Gruber. Niirmb. 1804. 8. — The Princeps, f probably.; J. Bavt. Pius. Bonon. 1520. 4. 



II. — Orators. 

§ 390. In the earliest ages of the republic, the Romans had many occasions 
for the exercise of eloquence. The Antiquities of Dionysius (cf. § 247), and 
the History of Livy , present us with debates and harangues of many speakers ; 
but we cannot consider them as accurate specimens of the early oratory of 
the Romans ; they are chiefly the productions, so far at least as respects style 
and manner, of those historians themselves. Whatever eloquence was ex- 
hibited in these ages was the gift of nature, and not acquired by study or 
practice in schools. 

We find no speaker mentioned as having any peculiar charms of oratory 
until the second period of Roman literature (§ 301), beginning with the close 
of the first Punic war, B. C. 240. One of the earliest thus celebrated was 
Cornelius Cethegus, who flourished during the second Punic war, and was 
consul about B. C. 224 ; he is lauded by the poet Ennius his contemporary as 
a speaker of great sweetness of elocution (orator suaviloqiienti ore). Cato 
the elder is said to have been an energetic, although unpolished orator ; many 
of his orations were extant in the time of Cicero who valued them highly, 
although they were not much read by others. 

§ 391. In the time of Cato, the Roman youth were first specially drawn to 
study the art of speaking, under the influence of the philosophers and rhetori- 
cians connected with the famous embassy of Carneades, about B. C. 155. 
Cato and others anticipated fatal results from the introduction of Grecian 
principles and manners ; and in a short time the schools of the Greek teach- 
ers were prohibited (Aul. Gell. xv. 11). The prohibition was renewed subse- 
quently in the year B. C. 92, in consequence, it is stated, of the abuse of elo- 
quence on the part of the sophists. It was however impossible to check the 
ardor awakened among the young Romans to imitate the Grecian speakers ; 
and before the close of the period now under notice (the second, ending with 
the war of Sylla and Marius B. C. 87), we find a number of eminent speak- 
ers who had availed themselves of the Grecian models and whose oratory 
and rhetoric were modified by the Grecian systems and rules. 

§ 392. Sergius Galba and Lcelius are named as the first, who made impor- 
tant advances upon the style and manner of previous orators in respect to 
embellishment and elegance. Scipio JEmilianus, called also Africanus the 
younger, and M. iEmilius Lepidus (who was consul B. C. 137), departed still 
farther from the ancient diction, and more sedulously cultivated smoothness 
and harmony of language and the graces of style. In the same age with Le- 
pidus were other eminent men whom Cicero represents as distinguished ora- 
tors, particularly Scipio Nasica and Mutius Scaevola. In Rome as at 

Athens, eloquence was a means of gaining preferment, and we find that 
scarcely an orator is named, who did not rise to the highest offices of the 
state. 

§ 393. The incessant struggles between the patrician and the plebeian 
parties gave frequent occasions for the efforts of popular oratory. The two 
Gracchi acted a very important part in this controversy and theirs are the 
names next to be noticed in a glance at the history of Roman oratory. They 
wereboth speakers of extraordinary power. Tiberius, the elder, in boyhood, 
was instructed carefully in elocution by his mother Cornelia; afterwards, he 
had the instruction of the best Grecian masters, and diligently practiced exer- 
cises of declamation. His manner was bold, decided, and composed; a slight 



322 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

specimen is given by Plutarch (in Tib. Grace). Caius was more vehement 
and full of action ; he is said to have been the first of the Romans, who in- 
dulged in such freedom as to walk to and fro in the rostrum while speaking. 
Cicero (De Orat. iii. 56. ) cites a passage of great pathos from a speech ut- 
tered by him after the death of his brother. But Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. 
x. 3.) quotes a passage from him, which he censures as cold and tame. Caius 
is said to have always kept a slave behind him with a flute, to give him no- 
tice when to raise or lower his voice. 

§ 394. The names of a great number of public speakers belonging to this 
age are recorded ; but it is not important to repeat them here. The two most 
illustrious, who fall within the period now before us, were Marcus Antonius,. 
the grandfather of Antony the triumvir, and Lucius Licinius Crassus. The 
latter commenced his oratorical career at the age of 19 or 20, about the time 
of the death of Caius Gracchus, B. C. 121, by a speech highly celebrated 
against C. P. Carbo ; he closed it, B. C. 92, by his speech in the senate 
against Philippus, which was still more celebrated, but which, from the great 
excitement attending it, threw him into a fever that in a few days termi- 
nated his life. Antonius, surnamed Orator, was the contemporary and rival 
of Crassus, and survived him only to be a victim in the proscription of Marius, 
who (B. C. 87.) affixed his head to the rostrum, where he had eloquently de- 
fended the republic and the lives of many of his fellow citizens (Cic. de Orat. 
iii. 3). These orators are commemorated as having first raised the glory of 
Roman eloquence to an equality with that of Greece. 

§ 395. The repeated interdiction of the schools taught by Greek masters 
has been mentioned (§ 391). Crassus, the orator just noticed, is said in one 
instance to have used his authority as censor against them. But the art of 
speaking had come to be universally regarded as an essential requisite in 
preparation for public life and civil office. It was already a custom, that if a 
youth had public life in view, he was committed, at the age of 17, to the special 
care of some eminent orator, on whose performances at the bar and in the 
assemblies, he constantly attended. Other means of improvement were also 
employed (cf. P. I. § 125). Schools for instruction in rhetoric were opened by 
Roman freedmen, in the place of Grecian masters, towards the close of the pe- 
riod now before us (cf. § 400). The study of rhetoric and eloquence soon be- 
came a partof regular education, and continued to be so in subsequent times. 
Of the oratory of this period we have no remains, except a few scattered passages quoted by 
later authors. A fragment of a speech of Caius Gracchus ( De legibus promulg-atisj is said, how- 
ever, to have been found, at a recent period, in the Ambrosian library at Milan. 

§ 396. There were two younger orators who rose to distinction before the 
death of those just named ; these were Publius Sulpitius and Caius A. Cotta. 
Sulpitius was a violent partisan of Marius and is charged with having greatly 
abused his political power. He lost his life when comparatively young, on 
the ascendancy of Sylla, the same year in which Antonius was beheaded by 
the opposite party. Cotta was banished at the same time but was recalled, 
after Sylla assumed (B. C. 84) the province of dictator, and subsequently held 
the office of consul ; he lived, it is said, to an advanced age. Cicero, in his 
Brutus, describes the oratory of these speakers. Sulpitius was vehement, yet 
dignified and lofty, with a voice powerful and sonorous, a rapid elocution, and 
action earnest and impressive. Cotta had a feebler voice, and in his manner 
was mild and calm, with an invention remarkably acute, a diction pure and 
flowing, and a peculiar power of persuasion. 

§ 397. In our next period, we have to notice the speakers, who eclipsed 
the fame of all preceding orators of Rome. Cotta continued to shine in this 
period ; but the palm was soon taken from him by Hortensius. His first ap- 
pearance in the Forum was at the age of 19, in an important case, in which 
Scaevola and Crassus were judges, a few years before the close of the period 
at which we have just taken our glance. He gained immediate celebrity, 
soon rose to the head of the Roman bar, and continued the acknowledged 
master of the Forum for 13 or 14 years. He is said to have possessed almost 
every quality essential to a distinguished speaker. His imagination was fer- 
tile, and his language rich even to exuberance ; his industry and application 
In the former part of his life intense, his acquaintance with literature exten^ 



ORATORY. 323 

sive, his memory powerful and ready. He indulged in a showy species of 
rhetoric, and in artificial and studied gesture. He acquired immense wealth, 
and lived in great extravagance and luxury, being peculiarly fond of ostenta- 
tious display. None of his speeches are preserved ; and were they extant, 
they would give but an imperfect idea of his eloquence, as much of his excel- 
lence consisted in action and delivery. 

Hortensius (a) was for many years without a rival at Rome. Licinius 
Calvus, already mentioned as an author of satirical epigrams (§ 339), was an 
orator of some distinction, but died at the age of 30; had he lived longer, it is 
not probable that he could have surpassed Hortensius ; he left a number of 
orations (b), which were studied as models by the younger Pliny. Julius Cae- 
sar exhibited talents for speaking (c), which probably would have secured to 
him very high celebrity as an orator had he pursued the profession. Other 
individuals, of the same times, are mentioned as eminent speakers ; and some 
years later were Messala, Brutus, and others, who are said to have displayed 
great oratorical powers. 

(a) Sallier, La vie de Q,. Hortensius, in the Mem. de 1' Acad. des. Tnscr. vol. vi. p. 500. 

(b) Cic. Brut. 82. — Dial, de Cans. corr. eloq. 21. — Weichert, De Licinio Calvo, oratore, et po- 
eta. Ginim. 1825. 4. — Burigny,De Calvus, in the Mem. de 1' Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxi. p. 122. ■ 

(c) Qnhd. Inst. Or. x. 1. — Cic. Brut. 72. 

But Cicero alone was able to emulate Hortensius with success. The first 
oration pronounced by him, (the first at least of those now extant cf. § 404), 
was in a case, in which Hortensius was his opponent. It was in the year B. C. 
72, when Cicero was about 26 years old. It is worthy of remark, that Cicero 
and Hortensius, although rivals, seem to have been always on terms of mutual 
friendship. Cicero was several years younger than Hortensius, and ultimately 
bore away from him the honor of being the greatest orator of Rome ; yet Hor- 
tensius generously used all his influence in procuring Cicero's recal from ban- 
ishment. It is needless to say that the name of Cicero is always coupled with 
that of Demosthenes as synonymous with eloquence, or that his orations and 
other works are imperishable monuments of genius, learning and refinement. 
With him, Roman eloquence and oratory gained the highest degree of cultiva- 
tion and power; the age of Cicero was emphatically the golden age of the art 
of speaking. 

§ 398. It may be remarked, that the Grecian division of oratory into three 
kinds (cf. § 98) was recognized among the Romans; Cicero (De Orat. i. 31. 
ii. 10) specifies distinctly that of trials (judicia), that of deliberations (deliber' 
ationes), and that of panegyric (laudationes) . It is in the two former kinds, 
that the Roman orators in the period now under notice had most frequent oc- 
casion to display their ability. The constitution of the Roman courts of justice 
and their method of judicial procedure (cf. P. IV. § 261) were better adapted 
to exercise the powers of eloquence than to secure the administration of jus- 
tice ; they were such, that law, truth, and equity, might be too easily over- 
come by the skill, wit, or pathos of the orator. The questions brought into 
trial also were often of a character that furnished grand opportunities for the 
display of oratory; such especially were the accusations against high civil and 
provincial officers for mal-administration. Highly exciting occasions for the 
deliberative argument or harangue were constantly presented in the Senate, 
and the comitia,. The circumstances of Cicero's life brought him fully under 
these and other influences calculated to stimulate his efforts, and he has left 
splendid performances in both judicial and deliberative eloquence. 

§ 399. The history of Rorrran eloquence may be said to have ended with 
Cicero, or at least with the Augustan age. The decline of liberty was unfa- 
vorable to the art. The theatre for eloquence hitherto furnished by the as- 
semblies of the people, was chiefly closed. The debates of the senate degene- 
rated, in a sad degree, into mere eulogies of the reigning emperor. Even in 
the courts of justice, the pleader felt the restraints of arbitrary power. The 
custom of reciting literary productions in meetings of select friends, had been 
previously established. It now became common for orators to declaim on 
imaginary subjects at such meetings, a practice calculated to cultivate a fond- 
ness for showy ornament rather than to foster the spirit of genuine eloquence. 
Schools of rhetoric were still sustained, but they produced declaimers rather 
than great orators, and contributed, it is said, to deprave the general taste and 
corrupt the language, (cf. P. I. §128. 3. 5.) 



S'24 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 400. The principal persons, who are commonly named among the spe&kefs 
of this period, are Seneca, Quintilian, and Pliny the younger. But the two 
former may be more properly considered as rhetoricians ; as their chief em- 
ployment was that of teaching. The oratorical performances extant under 1 
their names are merely a sort of school-exercises, of the class called declama,' 
tions. Pliny was a pupil of Quintilian. Before the age of 20, he appeared at 
the bar and soon 'acquired great distinction, confessedly surpassing every 
other speaker of the age. Multitudes crowded to hear him; and he is said to 
have spoken sometimes seven hours without tiring any one in the assembly 
but himself. All his orations are lost excepting the Panegyric (cf § 405). — ■ 
The only speaker who seems to have been in any degree a rival to Pliny, was 
Tacitus, more generally known as a historian. While quite young, he ob- 
tained a high reputation by his eloquence at the bar. He continued to plead 
in the forum from the first years of Vespasian's reign until the accession of 
Trajan, shortly afer which he devoted himself wholly to the work of writing 
history. Pliny and Tacitus were intimate friends; and the former, in one of 
his letters (Ep. ii. 11), gives an interesting account of the trial of a provincial 
officer before the senate, in which Tacitus and himself were employed to advo- 
cate the cause of the people of Africa against their proconsul Marius PriscusJ 
Tacitus replied to his opponent Salvius Liberalis, a subtle and vehement ora- 
tor, says Pliny, most eloquently, and with that majesty which is an illustrious 
trait in his speaking (eloquentissime, et, quod eximium orationi ejus inest f 

There is another name which ought to be here introduced, that of Cornelius 
Fronto or Phronto, who flourished at the very close of the period under notice. 
He was a preceptor to Marcus Aur. Antoninus, and was honored, probably 
after his death, with a statue erected by that emperor. He seems to have en- 
joyed some distinction as an advocate and orator, and is mentioned with com- 
mendation by his contemporary Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. xix.8). He is said 
to have been the chief of a sect of orators or rhetoricians called Frontonians, 
who wished to revive the simple style of eloquence which prevailed in Rome 
before the time of Cicero. 

The only remains of the oratory of this period now extant consist of the Panegyric of Pliny 
already named ; a number of passages which Seneca has introduced into his declamations, 
from other speakers of comparatively little celebrity ; and a few fragments of Fronto. The 
chief remains which we have of Fronto belong to the class of Letters (c(. § 443J. 

§ 401. In the last period of our glance, we find no orator of any distin- 
guished eminence. Apuleius, who was a pleader of some reputation, has left 
a singular specimen of his talents in his apology, delivered in self-defence on 
his own trial under the accusation of having employed magical arts to gain the 
affections of a rich widow whom he had married. Of Calpurnius Flaccus, be- 
longing to the same age (the latter part of the 2d century), and called an ora- 
tor, nothing is known except from a collection in his name of Declamations, 
composed by different authors. In the latter part of the 3d century lived Me- 
lius Falconius, or Voconius, who has received the title of Orator, and seems 
to have been a speaker of considerable ability and address. An oration uttered 
by him in the senate, on the election of Tacitus as emperor, is preserved. — 
After this orator, if we may allow him the appellation, the history of Latin 
oratory furnishes nothing important to be noticed, except the performances of 
the later Panegyrists. 

The oration of Falconius is given by Vopiscus (cf. § 542. 6) in his life of Tacitus ; also found 
in Chr. Tkeoph. (Gottl.) Schwartz, Miscellanea politioris humanitatis. Norimb. 1721. 4.— — 
The work of Calpurnius is entitled, Excerptm rhetor am minor urn declamationes ,• and contains 
51 pieces from ten orators ; it was first published witli the minor declamations of Ctuintilian, by 
P. Pithaus, (cited § 415. 4) ; and is found in P. Btirmanrfs ed. of Q.nintilian, and in others. —> 
The apology of Apuleius is included in the editions of his works (cf. § 471. 4). 

§ 402. Of the Panegyrists just mentioned, a slight account will be given 
below (§ 406). Here we will merely advert to the nature and occasions of 
panegyrical oratory. It was the same with what the Greeks called demonstra* 
tive CtTriihixrixoc), a term which was applied to discourses that were designed 
to be delivered before assemblies either of friends specially invited for the pur- 
pose of literary recitals and hearings (uxyouasic), or of people promiscuously 
gathered for entertainment. The subjects were often imaginary, and seldom 
could the subject or the occasion highly excite the passions or emotions. In 



ORATORS. CICERO. 325 

order to remedy this deficiency and awaken admiration in the hearers, it was 
natural to resort to rhetorical ornaments and a studied and artificial style. — ■ 
Such declamations were pronounced before large assemblies, sometimes be- 
fore the crowds collected at those public games which brought together all 
the Greeks ; and it is from this circumstance, that they seem first to have re- 
ceived the name of pa?iegyrics, a term derived from rear and ayoQu. As the 
orators, with the desire of pleasing the multitude, very frequently took for 
their theme the praise of some god, hero, or city, the term panegyric gradu- 
ally came to be synonymous with eulogy. Hence Cicero in specifying this 
kind of oratory designates it by the Latin word laudatio. 

Among the Romans this kind does not appear to have been very much dis- 
tinguished before the time of the emperors. It is worthy of z - emark, however, 
that the custom of delivering funeral eulogies in the Forum must have pre- 
sented many fine occasions for its exercise. There can be no doubt, that Cic- 
ero would have excelled in any attempt in panegyric ; indeed, it has been 
with much propriety remarked that his oration for the Manilian law is a fin- 
ished masterpiece of demonstrative eloquence, being but a splendid panegyric 
on Pompey. The oration for the poet Archias is of a similar cast. Under the 
emperors, as has been before observed, the loss of freedom occasioned the de- 
cline of genuine eloquence. But the study of rhetoric and the practice of 
speaking could not be renounced ; the schools were continued, and the decla- 
mations, which had in earlier times usually been upon such subjects as might 
be brought into the actual business of the forum or the senate, were now more 
frequently on imaginary themes. This would naturally lead to the panegyri- 
cal style and manner of the Greeks. How soon the praise of some emperor 
was made a formal theme is not known ; perhaps the panegyric on Trajan by 
Pliny was the first of the kind. There can be little doubt that such themes 
were frequently taken ; although we have no specimens from the time of Pliny 
down to the authors of the twelve panegyrics, a space of nearly two centuries. 

§ 403. We give here a few additional references on the general subject. 

On Roman oratory, Scholl, Litt. Rom. i. 166. n. 65, 395. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Litt. ii. 109. 
ed. Phil. 1827. — Rollin, Polite Learning, ch. iii. art. 2. — Ch. Aug. Clodius, De Prsesidiis Ro- 
man. Eloquentias, in his Dissertat. Lpz. 1787. 8. — Burigny, L'eloquence chez les Romains. 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxvi. 34. — Cicero De Claris oratoribus (cf. $ 413). — Bdhr, Gesch. Rb'm. Lit. 
p. 478. On panegyrical oratory, J. O. Walch, Diss, de Orat. panegyr. veter. Jen. 1721. 4. 

§ 404. Marcus Tullius Cicero was the most distinguished of the Roman or- 
ators. He studied closely the Grecian models, and combined in himself the 
strength of Demosthenes, the copiousness of Plato and the suavity of Isocra- 
tes. He was born at Arpinum, B. C. 106, and was put to death B. 0. 43.— 
The poet Archias was his first teacher; he was instructed in oratory by Apol- 
lonius Molo of Rhodes ; he also visited Athens. After his return, he was ap- 
pointed Quaestor, and at last Consul ; in the latter office he rendered the state 
the greatest service by suppressing the conspiracy of Cataline. Yet he was 
subsequently banished through the influence of P. Clodius the tribune ; he 
voluntarily retired to Greece and was soon recalled in the most honorable 
manner. He afterwards undertook the prsetorship of Cilicia. In the civil war 
between Caesar and Pompey, he followed the party of the latter, but after the 
battle of Pharsalia was reconciled to Caesar. Not long after this, he was in- 
cluded in Antony's proscription, and was beheaded by an emissary of that tri- 
umvir. — The works of Cicero, which remain to us, have been distributed in- 
to four classes ; Orations, Letters, Rhetorical treatises, and Philosophical trea- 
tises. We consider him here merely as an orator, and certainly in this capa- 
city, his merit was the most splendid. We have 59 orations from him, mostly 
judicial, some accusatory, and some defensive ; they are the finest models of 
Roman composition and eloquence. 

] . Cicero was too easily affected by outward circumstances ; elated by pros- 
perity, and depressed by adversity ; his disposition was amiable and his con- 
duct generally praiseworthy, yet he was wanting in firmness of purpose and 
consistency. 

Conyers Middleton, Life of M. T. Cicero. Lond. 1741. 2 vols. 4. Post. 1818.3 vols. 8. the hest 
and fullest bingraphy of Cicerc. — Tr. into Germ, by 6. K. F. Seidd. Dant/.. 1791. 4 vols. 8. — 
Morabin, Histoirede Cicero <fec. Par. 1748. 2 vols. 4. — /. H. Mcierotto, M. T. Cic. vita (drawn 
from C'a writings, in his own words). Berl. 1783. 8, — E. Burton, Account of the life and wri- 

28 



326 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

tings of Tully, in his Ancient Characters deduced from Classical Remains. Camb. 1763. 8. — Cf% 
also Sclibll, Litt. Rom. n. 68. — Bahr, p, 489. 

2. Scholl and Dunlop enumerate only 56 orations ; Fabricius enumerates 
59, but includes three, of which there remain merely fragments with the scho- 
lia of Asconius Pedianus. Some fragments of six different orations were dis- 
covered in or about the year 1814, by Mai in the Ambrosian library at Milan 
(see Mai's ed. below cited. Besides these, Cicero delivered many orations 
which are wholly lost.) — Of the 56 complete orations extant, 14 are called 
JPhilippics, being directed against Antony, and deriving their name from that 
applied to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip ; the epithet is said to 
have been first applied by Cicero himself in a jocose manner. — There are 6 
which are termed Verrine, being all intended for delivery against Verres, al- 
though only the first of them was pronounced ; for Verres fled into voluntary 
exile. — The 4 Catalinarian orat,ions, against the conspirator Cataline, are well 
known. — There are 3 orations in opposition to the Agrarian laic, the success 
of which, in turning the inclinations of the people off from a darling object, 
has been considered as among the strongest examples of the power of elo- 
quence. 

Some of Cicero's orations were studied and written before delivery ; but most of them were 
first spoken and afterwards written out, with such additions and corrections, retrenchments 

and embellishments, as seemed proper, cf. Pliny, Ep. i. 20. A brief account of each of the 

orations is given by Schasll, Litt. Rom. ii. 97ss., and by Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 152ss. — 
See also Bahr, p. 511. — A minute analysis of that for Cluentius is offered by Blair, Lect. on 
Rhet. vol n. lect. 28. 

3. There are extant several orations, which have been falsely ascribed to 
Cicero, as is now generally believed. And of those still commonly ascribed 
to him there a,vejivc whose genuineness has been questioned by some writers. 

Among the former are the orations styled, In Sallustium responsio, In pace, Antequam iret in 

czilium, and Contra Valerium. — Schcell, ii. 23. 114. cf. Harles, Brev. Not. p. 157. The latter 

are the oration Pro Marcello, and the four orations supposed to have been delivered soon after 
Cicero's recall from banishment, entitled Post rcditum in Senatu, Post reditum ad Quirites, Pro 
dom.o sua ad Pontificies, De Haruspicium responsis. — Respecting the last four, Markland seems 
to have been the first to start the doubts, in a Dissertation which was published in 1745, in hie 
" Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus " (see $ 440. 2). A discussion ensued, in which 
Ross in England and Gessner in Germany took part against Markland ; and the orations were 
still generally received as genuine. But in 1801, Wolf published an edition (cited below) of 
these 4 orations, to which he prefixed an account of the controversy, advocating the views of 
Markland. The notions of Wolf are adopted by Schiitz and by Beck in their respective edi- 
tions of Cicero. — Wolf also questioned the genuineness of the oration for Marcellus in an edi- 
tion of it published in 1802. The opinions of Wolf were controverted by Weiske, in a com- 
mentary on that oration (in his edition below cited), and advocated by Spalding in an essay 
which is contained in Wolf's Museum Antiquitatis Studiorum (vol. i.). In 1813, Aug. L. Jacob 
published a dissertation in which he maintained that the oration was partly genuine and partly 
composed of interpolations by some rhetorician. — Cf. Klugling, Suppl. ad Brev. Not. &c. p. 
88-91. — Dunlop, u. 185-190. 

4. Cicero and Demosthenes have often been compared as orators ; by Plutarch, Quintilian, 
and Longinus among the ancients ; and by numerous critics and writers on rhetoric and orato- 
ry among the moderns. — See Jcnisch, Parallel der beiden grbsten Redner des Alterthum. Bed. 
1821. 8. 

5. Editions. — We shall notice here editions of the works of Cicero, and of his Orations. — 
■whole works. — The following are ranked amongst the best. Verburg, Ams. 1724. 4 vols. 4. 
Repr. Ven. 1731. 12 vols. 8.— Jos. Olivet. Par. 1740. 9 vols. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1783. 10 vols. 4. the 
10th vol. contains Ernesti's Clavis ; an 11th vol. was subsequently published containing notes. 
— J. Ausr. Ernesti. Lpz. first, 1737. 5 vols. 8. 1776. 8 vols. 8. containing the valuable Clavis Cic- 
eroniana. Repr. Oxf. 1810. 8 vols. 8. Lond. 1819. 8 vols. 8. Bost. 1816. 20 vols. 12. very neat. 
Berl. 1820. 10 vols. 8. This Berlin ed. contains the fragments discovered by Mai. The Prefa- 
ces of Ernesti have been published separately ; J. A. Ernesti, Prafationes et Notse in M. T. Cic- 
eronis Opera. Hal. 1806. 2 vols. 8 — Ch. D. Beck. Lpz. 1795-1807. 4 vols. 8. not complete, 
these volumes including only the orations. — Chr. G. Schvtz. Lpz. 1814—21. 20 vols. 8. con- 
taining the fragments discovered by Mai, summaries prefixed to each oration and treatise, with 
a few notes subjoined to the text, and a useful Lexicon Ciceronianum ; this edition is much com- 
mended by Klugling (Supp. ad Brev. Not. &c. p. 82;. T. C. Orelli. Turici, 1826-36. vols, i- 

vi. 8. This is said to contain the best text, as far as published. The earliest or Princeps 

edition was by Alex. Minucianus. Mil. 1498, 99. 4 vols. fol. a work executed with great toil and 
expense (cf. Dibdin, Introd. i. 390. — Among the celebrated editions ; Victorius. Ven. 1534-37. 
4 vols. fol. — Paul. Manutius. Ven. 1540-44. 10 vols. 8. — Lambinus. Par. 1566. 4 vols. fol. — 

Elzevir. Lug. Bat. 1642. 10 vols. 12. orations. — The best ; Grmvius, Amst. 1699. 6 vols. 

8. — C. D. Beck. Lpz. 1795, 1807. 4 vols. 8. the part finished of his designed ed. of C's whole 

works. — R. Kloit. Lpz. 1835-37. 2 vols. 8. " excellent text." The Princeps by Sweynhcym 

fy Pannartz. Rom. 1471. fol. containing all. Of select orations there have been a vast mul- 
titude of editions. We notice here the following; 6. Ch. Charles (The Verrine orations). 
Erlang. 1784.2 vols. 8. — G. G. Wehisdorf (The Philippics). Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. — L. Mbller 
(the orations against Cataline). Hafn. 18.13. 8. — A. Mosbius ('Orat. 12 Select.;. Hannov. 1822. 
8 vols. 8. — Fr. Aug. Wolf [the 4 suspected orations). Berl. 1801. 8.— By same (Oration for 



ORATORS. CICERO. PLINY. 327 

Marcellus). Bed. 1802. 8. — B. Wciske (Orat. for Mavcellus, with a Commentary). Lpz. 1805. 

8. bug. Mai, M. T. Cic. trium orat. pro Scauro, Tullio et Flacco partes &c. Milan, 1814. — 

By same, M. T. Cic. trium orat. in Clodium, de asre alieno Milonis, de Rege Alexandrino Frag- 
menta &x. Milan. 1814. 8. — By same, M. T. C. sex orationum partes &c. fa 2d ed. of the two 
publications just cited). Mil. 1817.8. Respecting these fragments, cf. Singling, Suppl. Brev. 
Not. p. 94, 355. Dibdin, Introd. to Class, i. 443. Dunlup, Rom. Lit. ii. 182. — B. G. Niebuhr, 
Cic. orat. pro Fontei. etRabir. fragm. Eerl. 1820.8— J. C. Orellius, Select Orations, edited from 
Mss. now first collated. Zurich, 1837. Several editions of Select Orations have been pub- 
lished for use in our classical schools ; that of C. Anthon, (N. York 1836. 12 J is good. 

6. Translations. — Of whole works. — French. — Anonymous. Par. 1818. 26 vols. 8. Of 

Orations.— German.— J. B. Schmitt (all). Wirceb. 1787-94. 8 vols. 8. (" nee fide nee eleganter." 
Slucrlincr.)— F.C. Wolff (select). Altona, 1805-19. 5 vols. 8. with a continuation, Alt. 1823. 2vols. 

8. French.— De Villefore (all). Par. 1731. 8 vols. 12.— Auger (select). Par 1787. 3 vols. 12. 

—Olivet (against Cataline). Par. 1771. 12. English.— W. Guthrie (all). Lond. 2d ed. 1745. 

3 vols. 8. 1806. 2 vols. 8. — J. Rutherford, The principal orations of Cicero, with notes &c. 
Lond. 1781. 4. — J. White (against Verres). Lond. 1787. 4. — Duncan (select). Lond. 1771. 8. ed. 
by C. Whitvjorth. Lond. 1777. 2 vols. 8. 

7. It would require a volume to name the various works illustrative of the writings of Cicero. 
Among those illustrating the Orations, we advert to the Commentaries (enarrationes, scholia) of 
Q. Ascoiiius Pedianus, a Roman grammarian of the 1st century (cf. § 424). — The commentary 
of Paulus Manutius is also worthy of notice ; a new edition was given by Ch. G. Richter. Lpz. 
1783. 8. — M. Anton. Ferratius, Epist. in Orat. Cic. Libri Sex. Ven. 1738. 4. " in quibus omnia 
fere, qure in orationibus M. Tullii dubia occurrunt, polemica illustrantur." (Harles, Suppl. Brev. 
Not. i. 200. cf. Fabricius, i. 170.— S. C. Schirliti, Vorschule zum Cicero &cc. Wetzl. 1836. 8. con- 
taining biographical and other notices, and designed as an introduction to the study of Cicero. 

8. A singular literary controversy arose in the 16th century, out of the extravagant venera- 
tion for Cicero which was then cherished. It began at Rome, where Leo X. was one of the 
most zealous admirers of the Roman orator, and exerted all his influence to proscribe every 
other model of Latin style. But the great champions in the war were Erasmus and Julius 
Cffisar Scaliger. The former commenced his attack upon the admirers of Cicero in a book 
styled Ciceronianus. He charged them with exalting paganism over Christianity, and deifying 
a heathen lawyer; asserting that they preferred Jupiter Optimus Maximus to Christ the Re- 
deemer of the world, and held conscript Fathers in higher estimation than inspired Apostles. 
His book was filled with that lively wit and pungent irony, which Erasmus kn^w so well how 
to employ. A defence was made by Scaliger in two Satires, characterized by the grossest se- 
verity and bitterness. Scaliger was a more profound scholar than Erasmus, but a much less 
brilliant writer. The wit of his adversary he found it easiest to repay with abuse ; and he 
most unsparingly heaped upon the author of Ciceronianus hard names and reproachful epithets, 
calling him a monster, a parricide, a second Porphyry. — Burigny, De la question &c. par rap- 
port a l'estime due a Cicero, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxvu. 195. 

§ 405. Caius Plinius Ccecilius Secundus, a native of Comum, not far from 
Mediolanum, lived in the latter part of the first century and the beginning of 
the second. He was a nephew of the elder Pliny, and adopted by him. He 
studied eloquence under Quintilian ; and acquired great celebrity and influ- 
ence at Rome as a judicial orator. Under Domitian he held the office of prae- 
tor, and under Trajan that of consul. His eulogy on Trajan is a tribute of 
thanks for the latter dignity. It is the only specimen of his eloquence that 
has come down to us ; it exhibits many undeniable beauties, but is too lavish 
both in praise and in rhetorical ornament. 

1. He was a son of L. Cheilitis by the sister of the elder Pliny ; he assumed 
his uncle's name and inherited his estate. At the age of 41 or 42 he was sent 
to govern the provinces of Bithynia and Pontus, whence he wrote his inter- 
esting epistle respecting the persecution of Christians.- He died at the age of 
52, about A. D. 110, and left the reputation of a liberal and amiable man. 
There is a groundless legend that he was converted to Christianity by Titus 
in Crete, and suffered martyrdom. 

G. E. Gierig, Leben, charakter &c. des jiingeren Plinius. Dortm. 1798. 8. — J. A. Schafer, 
Progr. uber den char, des jung. Plinius. Onolzbach (Ansbach, Onoldi). 1786. 4. — On the story 
of Pliny's conversion, cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. ii. 419. 

2. Pliny published many of his orations and harangues, and wrote other 
works, the loss of which is matter of regret. The Panegyric (Panegyricus 
Trajano dictus) and the Letters (cf. § 441) are the only genuine remains ; al- 
though other works extant have been ascribed to him, as the dialogue decausis 
corruptee eloquentice (§415. 3), and the book de viris ittustribus. — The Panegyric 
was addressed to Trajan on his naming the author for consul A. D. 100, and was 
afterwards publicly recited ; he refers to it in two of his letters (Ep. iii. 13. 18). 
In another letter (Ep. vii. 17) he speaks of his great labor and care in compo- 
sition (cf. P. I. §125). 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 411.— Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. ii. 421. Fabricius is copied in Lemaire's ed. 
Of Pliny, 2d vol. p. 394 ss. 

3. Editions. — The Panegyric is given in many editions of the Letters (§ 441). Separately, 
the best j C. G, Schwartz. Niirnb. (Norimb.) 1746. 4, with a learned and useful commentary.— 



328 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

O. E. Gicrig. Lpz. 1796. 8. " with notes copious and instructive ;" subsequently united to his 
edition of the Letters, with some alterations. Lpz.1806. 2 vols. 8.— The Princeps, by Puteolanus. 
cited § 406. 3. 

4. Translations. — German.— J. A. Schdfer, Ansbach (Onoldi). 1784. 8.—D. L. Wio-and. Lpz. 

1796. 8. French — Louis de Sacy (Ludovicus Sacius). Par. 1709. 8. English.— G. Smith. 

Lond. 1702. 8.— With the Epistles (by " several hands") and a Life of Pliny by Mr. Henley. 
Lond. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 406. Besides the oratorical works above noticed, there are the twelve eulo- 
gies (Panegyrici) on the Roman emperors in the 3d and 4th centuries. They 
are worthy of notice chiefly as literary monuments of the times, and as sub- 
servient to historical research, and not as specimens of oratory ; since in that 
period there was an almost total loss of pure taste, of good style, and of the 
free and noble spirit of genuine eloquence. The principal authors are Clau- 
dius Mamertinus, Eumenius, Nazarius, and Latinus Pacatus. 

1. "These panegyrics are melancholy monuments of the decline which ora- 
tory had suffered since the time of Pliny. They consist of eulogies upon dif- 
ferent Roman emperors and princes, which were pronounced on various pub- 
lic occasions, and not unfrequently delivered as complimentary addresses in 
the actual presence of the imperial sovereigns. The cities in different parts 
of the empire seem to have employed this adulation as a means of securing the 
favor of the reigning prince ; for which purpose they selected their most elo- 
quent and insinuating speakers to prepare and utter such panegyrical dis- 
courses. The cities of Gaul appear to have gone beyond all others in this 
sort of flattery ; since all the eulogies of the collection here described were 
composed by Gallic orators. These performances are but poor imitations of 
the panegyric of Pliny. They contain revolting flatteries and frigid declama- 
tion mingled with exaggerations and subtleties, and are wanting in genius, 
delicacy, and regard to truth. But, although they can scarcely fail to produce 
disgust in the reader, they are highly valuable as historic monuments illus- 
trating the customs and spirit of the times." (Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 191.) 
Nor are they utterly worthless in rhetorical character. "There is considerable 
talent in these discourses, with very fine thoughts, happy turns, lively de- 
scriptions, and just commendations." (Rollin, I*ol. Learn.) 

Cf. C. O. Heyne, Censura duodecim Panegyricorum veterum. Gbtt. 1805. fol. ; also in his 
Opusc. Academ. p. 80. vol.vi. 

2. Claudius Mamertinus was the author of two of the discourses ; one of them, eulogizing the 
emperor Maximian, was pronounced at Treves, on the 20th of April, A. D. 292, at a celebration 
of the founding of Rome ; the other, perhaps of an earlier date, was pronounced on the birth- 
day of Maximian. Another of the panegyrics, delivered about 70 years later, is ascribed to a 
Claudius Mamertinus, supposed to be a son of the former. — Eumenius was a professor of rheto- 
ric in the school of Augustodunum, where he enjoyed a very liberal stipend from the emperor. 
Constantius Chlorus, whom he had previously served as secretary. Four panegyrics are from 
him ; the last of them was delivered at Treves, A. D. 311, to Constantine, by appointment of the 
citizens of Augustodunum, as an address of thanks for favors bestowed on them by that empe- 
ror. — JVazarius was a professor at Burdigala (cf. § 385) ; his panegyric was pronounced at Rome, 
A. D. 321, and eulogizes Constantine the Great.— Latinus Pacatus Drepanius, author of another 
of the discourses, was a professor of the same place, who was sent to Rome A. D. 391, to con- 
gratulate the emperor Theodosius. Optatianus Porphyrins (cf. § 341) is included by Fuhrmann 
(Klein. Handb. p. 745) among the authors of what are called the twelve Panegyrics ; and also 
Ausonius, among whose works is found a eulogy in prose on the emperor Gratian. — Scholl, 
iii. 188. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. ii. 424. 

* 3. Editions.— The best, by C. O. Schwartz, completed by W. Jdger (Jmgerus). Norimb. 1779. 
2 vols. 8. with an Appendix (Appendix, observationum &lc. ) Norimb. 1790. 8.— In Valpy's Var. & 
Delph. Classics, No. 120-124.— The Princeps, Franc. Puteolanus, without name of place, 1476. 4. 
containing the Panegyric of Pliny and eleven others. Those now commonly called the twelve 
do not include Pliny's.— Cf. Harles, Brev. Not. p. 40, 413. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. ii. 428. 

4. Several Panegyrics were composed by Symmachus, an orator of some renown in his times, 
whose letters will be noticed below ($ 444). Fragments of eight orations by him were drawn 
by Mai from the palimpsest manuscript of Fronto (cf. $443) ; three of them are imperial pane- 
gyrics (orationes Augustalcs). Mai published the same under the title Q. Aur. Symmachi octo 
orationum partes &c. Mil. 1815. 8. with a specimen of the chirography of the Ms. 



III. — Rhetoricians. 



§ 407m. It is worthy of remark, that the Roman Rhetoricians had reference 
chiefly to the art of the orator, and not of the prose writer in general. The 
beauties of style in other species of composition, except orations properly so 



RH ETORIC. 329 

called, were investigated by the Grammarians and taught both orally and by 
written works. 

§ 403. It has already been mentioned, that the attention of the young Ro- 
mans was first specially drawn to the art of speaking as such, by the Greek 
rhetoricians who came to Rome with the embassy of Carneades, about B. C. 
155. Lectures on rhetoric and grammar had been given somewhat earlier by 
one Crates, who had come to Rome in the suite of Attalus an ambassador from 
Eumenes 2d, king of Pergamus. Crates, being detained by the breaking of a 
leg, employed himself for amusement in giving lectures (ay.Qoaastg) which at- 
tracted considerable attention. But much greater interest seems to have been 
awakened by the embassy from Athens. The three men (Carneades, Dioge- 
nes, and Critolaus) who composed this embassy, were teachers of rhetoric and 
philosophy. (Cf. P. I. §120.) They introduced among the Romans schools, 
in which instruction in rhetoric was given after the manner taught in the 
Greek books. Some of the Roman Fathers apprehended danger to the state 
from the new schools, and at length the following edict against the rhetoricians 
was given by the Censors : " Whereas we have been informed that certain 
men who call themselves Latin rhetoricians have instituted a new kind of 
learning, and opened schools in which young men trifle away their time day 
after day ; we, judging this innovation to be inconsistent with the purpose for 
which our ancestors established schools, contrary to ancient custom, and inju- 
rious to our youth, do hereby warn both those who keep these schools and 
those who frequent them, that they are herein acting contrary to our pleasure." 

Cf. Suetonius, De Rhetoribus. 

§ 409. But the art of speaking was so highly valued at Rome, that instruc- 
tion in rhetoric could not be wholly interdicted. Schools were opened, as 
has been mentioned (§ 395), by Roman freedmen, when the Grecian masters 
were excluded. The earliest of this description, in which rhetoric was taught 
in the Latin language, is said to have been commenced about B. C. 90, by L. 
Plotius Gallus, who was afterwards the teacher of Cicero. L. Dtacilius Pi- 
litus is mentioned as another noted teacher. Theoretical instruction in rhet- 
oric became more and more valuable in the general estimation, and the em- 
ployment of rhetorician, it is stated, became highly lucrative. 

§ 410. The earliest works which we have in Latin, belonging strictly to the 
class here denominated rhetorical, are from the pen of Cicero ; who, although 
his professional employment was that of the orator and not the rhetorician, 
devoted himself, with the greatest assiduity, to study and explain everything 
belonging to the theory of his art. The merit of his several treatises (cf. § 413) 
is universally acknowledged ; they are the only rhetorical works that we can 
refer properly to the Augustan age. — The next important name in this depart- 
ment is that of Marcus Seneca, the father of the philosopher. He was em- 
ployed at Rome as an actual teacher of rhetoric and oratory, and left some 
works which have come down to us (cf. § 414). We refer them to the 4th 
period of our division, although Seneca was born many years before the death 
of Augustus, because they were chiefly written in the author's old age. M. 
Porcius Latro was a contemporary and friend of Seneca, and also a professed 
rhetorician at Rome ; two or three declamations ascribed to him (cf. § 414. 3) 
are extant. — Rutilius Lupus is another rhetorical writer belonging probably 
to the same age, although by some assigned to a later time ; we have from 
him a treatise on figures (cf. § 414. 4). 

§ 411. The schools of rhetoric were sustained in the period following the 
time of Augustus, although genuine eloquence declined. Many teachers of 
rhetoric are mentioned ; as Hermagoras, and Gabinianus, celebrated both at 
Rome and in Gaul; Virginius Ruf'us. who wrote a treatise on rhetoric; and 
others, whose names it is of little importance to repeat. They are all entirely 
eclipsed by Quintilian, whose reputation was deservedly very high as a living 
teacher, and whose treatise on the art of the orator (§ 415) has secured him 
lasting honor. 

After Quintilian, we find no author of any eminence in this branch of lite- 
rature. — In our last period, subsequent to the Antonines, there were still nu- 
merous teachers of rhetoric, both at Rome and elsewhere (P. I. §128. 5) ; but 
28* 



330 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

if they produced anything of great importance, it is buried in oblivion. From 
several of them, however, something is preserved. 

We barely note the following remains of rhetoricians belonging to the latest period. Curius 
Fortunatianus, about A. D. 240 ; a work entitled Ars rhetorlca scholica, in 3 books, by question 

and answer ; found in Pithmis, as cited § 412 iqwila Romanus, about A. D. 260 ; a Latin 

translation of the Greek treatise of Numenius (§112) Defiguris sententiarum &c. found in Ruhn- 
Icen's ed. of R. Lupus, cited § 414. 4. — Julius Rufinianus, about A. D. 330 ; a continuation of the 
work of Aquila ; also given in Ruhnken's edition just named.— Victorinus, a teacher of rhetoric 
at Rome, driven from his school on account of his being a Christian, by Julian (cf. P. I. §128.2), 
A. D. 362 : a commentary (expositioj on Cicero's treatise de inventione ; found in the collection 
of Pithaus, above cited.— Cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. m. 197. 

§ 412. We insert the following for references on the subject of the Roman 
rhetoricians. 

Franc. Pithaus, Antiqui rhetores Latini. Par.1594. 4. — Claudius Capperonius, Antiqui Rhetores 
Latini. Argent. 1756. 4. an improved ed. of the preceding; a collection containing the later 
rhetoricians mentioned above (§411) and several others. — F. A. Wicdeburg, Prrecepta rhetorica. 
Brunsw. 1786. 8. fcf. §113J. — J. Ch. Theoph. Ernesti, Lexicon technologies Latinorum rhetoricae. 
Lpz. 1797. 8. containing explanations of the technical language of the Latin Rhetoricians and 
Grammarians. — Cf. also Suiter, Allg. Theorie &c. iv. 47. — Rollin, Polite Learning, ch. iv. art. 2. ; 
in his Anc. History, p. 543-554. vol. 2d. ed. N. York, 1836. — Suetonius, De ciaris rhetoribus 
Ccf. § 537. 2). — Quintilian, Inst. Orat. lib. ii. respecting the Roman schools of Rhetoric. — Juve- 
nal, Sat. vii. illustrating the state of learning, and particularly the rhetorical schools in the time 
of Domitian. 

§ 413. M. T. Cicero, already named as a practical orator (§ 404), was like- 
wise a most thorough, copious, and instructive writer on his art. The follow- 
ing are included in his rhetorical works: 1. Rhetorica, ad Herennium, in 4 books, 
which is now thought to be the work of another rhetorician, perhaps of Gni- 
pho, one of Cicero's teachers ; 2. De inventione rhetorica, in 2 books, a work 
said to have been written in his 18th year in 4 books, of which only 2 remain ; 
De Oratore, in 3 books, addressed to his brother, in the form of a dialogue ; 
4. Brutus, or De Claris Oratoribus, being an account of the most distinguished 
orators ; 5. Orator, an ideal picture of a complete speaker, addressed to M. 
Brutus; 6. Topica, or the doctrine of evidence, addressed to the lawyer Tre- 
batius ; 7. De partitione rhetorica, a dialogue between himself and son on 
rhetorical analysis and division; 8. De optimo generc oratorum, designed as a 
preface to his translation of the rival orations of iEschines and Demosthenes 
in the case of Ctesiphon (cf. § 106. 3. § 107. 2). The most valuable of these 
works are the 3d, 4th, and 5th. 

1. Various conjectures have been made by the learned respecting the real author of the books 
addressed to Herennius. That which ascribes the work to Cicero's master, Gnipho, was first 
advanced by Schiitz, one of the best editors of Cicero. — The treatise de ciaris oratoribus is a 
most valuable help in learning the history of Roman eloquence — In the book entitled Topica, 
Cicero treats of the method of finding proper arguments. The sources from which arguments 
may be drawn are called loci communes, common places. The work is based on that of Aris- 
totle by the same title. Cf. J.Q. Adams's Lectures on Oratory. — For a further notice of the seve- 
ral works above named, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 194 ss. — Bdlir, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 501ss. 

2. Editions.— rhetorical works collectively, the best; C. G. Schiitz. Lpz. 1804-8. 3 vols. 8. 
— Princeps, by Aldus ('the elder;. Ven.1514. 8. — rhet. ad herennium, best ; P. Burmann (inn.) 
Leyd. 1761. 8. — de oratore, best ; G. Ch. Harles ("first published 1776 ; but a new impr. ed. 
just before his death J. Lpz. 1816. 8. with notes of Z. Pearce.— O. H. Muller. Lpz. 1819. 8. pro- 
nounced by Dibdin fl827 ) the best extant. — brutus (de Claris oratoribus) J.Ch. F. Wetzel. Hal. 
1793. 8. and (for scholars) Brunsw. 1796. 8.— Charles Beck. Camb. 1837. " well worthy of its au- 
thor, one of the most accurate Latin scholars in our country." Bibl. Rep. No. xxvm. p. 498. — 
orator, J. G. H. Richter. Hal. 1816. 8.— J. C. Orcllius, Turici, 1831. 8. with Brutus & Topica.— 
topica. J. Ch. F.Wetzel, M. T. Cic. opera rhetor, minora, impr'd ed. Lpz. 1823. 8. containing 
the Rhetorica ad Herennium, de inventione, de partitione, and de optimo genere oratorum. 

3. Translations. — German.— F. C. Wolff (De oratore). Alton. 1801.— J. L. H. Waller fBrutusJ. 

Hamb. 1787. 8. French.— Abbe Colin fDe oratore, with Latin;. Par. 1805. 12.— De Villefore 

f Brutus J. Par. 1726. 12 English.— W. Guthrie (Be Oratore;. Lond. 1742. 8. often repr. — 

E. Jones (Brutus 1776. 8.) 

§ 414. Marcus Annceus Seneca, of Corduba in Spain, father of Seneca the 
poet (§ 374) and philosopher (§ 469), was a celebrated rhetorician under Au- 
gustus and Tiberius. He wrote a work entitled Contr over sice, or civil pro- 
cesses, or law-suits, in 10 books, of which we have only a part ; viz. the 1st, 
2d, 7th, 9th, and 10th; and these not in a perfect state. It was a sort of 
Chrestomathy, and is properly ranked in the class of rhetorical works, as it con- 
tains a review and comparison of Greek and Roman orators with regard to 
invention, application, and style. We have also another work by him, enti- 
tled Suasoriaz, consisting of declamations and discourses on imaginary themes. 
It is an appendix to the former work, and also incomplete. The style in both 
is concise, sometimes even to constraint. 



RHETORICIANS. SENECA. QUINTILIAN. 331 

1. Seneca was born B. C. 58, and died A. D. 32. Under Augustus, he lived 
at Rome and taught rhetoric. At the age of 52, he returned to his native 
country, and married Helvia, a woman of distinguished beauty and talents. — 
By her he had three sons; Lucius, the philosopher ; Mela, father of the poet 
Lucan ; and Kovatus, who afterwards took the name of Junius Gallio, and 

was the Gallio mentioned in the history of Paul fActs xviii. 12). In both 

the works of Seneca, we find questions which were discussed in the rhetori- 
cal schools for the sake of exercising the talents of the speakers. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 395. — Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 551. 

2. Editions. — Both works are commonly given in the editions of his son L. Ann. Seneca 
<§ 469. 5). Separately, M. Ann. Seneca rhet. Opera. Bip. 1763. 8. Repr. Bip. 1810. 8. The 
Controversies were first printed, Ven. 1490. The Saasorias added, Ven. 1492. fol. Harles. Brev. 
Not. p. 320. 

3. Besides the declamations of Seneca, we have some other specimens of 
the declamations or discourses which the rhetoricians required of their pupils 
in order to train their minds for argument and debate ; and which were prac- 
ticed by the most eminent orators long after leaving the schools (cf. P. I. 
§ 125j. Of this kind, are a declamation in Ciceronem, and another in Catali- 
nam, ascribed to M. Porcius Latro, who was a professed rhetorician of some 
celebrity (Quint. Inst. Or. x. 5). 

4. Rutilius Lupus probably lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, and 
was, perhaps, the son of the tribune and praetor of that name mentioned by 
Cicero. His treatise, in 2 books, De jiguris sententiarum et elocutionis is an 
extract and translation from a Greek work composed by one Gorgias ; not the 
celebrated sophist of Leontium (§ 114), but probably the teacher at Athens, 
whom the son of Cicero left at the command of his father. The work con- 
tains passages drawn from Greek orators, and some which are not elsewhere 
preserved. 

The first edition was by R. Stephanus. Par. 1530. 4. — The best ; B. Ruhnken. Lugd. Bat. 
1768. 8. 

§ 415. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus , a contemporary of the younger Pliny 
f § 405j, was a native of Calagurris in Spain, but was brought to Rome in his 
infancy. He was for 20 years an eminent teacher of rhetoric. The most no- 
ble of the Romans were among his pupils. He instructed them by example as 
well as by precept, being himself a speaker, although his chief merit as an 
author is founded on his attention to the theory of eloquence. His work, en- 
titled Dc Institutione Oratoria, in 12 books, is exceedingly valuable ; highly 
conducive to the formation of good taste ; comprising at the same time the 
best rules and a specification and critical notice of the best models. The 10th 
is one of the most instructive books in the work. — There is a collection of 
oratorical exercises, Declamationes, consisting of 19 termed smaller declama- 
tions, and 145 called larger, which have been generally ascribed to Quintil- 
ian. They are very unequal in respect of style and value, and are chiefly un- 
worthy of this author. They are probably the productions of several different 
writers, mostly of a later period. — The dialogue, De causis corruptee, eloquen- 
tice, by some ascribed to Tacitus, and by some to Pliny (§ 405. 2), is by others 
referred to Quintilian. 

1. Quintilian opened his school at Rome under Vespasian ; he was the first 
rhetorician who received a salary from the imperial treasury. His Institutes 
were written about B. C. 92, after he retired from the business of public in- 
struction. 

Cf. Schbtt, Litt. Rom. n. 398. — A fuller account of his life, in Rollin, as cited above § 412. — 
Cf. Preface to Spalding's edition below cited (4). — Dodwell, Annales Q,uintiliani &c. Oxon. 
1693. 8. 

2. The Institutes of Oratory are designed to form a complete orator. The 
author therefore begins with him in his infancy, and goes on with him through 
his preparatory education, his professional practice, and his retirement from 
active life. The 1st book is of special value as informing us respecting the 
manner in which children and youth were instructed before entering the 
schools of rhetoric. The 2d book gives rules to be observed in these rhetor- 
ical schools. The 10th book, mentioned above as very instructive, contains a 
notice of the Greek and Etonian classic authors. 

_ The only complete manuscript of this work preserved to modern times was one found by Pog- 
gio of Florence, at the time of the council of Constance, A. D. 1417, in a tower of the Abbey of 



332 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

St. Gall ; what has become of this Ms. is not known ; but a copy of it, taken bv Poggio, is now 
in England. Scholl, Litt. Rom. h. 400. 

3. Q-uintilian says expressly (Inst. Or. vi. procem. viii. 6), that he wrote a treatise on the 
cmcses of the corruption of eloquence. This is one of the grounds, on which some of the critics 
have ascribed to him the dialogue now extant on that subject, as Gravius, Henry Stephens, Sax- 
ius and others, have done. The title of the dialogue, however, in the manuscripts and early 
editions, is simply de claris oratoribus ; the other part, scu de causis corruptm eloquentUe, was 
added by Lipsius. Spalding (in his edition named below, 4; has cited passages which he thinks 
prove that the dialogue was not the work of Q,uintilian. — The principal writers who ascribe 
the dialogue to Pliny are Nast fy Melmoth, authors of the translations cited below (b). — The 
early editions and the manuscripts ascribe the dialogue to Tacitus. Brotier and other critics fol- 
low this authority. Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 404. — Murphy, Trans, of Tacitus ( cited § 534. 5;, 

p. 258. vol. vi. ed. Bost. 1822. — Fitzosborne's Letters. 

4. Editions. — De Tnstit. Or. — Best ; G. L. Spalding. Lpz. 1798-1816. 4 vols. 8. The 4th 
vol. prepared by Buttmann after Spalding's death. These vols, contain the text. A 5th voL 
containing notes and index by C. F. Zumpt, and a Lexicon Quintiliancum forming a 6th vol. by 
JE. Bonnelli, have-heen since added. — G. II. Lvnemann. Han. 1826. 2 vols. 8. — 0,'s works 

are given in Lemairc's Bibl. Class. Earlier celebiated editions ; P. Burmann. Lugd. Bat. 2 

vols. 4. — Capperonius. Par. 1725. fol. — J. M. Gessner, Gott. 1738. 4. Oxf. 1806. 2 vols. 8. 

C. Roll/in, (De Inst. Or.; 2d ed. Par. 1734. 2 vols. 8. Altenb. (Harles ed.) 1772. Oxf. (In- 
gram ed.; 1809. valued tor the preface of Rollin. P. Pithceus fDeclam. Min.;. Par. 1580. 8. 

De causis corr. eloq. — Good ; J. H. A. Schulze. Lpz. 1788. 8. — J. Seebode. Gbtt. 1815. 8. — 

G. Bbtticher. Berl. 1832. 8. — § F. Ritter. Bon. 1836. 8.— It is given in most editions of Tacitus, 
and of Q,uintilian. In Brotie? :, s ed. fcited § 534. 4; a chasm in the dialogue is elegantly sup- 
plied by that editor. 

5. Translations. — French — Abbe Gedoyn. flnstit. OratJ Par. 1718. 4. 1803. 4 vols. 12. 

English. — W. G. Guthrie. (Instit. Orat.; 1756. 2 vols. 8. — W. Melmoth. (De caus. corr. eloq.; 
Lond. 1754. 8. — Arthur Murphy (De caus. corr. el. with valuable notes; in his transl. of Taci- 
tus, cited § 534. 5. German. — J. J. H. Nast. (dialogue de causis &c.) Halle 1787. 8. 



IV. — Grammarians. 



§ 416m. The language of the Romans gained in copiousness, refinement and 
excellence, as the arts and sciences began to find patronage among them (cf. 
P. I. § 114). Patriotic and acute men, who had studied and admired the 
Greek language, now applied themselves to a more particular investigation 
and improvement of their native tongue. These were the Grammarians, who 
made the study of language their principal business, and gave the Roman 
youth instruction in respect both to accuracy and to beauty of style. And 
subsequently, when Roman taste was declining, these men endeavored to sus- 
tain the classical reputation and influence of the older writers, especially the 
poets and orators, by exhibiting them as models, and illustrating their beau- 
ties. In the later periods the grammarians and philologists were almost the 
sole possessors of the literature. Their industry, however, did not always take 
the best direction. They often deviated into useless speculations, prolix dis- 
cussions, and arbitrary technicalities, which gave to their pursuits a dry and 
forbidding aspect. Some of them put their researches into a written form, 
and various essays from them have come down to us. 

§ 417. It has been before remarked (§ 408), that the grammarian gave in- 
struction respecting language and style generally, while the rhetorician con- 
fined himself to the style and other qualifications of the orator. The Romans 
at first applied the term literatus to the grammarian, meaning just what the 
Greeks did by yQainnxriy.ug (cf. P. I. § 71), one who was well instructed in 
letters. Afterwards the term grammaticus was introduced by the Romans in 
the same sense. We translate it by the word grammarian, but the tenia phi- 
lologist would be more appropriate ; because the studies and instructions of 
the grammaticus were not limited to the mere forms and syntax of language in 
accordance with the modern limitation of the term grammar, but were extend- 
ed over the whole field of interpretation and literary criticism. 

§ 418. It is commonly stated, that the first who awakened any interest at 
Rome in the studies of the grammarian was Crates of Mallos, who came to 
Rome in the embassy of Attalus, B. C. 168. His lectures probably were in 
reference to Greek authors, but served to direct the attention of the Romans 
to productions in their own language. Latin grammarians soon appeared; 
among the earliest Suetonius mentions two Roman knights. They were, how- 



GRAMMARIANS. 333 

ever, generally slaves or freedmen, and probably of Greek origin. Some of 
the more eminent of the early grammarians were the following ; Aurelius 
Opilius, who composed a commentary in 9 books on different authors ; Vale- 
rius Cato, author of a poem before mentioned (§ 344J and of various other 
works ; Antonius Gnipho, who left a treatise on the Latin tongue. These 
flourished in the time of Sylla; Gnipho continued to teach for a long period 
and seems to have finally opened a rhetorical school, where Cicero attended on 
his lectures (§ 413). Nothing of their grammatical works now remains. 

In the opening of the next period, which extended from the war of Sylla 
B. C. 88, to the death of Augustus, we find one author of special value and 
celebrity in this department, M. Terentius Varro (§ 423), who was celebrated 
as the " most learned of the Romans ; " he made most extensive researches in 
grammar and philology, of which some valuable remains are preserved to us. 
— Another grammarian of some note was Verrius Flagcus, who was employed 
by Augustus to teach in the imperial palace ; of his principal work we have 
an abridgment (cf. § 428). — Julius Hyginus, a freedman of Augustus, and 
keeper of the Palatine Library (P. I. $ 126), was also a professed grammarian, 
and left a commentary on Virgil with other writings ; his philological works 
are, however, all lost. 

§ 419. In the next period, extending from the death of Augustus A. D. 14 
to the Antonines, there were many writers belonging to the class now under no- 
tice. In the preceding period, a chief object of attention among the gramma- 
rians was to inquire into the origin and structure of the Latin language. But 
in this, their attention was directed to the interpretation and criticism of au- 
thors, especially of the works, which appeared in the age of Augustus; as the 
grammarians of Alexandria employed themselves much in commenting on the 
classic authors of Greece. Asconius Pedianus in the 1st century (§ 424) 
gained some celebrity by commentaries on Virgil, Sallust and Cicero. There 
were two grammarians by the name of Valerius Probus, one under Nero and 
Vespasian, and the other under Adrian. Rhemnius Palsemon was a celebra- 
ted teacher of grammar in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. Annseus Cornu- 
tus, who has been mentioned as author of a treatise in Greek ($ 227), is sup- 
posed to have exerted a considerable influence on the literature of his age by 
his instructions at Rome, and by his writings, among which was a lost com- 
mentary on Terence ; he taught philosophy as well as grammar, and was final- 
ly banished by Nero. Velius Longus is the name of another grammarian of 
this period, who left a treatise on orthography still extant, and a commentary 
on the JEneid which is lost. We have likewise a treatise on orthography ascri- 
bed to Terentius Scaurus, who lived in the time of Adrian, and was preceptor 
to the emperor L. Verus ; he wrote also a grammar and a commentary on 
Horace's Art of Poetry. Cornelius Fronto, named among the epistolizers 
(§ 443), should also be mentioned here, as he was an eminent grammarian and 
teacher, and left a treatise, still extant, on the different meanings of words 
commonly called synonymous. 

But one of the most valuable and interesting authors in the department be- 
fore us is Aulus Gellius, who flourished at the very close of this period; his 
miscellaneous production, entitled Nodes Atticce, will be noticed below (§ 425). 

The extant treatises ascribed to Valerius Probus are, (1) a grammar, grammaticarum instil. 
lib. duo ; (2) an account of Roman stenograby, de notis Romauorum ; (3) Scholia on the Georgics 
and Bucolics of Virgil, found in the collection of Putsch cited below (§422,) ; separately, H. 
Ernst. Soras, 1647. 8. The scholia on Virgil (with other commentaries,), by A. Mai. Mil. 
1818. 8. — The only work of Palsemon extant is his Surrana Grammatices, or sketch of gram- 
mar ; given also by Putsch. The grammatical pieces remaining from Longus, Scaurus and 
Fronto, are given by the same ; that of Fronto likewise by Mai ($ 443. 2). 

§ 420. In the last period included in our glance, the studies of the gramma- 
rian and philologer continued to be held in honor. In the eastern empire an 
imperial ordinance in the beginning of the 5th century contained the provis- 
ion that all Greek and Latin grammarians, who had been employed in teach- 
ing their science for twenty years, should hold the rank of Vicars (vicarii). 
The Vicars were governors of extensive provinces, and belonged to the class 
of dignitaries who were styled Spectabiles, and were addressed in the words 
Vestra Spectabilitas or Vestra Claritas. 

§ 421. Of the numerous grammarians of this period, the following may be 



334 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

named as the principal ; Nonius Marcellus, Censorinus, and Pomponitrs Fes- 
tus of the 3d century ; iElius Donatus of the 4th century ; Macrobius, Dio- 
medes, and Charisius of the 5th century ; whose works are mentioned in the 
following sections (§ 423 — 432). Marcianus Capella may properly be named 
here, although the peculiar character of the work left by him to posterity is 
such as may justify our placing him among the philosophical writers (cf. $473). 
There were others, of whom some remains are preserved; as Fla^ius Caper, 
Victorinus, already mentioned as a rhetorician, Lucius Ampelius, Mallius 
Theodorus, Pompeius, Servius the commentator on Virgil, and Acron and Por- 
phyrio, commentators, on Horace. 

Priscian of Csesarea (§ 433) does not fall chronologically within our glance, 
as he lived after the overthrow of Rome A. D. 476 ; but he must not be omit- 
ted, being one of the most celebrated of all the Latin grammarians. Isidore 
of Seville, who lived still later, is also deserving of mention here on account 
of his labors in grammar and philology (§ 434). 

The remains of Caper, and the grammatical pieces of Victorinus are given in the collection of" 
Putsch (cf. $ 422). — From Ampelius we have a work entitled Liber memorialis, in 50 chapters, on 
various topics, many of them historical ; it is commonly given in the editions of Florus fcf. $ 536~ 
A). — Mallius Theodorus, at the close of the 4th century, left a work De Metris ; published first 
by J. F. Heusinger. 1755. Repr. Lugd. Bat. 1766. 8. — The works of Pompeius are two pieces 
which are commentaries on Donatus (cf. § 429) ; first published by Fr. Lindemann. Lpz. 1820. 8, 
— The purely grammatical pieces of Servius are given by Putsch (cf. § 422J. The commentary 
on Virgil is given in Lcmaire's Virgil (cf. § 362. 4) and other editions." — The comments of Ac- 
ron and Porphyrio are given in some of the editions of Horace fcf. 363. 4) ; these grammarians 
are placed by some as earl y as the 2d century. — See Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 311 ss. 

$ 422. We give here references on the subject of the Latin grammarians 
collectively. 

1. Collections. — J. Theod. Bellovacus, Grammatici illustres xii. Par. 1516. fol. — Dionys* 
Goihofred, Auctores Latins Linguae in unum redacti corpus. Genev. 1595, 1622. 4. — H. Puts- 
chius ^Putsch), Grammatics Latins auctores antiqui. Han. 1605. 4. including the remains of 

about 30 writers An account of the contents of these collections is given by Fabricius, BibL 

Lat. iii. 318 ss. cf. also F. A. Erbert, Allg. bibliograph. Lexicon, i. 700 ss. — F. Lindemann, cor- 
pus Grammaticorum Latinorum. 1831. 4, (commenced and to be continued ; 1st vol. said to be 
well executed). — We may add here, T. Gaisford, Scriptores Latini rei metrics. Oxf. 1837. 8> 

2. Respecting the grammarians; Suetonius, De illustr. grammaticis fcf. §537,). — Quintilian, 
Inst. Or. lib. i. — Rollin, Of Grammarians and Philologers, in Anc. Hist. p. 457 ss. vol n. ed. 
N. Y. 1835. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. l. 184. n. 237, 485. in. 307.— J. E. Im. Walchius, Diss, de ortu 
et progressu artis crit. apud veteres Romanos, Jen. 1747. 4. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. n. 35. — 
Bdhr, p. 709. 

§ 423. Marcus Terentius Varro, who was born B. C. 117 and died B. C. 27, 
was an uncommonly fruitful writer. In his youth he followed the profession 
of war and was on the side of Pompey ; he afterwards went over to the par- 
ty of Caesar, who gave him the charge of his library. By Antony he was ban- 
ished ; but under Augustus he returned with the other exiles. He closed his 
life in literary ease, at the age of 90. His work on the Latin tongue consisted 
originally of 24 books; but we have now only the 4th, 5th and 6th, which treat 
of etymology, and the 7th, 8th and 9th, which treat of the analogy of language ; 
of the other books merely detached fragments remain. On account of the an- 
tiquity and the accuracy of these writings, they doubtless are worthy of the 
first rank among the grammatical productions of the Romans. Varro, how- 
ever, often went too far in his etymological speculations, and was too partial to 
the domestic derivation of Latin words. 

1. Varro was a historian, poet (§ 345) and philosopher, as well as grammari- 
an. His works are said to have amounted to nearly 500 in number. Of these 
nothing remains but the parts of the work already named de Lingua Latina, a 
treatise on husbandry (§ 499), and some slight fragments of other performan- 
ces. — The titles of many of the lost treatises indicate that they belonged to 
the class properly denominated critical, or philological. 

Others were on mythological subjects ; e. g. the treatise De cultu Deorum (§ 503). — Others 
were biographical and historical ; among which were a work entitled Annates, and another De 
initiis urbis Romce ; also a work entitled Hebdomadum or De imaginibus, containing notices of 
seven hundred eminent men. Cf. Aid. Gell. Noct. Att. iii. 10. xvi. 9.—Plin. Hist. N. xxxv. 2. — 
A few were philosophical ; that de Philosophia contained a comprehensive view of all the an- 
cient sects with their subordinate schools and parties. He wrote many satirical pieces (§ 345). 
There is a collection of maxims extant, which is said to have been drawn from the works of 
Varro ; they are given in Schneider's collection cited <S 489. 3. — Augustine in his work De civ- 
itate Dei, often refers to the work of Varro ; and there'was a groundless story that Pope Gregory 
caused the writings of Varro to be burned in order to shield Augustine from the disgrace of 
having borrowed too freely from them For a view of the life and writings of Varro, se© 



GRAMMARIANS. ASCONIUS. GELLIUS. CENSORINUS. 835 

Dunlop, Hist, Rom. Lit. ii. 23-53. — Schneider, De vita T. Varronis &c. in his Collection jtret 
framed. — V. Maurus, De vita Varronis &c. Lugd. 1563. 8. 
2. Editions. — Whole works. — Princeps, by H. Stephanus. Par. 1569. 8. — Most complete, 

Dordrecht (Doit, Dordracum), 1619. Repr. Amst. 1623. 8 De Latina Lingua.. — Best ; Bi- 

pont, 1788. 2 vols. 8. — Cf. G. D. Kmler, Liters Crit. in Varron. de L. L. (ad V. C. Heyne). 
Duisb. 1790. 8. 

§ 424. Asconius Pedianus, a native of Padua, was a grammarian of the 1st 
century. He wrote annotations on some of the orations of Cicero ; fragments 
of which are still extant. 

1. These fragments or extracts were found by Poggio in the convent of St. 
Gall near Constance; they are styled Enarrationes in M. T. Cic. Orationes. 
Some additional notes were discovered by Mai in the Ambrosian library at 
Milan. The commentaries of Asconius on Virgil and Sallustare entirely losL 
There is a historical work entitled Origo gentis Romance^ which has by some 
been ascribed to him; but is usually admitted to belong to SextusAurelius(§539). 

Cf. Schccll, Litt. Rom. u. 485. m. 160. — Bdhr, Gesch. Rom Lit. p. 539. 

2. Editions. — Princeps fcura PoggiiJ. Ven. 1477. fol. — Latest named by B'ahr (cum not. 

CreniiJ. Leyd. 1698. 12. — Given with C's orations in the ed. of Grwvius (cited § 404. 5) The 

fragments discovered by Mai were published by him in 1814 fcf. § 404. 5J. 

§ 425. Aldus Gellius, born at Rome, lived in the time of the emperor Anto- 
ninus Pius. His work entitled Nodes Atticce, is a collection of various observ- 
ations, which he had gathered from the best Greek and Latin authors for the 
improvement and entertainment of his children. The collection was made in 
the winter nights, during his residence at Athens. It consists of miscellane- 
ous remarks chiefly on grammatical, historical and antiquarian topics, and con- 
tains much valuable matter for the philologer and critic. There were origin- 
ally 20 books ; the 8th and the beginning of the 6th are lost. 

1. He is called Agellius in some manuscripts, and the French write his name 
Aulugelle. Cornelius Fronto (§ 443) was one of his early teachers before he 
went to study at Athens. After his return to Rome he was appointed one of 
the Centumviri (P. IV. § 262). His death is supposed to have occurred before 

A. D. 164. The Nodes Atticce contain a number of extracts from lost 

works. The arrangement of the contents is not methodical, and the style is 
not free from impurities. 

Schiill, Litt. Rom. in. 309. — Prefaces and Excurs. in the editions of Longolius 8f Conradi be- 
low cited. — On the age of Gellius, Hen. Dodwell, in the Diss, de estate Peripfi maris Euxini, giv- 
en in Hudson's Minor Greek geographers, cited $ 208t. 2. 

2. Editions. — Best ; A. Lion. Gott. 1824. 2 vols. 8. — Gronovius. Lug. Bat. 1706. 4 J. L. 

Conradi. Lpz. 1762. 2 vols. 8. a reimpression of Gronov's. — The Bipont ed. 1784. is based on 
the same ; as is that of P. D. Longolius. Curise Regnit. 1741. 8. — Princeps, by Sweynheym fy 
Pannartt (printers). Rom. 1469. fol. ed. J. Andreas Aleriensis, bishop of Aleria ; " esteemed 
among the rarest of the Editiones Principes.'''' — An improved ed. of Aul. Gell. seems to be a de- 
sideratum. Cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. iii. 10. — Dibdin, Intr. Gr. & Lat. Class, i. 342.— Phil. Caro- 
his, Animadversiones in Agellium &c. ( Ch. Arnold ed._j Noriberg. 1663. 8. 

3. Translations. — German. — H. TV. von Wallenstem. Lemgo, 1785. 8. French. — Jos. Dome 

de Vertevil. Par. 1789.3 vols. 12. English.— TV. Beloe. Lond. 1795. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 426. Censorinus, a grammarian of the 3d century, is known by his work 
entitled De die natali. It was addressed to his friend Quintus Cerellius on 
the occasion of his birth-day, and contains much learning. It treats of the 
different periods of human life, of the divisions of time, days, nights, months, 
years, &c. mostly in a philological manner. He wrote also a work on accents, 
which is lost excepting a few passages quoted by Priscian. 

1. The work of Censorinus treats also of music, astronomy, of periodical 
games and celebrations, and other topics. It consists of 25 chapters ; and is 
of considerable value in determining various questions in chronology and an- 
tiquities. — The early editions of Censorinus contained 15 additional chapters, 
which Louis Carrio, in his edition, first separated from the rest as forming a 
eeparate work, entitled De naturali institutione, and probably not belonging to 
the same author. They treat of geometry and versification. . 

Sclibll, Litt. Rom. in. 312. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. iii. 417 Bdhr, p. 661. 

2. Editions. — The most complete ; S. Havercamp. Leyd. 1743 (with new title 1767). 8. 

The latest, ./. S. Grvber. Numb. (Norimb.) 1805. repr. 1810. 8. — The edition of L. Carrio, 
mentioned above, was printed Par. 1583. 8. repr. Levd. 1603.— The Princeps, with the Tabula 
Cebetis (cf..§ 188). (Bencd. Hector printer;. Bonon. 1497. fol. 

§ 427. Nonius Marcellus, a native of Tivoli, lived probably in the 4th cen- 
tury, but is placed by some at the close of the 2d. We have from him a work 
styled Compendiosa dodrina de projjrietate sermonum, in 19 chapters, written 



336 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

for the use of his son. They are valuable on account of the subjects treated, 
and the fragments of ancient writers which they contain. 

1. He is surnamed in some manuscripts Pcripateticus Tiburiensis. The 
critics have passed very different opinions respecting the merits of his work. 
<; It is certain, however," says Scholl (a) "that no ancient grammarian is more 
rich in his citations from previous writers." 

(a) Litt. Rom. in. 312. — Cf. Bahr, p. 720.— G. I. Vossius, De Philolog. cap. 5. —J. Lipsius, 
Antiq. lect. ii. c. 4. 

2. Editions. — ./. Mercerus, (Josias le Merdier) Par.1614. 8. with Fulgentius de prisco sermone, 
Repr. Lips. 1826. 8. — Princeps (according to some) Pomponius ed. Rom. 1471. (others) JV. Jen- 
son printer. Ven. 1471.— It is found in some editions of Varro. — Illustrations of the dramatic 
fragments found in Nonius, by Reuvens, as cited § 312. 

§ 428. Seztus Pomponius Festus, who lived probably in the middle of the 4th 
century, left a work.entitled De verborum significaiione, in 20 books. It is, 
properly speaking, an abridgment of a larger grammatical treatise of Verrius 
Flaccus (§ 418.) From this abridgment another was made by Paulus Diaconus 
or Winifrid, in the 8th century, which is the only one that has come down to us. 

1. The words are arranged alphabetically, and each book of the abridgment 
contains a letter. " The abridgment of Festus is a work very useful in ac- 
quiring a knowledge of the Latin tongue, but it has experienced an unhappy 
lot. It existed entire until the 8th century, when Paul Winifrid formed from 
it a meager compilation, which from that time supplanted in the libraries the 
work of Festus. The latter is indeed lost, excepting that in the 16th century 
a single imperfect manuscript was found in Illyria. This manuscript, com- 
mencing with the letter Jf, fell into the hands of Aldus Manutius, who incor- 
porated it with the compilation of Winifrid, and made of them one work ; 
which he printed, in 1513, at the end of the Cornucopia of P err otto." 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 315.— Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p.721.~Respecting Perrotto, cf. $372. 1.5. 

2. Editions.— The best, A. Dacier fin us. Delph. Par. 1681; impr. by J. Clerc. Amst.1699. A. 
^-Princeps, by Zarotti (printer;. Mil. 1471. fol. 

§ 429. JElius Donatus, a celebrated philologer of Rome, in the 4th century, 
is also known as the instructor of Jerome. We have from him several gram- 
matical essays, which have served as the basis, in some respects, for modern 
authors on Latin Grammar. They treat partly of the elements of language 
and of prosody, and partly of syntax and diction. He left also a valuable 
commentary on five comedies of Terence, in which he not only illustrates the 
meaning of the words, but comments upon the plan and the dramatic charac- 
ter of the pieces. 

1. The two principal grammatical treatises are styled Editio prima de Uteris, 
syllabisjue, pedibus, et tonis, and Editio secunda de octo partibus orationis ; 
they are sometimes termed Ars Donati. They form, when united, something 
like a complete grammar, being the earliest systematic Latin grammar known 
to have existed. — There is another treatise by him, Be barbarismo, solcecismo, 
schematibus , et tropis. 

A brief life and description of Donatus which Peter Daniel copied from a manuscript in the 
Royal Library of Paris is given by Fabricius ; it represents him as of a mean and disgusting 
personal appearance ; but it is an absurd document of no authority. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. iii. 
406.— Scholl, Litt. Rom. m. 317. 

2. Editions. — The Grammatical essays, by Rob. Stephanus. Par. 1543. 8. containing the com- 
mentaries on them by Sergius and Servius. Also given in the Collection of Putsch, cited § 422. 
' — For the comments of Pompeius on Donatus, see § 421. — The commentary on Terence is 
given in the more complete editions of that author (cf. Q 355. 3). A German translation of a 
part of it, Petersb. 1782. 8. — See L. Schopen, Diss. &c. cited $ 355. 4. - 

3. There is extant a commentary on Virgil ascribed to Donatus ; but it is generally consid- 
ered to be the production not of JElius, but of Tiberius Claudius Donatus, who lived perhaps in 
the same period.— Printed Neapol. 1535. with Probus on the Bucolics f§ 419). 

§ 430. Macrobius Jlmbrosius Aurelius Theodosivs, of uncertain origin, lived 
probably in the first part of the 5th century. His commentary on Cicero's 
Dream of Scipio, in 2 books, contains much that is useful in reference to phi- 
losophy and to mythology. His seven books of Saturnalia, or Table-talks, are 
specially valuable in philology, although they consist chiefly of compilations 
from other authors, Greek and Latin. Much is taken from Gellius, and the 
7th book is almost entirely from Plutarch. Of another work by him, strictly 
grammatical, on the difference and affinity of the Greek and Latin verb, we have 
an extract made by an unkown Johannes, perhaps the celebrated Scottish 
John Erisena, 



GRAMMARIANS. MACROBIUS. CHARISIUS. PRISCIAN. 337 

1. Some have supposed that Macrobius was born in Greece ; in the manu- 
scripts he is styled Vir consularis et illustris. Some have also thought him 
to have been a Christian. — The full titles of the three known works are given 
as follows : Commentariorum in Somnium Scipionis a Cicerone description 
Lib. II; — Saturnaliorum conviviorum Lib. VII ; — De differentiis ct sccietatibus 
Grccci et Latini verbi. — The- second, the Saturnalia, is in the form of dialogue, 
purporting to be the transcript of conversations held at table during the festi- 
val of the SaturnrJia (P. IV. § 230) ; it includes discussions of historical and 
mythological topics, explanations of various passages in ancient authors, and 
remarks on Roman manners and customs. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. iii. 323. Mahul, Diss, sur la vie de Macrobe, in the Class. Journ. vol. xx. 

p. 105. — On the plagiarism by some charged on Macrobius, J. T/wmasius, Diss, de Plagio liter. 
Lips. 1679. 4. 

2. Editions. — The Variorum ed. by J. Gronovius. Ludg. Bat. 1670. 8. is said to be still the 
best. Repr. Lond. 1694. — That of J. C. Zeune. Lpz. 1774. 8. is valued only for the notes. — 
The Bipont, 1788. 2 vols. 8. has no notes, but a correct text, and a useful Notitia Literaria. — 
Princeps, according to Dibdin, Jenson (pr.) Ven. 1472. fol. — The tract on the Greek and Latin 
verb is given in the collection of Putsch (§ 422). 

§ 43U. Flavius Sosipater Charisius, who flourished probably at the com- 
mencement of the 5th century, was a native of Campania, a Christian, and a 
professed grammarian at Rome. He compiled for the use of his son a work 
entitled Institutiones Grammatical, in 5 books : it is still extant, but the 1st & 
5th books are in a defective state. 

1. Charisius is by some placed in the 6th century. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 326. 

2. Editions. — Contained in the grammatical collection of Putsch, cited $422. — Also by G. 
Fabricius. Bas. 1551. 8.— Princeps, Neapol. 1532. fol. 

§ 432t. Diomedes, although the time when he flourished is not certain, was 
probably of the 5th century ; he is quoted by Priscian. He left a grammatical 
work, in 3 books, De oratione, de partibus orationis, et devario rhetorum genere. 
Nothing is known respecting him ; but his Greek name may perhaps be con- 
sidered as indicating that he was a slave. 

Editions.— J. Casarius. Haganofe, 1526. 8. Par. 1526. 8.— First printed, by Nic. Jenson. Ven. 
fol. without date.— Given in the collection of Putsch (cf. § 422). 

§ 433. Priscianus, a Latin grammarian of Constantinople, was a native of 
Caasarea, or according to others a native of Rome educated at Coesarea. He 
flourished probably in the first half of the 6th century. His Grammatical 
Commentaries, in 18 books ( Commentariorum grammaticorum libri xviiij, form 
the most extensive ancient work we have on the grammar of the Latin lan- 
guage ; and are considered as holding a classical authority on that subject. 
The first 16 books, treating of the several parts of speech, are commonly called 
the Larger Priscian, and the 2 last, which treat of syntax, are called the 
Smaller Priscian. 

1. The Commentaries are addressed, or dedicated, to Julian, not the Apos- 
tate (cf. §127), but a man of consular and patrician rank. 

Fabricius mentions a Hamburg manuscript containing this work (codex vetustus membranaceus J, 
which professes to have been written at Constantinople during the consulship of Olibrius ; the 
copyist, one Theodoras, calls himself a disciple of Priscian. The consulship of Olibrius. which 
is given for the date of this manuscript, was A. D. 526.— See Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. iii. 398, Er- 
nesWs ed. — Scholl, Lilt. Rom. in. 329. 

2. We have other grammatical works from Priscian ; among which are trea- 
tises with the following titles, De accentibus, De versibus comicis, De declina- 
tione nominum, De prceexcrcitamentis rhetorical. — Priscian was also probably 
the author of three poems, which have sometimes been ascribed to Rhemnius 
Fannius ; viz. one entitled Periegesis e Dionysio, a version or rather imitation 
of the Greek of Dionysius (cf § 217 ), in 1087 verses ; another entitled 
De Sideribus, in 200 verses, little else than a dry nomenclature ; and the poem 
De ponderibus et mensuris, of which we have only 162 verses. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 113.— Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 181, 188, 575, 731. 

3. Editions. — The Commentaries.— Rest, by Ji. Krehl. Lpz. 1819. 2 vols. 8. containing also 
all the other works.— The other grammatical treatises, Fr. Lindemann, Prisciani Opera minora. 
Leyd. & Lpz. 1818. 8.— All the grammatical works are in Putsch (§422).— The poems are siven 
in Wernsdorfs Poet. Lat. Min. cited (S 348. 2.— The poem on Weights &c. by Endlicher. Vien, 
1828. ■ \ , 

§ 434*. Isidorus Hispalensis, commonly called Isidore of Seville, was a na- 
tive of Carthago Nova (Carthngena), and held the office of bishop of Seville. 
.He died A. D. 636. His princiml work is usually cited by the title Orio-ines ; 

29 



338 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

it consists of 20 books, and contains a great variety of matter, being indeed a 
sort of Encyclopaedia. The last 10 books are chiefly occupied with the ety- 
mology and explanation of words. 

1. He wrote also several treatises on grammatical subjects ; a chronicle, or 
history of the world, from the Creation to A. D. 615 ; and brief histories of the 
Goths and Visigoths. Besides the works already named, on account of which 
he is mentioned in this place, he likewise composed various treatises on sacred 
and ecclesiastical subjects. 

J. A. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. media? et infimae retatis &c. vol. iv. p. 183. ed. of Man si (Patavii, 
1754. 6 vols. 4).— ScJiiiU, LiU. Rom. in. 334.— Clarke, Succ. of Sac. Lit. vol. n. p. 364. as cited 
$ 293. 

2. Editions. — Whole Works.— Best, Arivali. Rome, 1797. 2 vols. fol. — The Origines were 
first published separately, by O. Zanner. August. Vindel. 1472. fol.— With notes by B. Vvlca- 
ntits. Bas. 1577. fol. 



V. — Epistolizers and Romancers. 

§ 435. A large number of Letters or Epistles is presented to the student in 
Roman Literature ; and in this department the language is justly said to be 
rich. We find two classes of letters ; those which were actually sent to indi- 
viduals in the real intercourse of life, and those which were merely put into 
the form of letters on account of a preference in the authors to express in such 
a form, what they originally designed for publication. The earliest letters in 
Latin, of which we have any notice, were of the former class, and belong to 
the third period of our division, extending from the civil war, B. C. 88, to the 
death of Augustus, A. D. 14. 

The principal and most important are those of Cicero, particularly noticed 
below (§ 440). But in the collection of Cicero's letters are preserved letters 
from many others, one or more from about 30 different writers. Among these 
writers are the following; Quintus, the brother of Cicero; Marc Antony, the 
triumvir; Julius Caesar ; Brutus and Cassius, his murderers ; Marcus Coelius 
Rufus ; Cneius Pompey ; Marcellus, for whom Cicero pronounced the cele- 
brated oration ; and Munatius Plancus, who obtained a disgraceful celebrity 
at the court of Cleopatra in Egypt. 

§ 436. Julius Caesar was the author of many letters. Pliny (Nat. Hist, 
vii. 25) relates that he was able to dictate to his amanuenses as many as four 
and sometimes even seven letters at a time. A considerable number of Cae- 
sar's letters were published. Suetonius (Vit. Cces. 56) speaks of three collec- 
tions ; one of letters to the senate, another of letters to Cicero, and a third of 
letters to various friends. But none remain to us excepting the few included 
among those of Cicero. One book in the collection of Cicero's letters is com- 
posed of letters from M. Ccelius, who, at the age of 16, had been committed to 
the care of Cicero, in order to be trained for the business of the Forum (cf. 
P. I. § 125). His licentiousness exposed him to a prosecution, and Cicero ut- 
tered an oration in his defence. He obtained much reputation as an orator, 
and rose to the office of prsetor. His letters were written from Rome to Cicero 
While the latter was governor of Cilicia. 

§ 437. In the period from Augustus to the Antonines, we meet with two 
important authors in this species of composition, Pliny the younger and Sen- 
eca. Most of Pliny's letters (cf. § 441) were probably not designed for publi- 
cation, but written merely for the persons to whom they are addressed ; afew 
of them perhaps were composed with reference to their being ultimately made 
public. The letters of Seneca (§ 442) were evidently composed on purpose for 
publication, and it is even a matter of doubt whether they were ever sent to 
the persons to whom they are addressed. — A third writer belongs to the close 
of the same period, Cornelius Fronto (§ 443), whose letters seem to have had 
place in an actual correspondence. 

§ 438. In the last period included in our glance, Symmachus ($444) of trre 
4th century, is the only pagan writer who is worthy of notice as an author of 
letters. Sidonius, who was later still (cf. $ 445), was a Christian. 



EPISTOLIZERS. CICERO. 339 

Other Christian authors composed epistles in the Latin language. We ought, perhaps, to 
mention particularly, as belonging to this late period, Paulinus, bishop of Nola, and Cassiodo- 
rus, who held high civil offices under Theodoric, A. D. 490, and afterwards retired to a monas- 
tery founded by "himself in Calabria. — Cf. Buhr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 601. — The Supplement 
to the same, p. 51, 1.07, 129. — Clarke, as cited § 293, vol. n. p. 116, 328. 

§ 439. In treating of Greek literature we spoke of romancers and epistoli- 
zers in connection. In the Roman literature we find little that can very prop- 
erly be ranked under the denomination of romance. There are, however, two 
works which have very much of the character of romance, although they are 
at the same time of such a turn and aim as may justify the placing of their 
authors where we shall notice them, in the list of philosophers. The works 
we mean are the Satyricon of Petronius Arbiter (§ 472), and the Asinus aureus 
or Golden Ass of Apuleius (§ 471); and the latter is considered as belonging 
properly to the variety of fiction or romance termed the Milesian tale (cf. 
§ 150). 

On Epistolography and Romance, see references given § 152. — On the Romance and Epis- 
tles of the Romans, Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 577, 585.— Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. u. 123, 413. 
in. 200. 

§ 440. M. Tullius Cicero, whose history has been noticed in a preceding sec- 
tion (§ 404), left a large number of letters. They consist of 1. sixteen books 
partly of epistles from him to relatives and friends, ad familiares or ad diver- 
sos, and partly of epistles from them to him (cf. § 435) ; 2. sixteen books to 
Atticus, ad T. Pompon. Atticum, replete with instructive anecdotes from the 
history of the times, yet often obscure in expression ; 3. three books to his 
brother, ad Quintum fratrem, chiefly imparting advice and counsel respecting 
his conduct in the Qusestorship with which he was entrusted ; 4. one book to 
Brutus, of which the genuineness has been brought into doubt. 

1. It has been supposed that after Cicero's death, his freedman Tyro collec- 
ted the letters, and formed them into three or four collections, as above desig- 
nated. The first collection comprises 421 letters ; the second 396} and the 
third 29. This arrangement has been disapproved by many, as breaking up 
the chronological order of the letters, and rendering some passages more diffi- 
cult to be understood. In the edition of Schiltz (cited below) the letters of 
these three parts are placed in the order of time. 

2. The 4th collection consists of letters of Cicero to Brutus and of Brutus 
to Cicero. It is ascertained that a collection of such letters, extending to not 
less than eight books, existed for many years after Cicero's death. Yet from 
about the 5th century, all trace of it is lost until the 14th century, when some 
of the letters now extant came into the possession of Petrarch. In 1470 at 
Rome, 18 of these letters were published, being all that were then known. — 
Several others were afterwards discovered in Germany and are now included 
in the collection. Erasmus suspected the whole to be the composition of 
some sophist, but they were universally received as genuine remains of the 
ancient collection, until they were attacked in the famous letter of Tunstall to 
Middleton. Since that there has been doubt; several of the German critics 
decidedly reject them. 

Middleton, in his Life, of Cicero, had used the letters in question as genuine ; Tunstall in a 
Latin epistle to him (Ep. ad Middleton. Camb. 1741. 8) alleges that they are wholly spurious. 
— Middleton vindicated their genuineness in a Dissertation prefixed to his Translation of them 
cited below. — Tunstall replied in his Observations &.c. Lond. 1744. 8., — Jer. Markland, in his 
Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus fyc. Lond. 1745. 8. took side against their genuine- 
ness. Ruhnken was of the same opinion. Schviz rejected them, in his edition of C.'s Letters 
fbelow cited;.— Cf. Dunlop, ii. 284. — Scholl, ii. 138. 

3. Editions.— Ch. G. Schvti. Halle, 1809-12. 6 vols. 8. (including the Ep. ad diversos, ad At- 
ticum, and ad Quintum. — A. Thospann, Ciceronis et Virorum clarorum Epistolae. Lips. 1833-. 

lvol. 8. commenced. The Epist. ad diversos only ; 7. Chr. Fr. Wetzel. Lignitz. 1794. 8. one 

of the best.— T. F.Benedict. Lpz. 1790-95. 2 vols. 8. — Princeps, by Sweynheym Sf Pannartz. 
Rom. 1467. fol. — The valuable Commentary of Paulas Manutius on these letters was repub- 
lished by Ch. G. Richter. Lpz. 1779, '80. 2 vols. 8. — The letters written by Cicero's friends 

are given separately by Bevj. fYeiske. Lpz. 1792. 8. Ep. ad Atticum ; /. G. Grmvius. Amst. 

1684. 2 vols. 8. — 'j.Verburg. Amst. 2 vols. 8 Princeps, ex recog. I. Andrea. Rom. 1470. 

fol. containing the letters to Brutus and to Quintus. Ep. ad Quintum ; (cum notis Vario- 
rum.) Hags Comitum, 1725. 8. containing also those to Brutus, and likewise that of Ouintus 

to Cicero, entitled De Pet.itionc Consulates. Ep. ad Brutum ; C. Middleton, with English 

translation, notes, &c. Lond. 1743. 8. Selections from all the letters : F. A. Stroth. Berl. 

1784. 8. — A. Matthixp,. Lpz. 1816. 8. Repr. 1829. 

4. Translations.— German.— C. M. Wicland. Zurick, 1809-12. 5 vols. 8. completed by F. D. 
Crater, Zur. 1818-22. 2 vols. 8. all the letters collectively, and in chronological order. — A. 



340 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

G. Borhcck. Frankf. 1782-89. 5 vols. 8. the letters ad diversos. — E. C. Reichard. Halle, 1783- 

85. 4 vols. 8. the letters ad Atticum. French. — Prevost # Montgault (ed. Goujon). Par. 

1801-3. 12 vols. 8. including all the letters. English.— William M elm oth. Lond. 1573. 3 

vols. 8. whole. Repr. Lond. 1814. — W. Guthrie. Lond. 1752. 2 vols. 8 ; 1806. 3 vols. 8. letters 
ad Atticum. — C. Middleton. Lond. 1743. 8. ad Brutum. 

§ 441. C. Plinius Secundus, already mentioned as an orator (§ 405), is the 
author of the greatest part of a collection of letters, consisting of 10 books. 
Many of them appear not to have been elicited by any actual occasion, but to 
have been written only with a view to their publication and addressed to his 
friends. Although they have not so much of naturalness and simplicity, as 
the letters of Cicero, yet they possess great merit in respect both of matter 
and style ; the noblest feelings are expressed in elegant language, and they 
may be considered as furnishing a model in epistolary writing. One of the 
most remarkable books is the tenth, which includes also letters of Trajan to 
Pliny. 

1. The first nine books contain about 250 letters ; the tenth contains 122. 
They furnish much valuable information respecting the age to which they 
belong. Among the more interesting letters are the two which refer to the 
life and death of his uncle, the elder Pliny (iii. 5, vi. 16) ; two others in 
which he describes his villas (ii. 17, v. 6) ; and that in which he addresses 
the Emperor respecting the Christians (x. 97). 

The letter to Trajan respecting the Christians has justly attracted much attention. Tertul- 
lian, in his Apology (cap. 2), alludes to it. This letter and Trajan's answer were published 
separately, with a commentary, by Gerh. Vossius. Amst. 1655. 12. Other authors have illus- 
trated the letter ; J. H. Bahmer, Dissertationes Juris eccles. antiqui. Lpz. 1711. 8. — Chr. A. 
Heumann, Disp. de persecutione Christianorum Pliniana. Gcitt. 1731. 4.— William Melmoth. The 
translator of Pliny's Epistles vindicated from the objections to his Remarks respecting Tra- 
jan's Persecution &x. Lond. 1794. 8, — A vain attack upon the genuineness of this epistle was 
made by Semler, Historic eccles. Selecta Capita. Halle, 1767. 3 vols. 8. 

Respecting Pliny's villas ; J. F. Felibenius (Felibien), Les Plans et Descriptions de deux des 
plus belles maisons de compagne de Pline. Lond. 1707. 12. — Delle Ville di Plinio il giovane 
&c. di D. Pietro Masquez Massicano. Rom. 1796. 8. — A German version of the two epistles 
ii. 1% v. 6) with explanations, by Rode, in his Trans, of Vitruvius (cf. §490. 4). — An English 
version with notes and plates, in CastelPs Villas of the ancients illustrated. Lond. 1728. fol. 
— Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architecture. 

On the epistolary style of PHny and Cicero ; Erasm. Moller, De eo, quod interest inter dicen- 
di genus epist. Cic. et Plinii. Havn. 1790. 8. — Cf. J. Held, Ueber den Werth der Briefsamml. 
d. Plin. Berl. 1833. 8. 

2. Editions. Best, G. E. Gierig. Lpz. 1800-2. 2 vols. 8. Afterwards abridged somewhat and 
united with the Panegyric (cf. § 405. 3). — G. H. Schdfer. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. containing Pane- 
gyric also.— JV. E. Lemaire. Par. 1823. 2 vols. 8. containing Panegyric; with a full JYotilia Lit^ 
eraria. — Princeps, by Ludov. Carlo, without name of place, 1471. fol. — Among the celebrated 
editions, P. D. Longolius, (begun by G. Corte.) Amst. 1734. 4. — I. M. Gessner. Lpz. 1770. 8. 
Schafer's above cited is based on this.— The ed. of F. JV. Title. Prag. 1820 ,- Lpz. 1823. 8. was 
founded on a Ms. recently discovered at Prague, and is said by Dibdin to be important. — School 
editions ; G. H. Lunemann. Gbtt. 1819. 8.— Select Letters, with Notes &c. Bost. 1835. 12. good. 

3. Translations. — German.— /. A. Schdfer. 2d ed. Erlang. 1824. 2 vols. 8. — F. A. Schott,m 

the Coll. of Osiander &c. French.— Louis de Sacy. 3d ed. Par. 1711. 3 vols. 12. — This and 

his trans, of the Panegyric given with the Latin text, by J. F. Adry. Par. 1808. 3 vols. 12. and 
by J Pierrot. Par. 1833. 3 vols. 8. English. —John Earl of Orrery. Lond. 1751. 8. — Wil- 
liam Melmoth. Repr. from Eng. ed. Bost. 1809. 2 vols. 12. 

§ 442. Lucius Annceus Seneca, named among the poets (§ 374), is here in- 
troduced on account of his epistles. They are 124 in number, addressed to 
Lucilius, who was Praetor in Sicily, and was himself an author (cf. § 335). 
These letters are very instructive ; they refer chiefly to practical philosophy 
according to the Stoical principles. The 88th epistle especially deserves the 
attention of young students. They are less valuable in point of style, being 
composed with a tiresome and artificial beauty, and abounding with senten- 
tious antithesis. It is probable that these letters were composed, at least in 
great part, with the design of making them public. 

1. The letters of Seneca were written in the last years of his life. Many 
are supposed to have been lost {Jlui. Gctt. Noct. Att. xii. 2). The 88th letter 
is entitled de studiis liberalibus. They are all of them philosophical or moral 
treatises or declamations, rather than actual letters. But some of the pieces 
usually placed among his philosophical writings seem to have been letters ad- 
dressed to relatives or friends (cf. § 469. 2). 

2. There are extant 14 letters purporting to be a correspondence of the 
Apostle Paul, which were once considered as genuine. There was a tradition 
that an acquaintance and intimacy existed between the Apostle and the phi- 
losopher. Some writers have pointed out what they consider as remarkable 
coincidences of thought and expression in the writings of Paul and Seneca. 



EPISTOLIZERS. SENECA. FRONTO. SYMMACHUS. 341 

Certain words are also said to be used by Seneca in their Biblical rather than 
their classical sense. 

Cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 445.— Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. lib. ii. c. 9. vol. n. p. 120. — Fr. Ch. Gelp- 
ke, Tractatiuncula de Faniiliaritate qua? Paolo cum Seneca intercessisse traditur. Lpz. 1813. 4. 

3. Editions. Given in the editions of Seneca's works, (cf. $469. 5.) — Separately, F. Ch. 
Matthias. Frankf. 1808. 8. — /. Schweighauser. Strassb. 1809. 2 vols. 8. the best. — Tlie spuri- 
ous epistles (Epist. (8) Seneca ad Paidum et (6) Pauli ad SenecamJ are given in Fabricius, Cod. 
Apocryph. Nov. Test. ; also in the ed. of Seneca's works by Erasmus (§469. 5), and in others. 

4. Translations. — German. — J. W. Olshausen. Kiel, 1811. 2 vols. 8." — C. G. W. Lehmann, 
(the 88th letter.) Quedl. 1816. 8. French.— P. Sabher. Par. 1770. 12. English.— Thom- 
as Morell, ( " with large annotations.") Lond. 1786. 2 vols. 4. 

§ 443.* Marcus Cornelius Fronto, a native of Corta, in Numidia, was born 
probably in the reign of Domitian or Nerva. He is supposed to have studied 
at Alexandria before he commenced business as a pleader and teacher at 
Rome, in which character he has been already mentioned (§ 400). By a re- 
markable discovery of Mai, in the present century, considerable parts of a 
collection of letters by Fronto were brought to light. 

1. Some of them were found by Mai in the Ambrosian library at Milan, in 
1815, on a, palimpsest or rescript manuscript, which contained the acts of the 
first council of Chalcedony. Among these are letters of Fronto to the Anto- 
nines and several other persons, and also letters of Marcus Aurelius to Fron- 
to. Most of them are in Latin, but several of thefo are in Greek. The state of 
the manuscript was such that there are many chasms in the letters. Mai, 
having subsequently the charge of the library of the Vatican at Rome, dis- 
covered in that another part of the effaced manuscript of Fronto, containing 
above a hundred additional letters. — Some fragments of orations were also 
found by Mai. The grammatical treatise, de differentiis vocabulorum, was 
previously known. 

2. Editions. — Angelas Mai, M. Corn. Frontonis Opera &c. Mil. 1815. 2 vols. 8. containing 
the letters found in the Ambrosian palimpsest, parts of a few orations, the treatise de dig. vo- 
cabulorum, and various fragments. Reprinted Frankf. 1816. — B. G. Neibuhr, M. C. Front. 
Reliquiae &c. Berl. 1816. 8. containing also fragments of the orations of Symrnachus, (cf. 
$406. 4).— After his discovery of the Vatican Ms., Mai published another edition of Fronto. 
Rom. 1823. 8. — Cf. Singling, Suppl. to Harles, p. 320.— Scholl, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. iv. 

p. 259. A. Cassau, Lettres de M. Aurele et de Fronton traduites, &c. Par. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

witb the Latin text and notes. 

§ 444. Quintus Aurelius Symrnachus, a native of Rome, lived at the close 
of the 4th century. He held the office of Proconsul for Africa A. D. 370, 
of Praefect of Rome A. D. 384, and of Consul A. D. 391. He was a warm 
opposer of Christianity. His remaining epistles were collected by his son in 
10 books. We observe in them an imitation not altogether unsuccessful of the 
younger Pliny, but discover also many traces of the more degenerate taste of 
the age in which the author flourished. The 61st letter of the 10th book is 
the most worthy of notice. 

1. Symrnachus was a speaker of some reputation, and fragments of several 
of his orations were discovered by Mai along with the letters of Fronto 
(§ 443. 1). — The letters of Symrnachus are nearly 1000 in number. Gibbon 
remarks that '-the luxuriance of Symrnachus consists of barren leaves with- 
out fruit and even without flowers ; few facts and few sentiments can be ex- 
tracted from his verbose correspondence." 

Symrnachus witnessed the downfall of Paganism, notwithstanding his very 
zealous efforts to sustain the sinking cause. The 61st letter of the 10th book 
(relatio pro ara Victoria) has special reference to this subject ; it is a sort of 
argument or petition to the emperor Valentinian, urging that he would allow 
the statue and altar of Victory to stand in the hall of the senate. Ambrose, 
bishop of Milan was a successful antagonist of Symrnachus, and one of his 
epistles (a) is a formal reply to the petition. The poet Prudentius also wrote 
against him (cf. § 387). 

(a) Cf. Ambrose, Epist. 17, 18, in S. Ambrosii Opera, cura Mon. Benedict. Par. 1690. 2 vols, 
fol. — B. Fr. Schmieder, Des Symrnachus Gr'unde furs lleidenthum und des Ambrosius Gegen- 
griinde. Hal. Sax. 1790. 8. — Lordlier, Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 372 ss. On Sym- 
rnachus, cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 201. — Buhr, p. 599. — E. Gibbon, Deck and Fall of Roman 
Emp. ch. xxviii (vol. m. p. 214. ed. N. Y. 1822.) — C. G. Hcyne, Censura insenii et morum 
Q.. Aur. Symmachi <fcc. Gott. 1801. fol. also in his Opus. Acad. Gott. 1812. 8. 6th vol. 

2. Edition*. — The best ; ./. P. Pareas. Frankf. 1651. 8. first published at Neustadt, on the 
Hart (JVeapoli JVemetum), 1617. — Princeps, according to Fabricius, ex officina J. Schutti. Ar- 
gentor. 1510. 4, Others mention as earlier, a dateless ed. printed at Venice. 

29* 



342 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 445. Sidonius jipollinaris, born at Lugdunum in Gaul, flourished after 
the middle of the 5th century. He is known as the author of a series of let- 
ters, and also as a poet, and is worthy of notice, especially considering the 
age in which he lived. In his poems, among which are four eulogies, there is 
much animation and, spirit, although there is also much that is unnatural and 
overstrained. We have from him 9 books of letters, which are more valuable 
for their historical matter than for their style. We find in the collection an 
address by him on the occasion of the election of a bishop of Bourges. 

1. His full name was Caius Sollius Apollinaris Modestus Sidonius. He 
married the daughter of Avitus who was named emperor A. D. 455. Amid 
the changes of the times he repeatedly rose to office and rank at Rome, and 
again repeatedly retired to Gaul. At length, A. D. 472, he became bishop of 
Clermont (Augustunometum) , and died in that station A. D. 484. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 96. — Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxvi. p. 378. vol. m. 
N. Y. 1822. — Clarke, as cited § 293. vol. n. p. 256. 

2. Editions. — The best, J. Sirmond. Par. 1652. 4. containing the letters and the poems. -~ 
The poems are also given in Mattaire's Corp. Poet. Lai. cited § 348. 2» 



VI — ■Phil&sophers. 

§ 446w. The Roman philosophy was derived from the Grecian. Antece- 
dently to Grecian influence, the traces of philosophical speculation among the 
Romans are of no great importance. During the first five centuries, such pur- 
suits in general were not regarded with favor, being considered as at variance 
with the prevailing desire of conquest and destructive to military zeal and 
prowess. 

§ 447. During the first of the periods,, which we have regarded in our glance 
at Roman Literature, the only name which can have the least ©laim to be ad- 
mitted to the list of philosophers is that of Nuraa, the second king of Rome,. 
He is supposed by some to have borrowed the wisdom displayed in his civil insti- 
tutions from Grecian sources (cf. P. IV. § 202). He seems to have cultivated 
a sort of religious and political philosophy, like Lycurgus and Solon among 
the Greeks (§167) ; but like each of them must be considered as a lawgiver 
of practical sense and wisdom, rather than a philosopher in the strict meaning 
of the word. — There may have been other men in this period, who were (not 
unlike the seven sages of Greece) distinguished for their prudence, and able 
to propound useful maxims for the conduct of others. 

On the institutions of Numa, Plutarch, Vit. Num. — Niebuhr's Rome (cf. $ 299. 7), vol. i. 
p. 181. of Am. ed. Phil. 1835. 2 vols. 8.—Dionys. Hal. ii. 59. 

§ 448. The first distinct intimations of any considerable inclination to philo- 
sophical studies at Rome, we find shortly after the conquest of Macedonia by 
Paulus iEmilius, B. C. 167. This conqueror took with him to Rome the phi- 
losopher Metrodorus, to aid in the instruction of his children ; and other phi- 
losophers, who had been patronized at the Macedonian court by king Perseus ? 
are said to have followed Metrodorus into Italy. The Stoic philosopher Pa- 
nffitius, from Rhodes, was also introduced to Rome by Scipio Africanus. Yet 
a few years after the arrival of the philosophers from Greece and the east, 
they were banished from Rome by a formal decree of the senate, B. C. 162. 

§ 449. The rise of philosophy at Rome is, however, commonly dated from 
the embassy of the Athenians, already mentioned in our remarks on the Ro- 
man orators and rhetoricians (§ 4C8). This embassy was sent by the Athe- 
nians to deprecate a fine of 500 talents which had been inflicted on them for 
laying waste Oropii, a town of Sicyonia. The three envoys employed on this 
occasion were at the time the heads of the three leading sects of Greek phi- 
losophers ; viz. Diogenes, the Stoic; Critolaus, the Peripatetic; and Carnea- 
des, the Academic, considered as the founder of what is called the New Acade- 
my (§ 175). The display of eloquence and wisdom made by these men served 
to excite in the Roman youth of all classes an ardent thirst for knowledge, 
and turn their minds to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. Cato and others 



PHILOSOPHY. 343 

were alarmed at the influence exerted by these philosophers ; and insisted that 
they should depart from Rome. But the love for such studies now awakened 
could not be destroyed, and philosophy began to make progress in the city ; 
and ere long most of the Grecian sects found followers or patrons among the 
higher class of Romans. The library of Aristotle, which was brought to Rome 
by Sylla on the capture of Athens, B. C. 147, contributed to promote the 
study of philosophy. 

§ 450. It is worthy of notice, that the Romans seem never to have made 
philosophy the business of life, as did many of the Greeks; but they pursued 
it either as a part of elegant and refined culture, or as adapted to promote their 
advancement in the state. Hence, although they applied themselves to Gre- 
cian philosophy, and transferred into their own language some of the Grecian 
treatises, and improved by this means both their jurisprudence, their rhetoric, 
and their general literature, they yet made no advances in discovery. They 
cherished no ambition to start new sects, or theories, but willingly adopted 
those already formed by the Greeks. 

§ 451. The number of Roman authors in the department of philosophy is also 
comparatively small, for the same reason. The names of the principal vota- 
ries of philosophy, in the time which forms our second period of Roman Lite- 
rature, were the following : Scipio Africanus, Caius Laelius, L. Furius, P. 
Rutilius Rufus, Sextus Pompeius, uncle to Pompey the Great, Quintus Tu- 
bero, and Q. Mucius Scsevola. The last four were distinguished jurisconsults. 
We have no written remains of the philosophy of this period. 

§ 452. Early in the next period, beginning B. C. 88, we find the celebrated 
Lucullus patronizing and encouraging very zealously the study of philosophy. 
"Whilst he was Quaestor in Macedonia, and afterwards while conducting the 
war against Mithridates, he became acquainted with some of the Greek phi- 
losophers, and acquired a .strong relish for their speculations. On his return 
to Rome B. C. 67, he established a celebrated library (cf. P. I. §126), with 
galleries and schools adjoining, and made it a place of free resort to all men 
of letters, where they could enjoy the benefits of reading and conversation ; 
and here, as well as at the house of the philosopher Antiochus, he frequently 
engaged with ardor in philosophical discussions. Among those who culti- 
vated philosophy in this period, we find the names of Marcus Junius Brutus, 
M. Terentius Varro, Piso Calpurnianus, Lucretius, and Pomponius Atticus. 
To this place belongs also the name of Cicero, who must be considered as 
altogether the most eminent of the Romans in philosophy. 

§ 453. In the period following the reign of Augustus, from A. D. 14 to A. D. 
160, philosophy was still considered an important study as a part of liberal 
culture. But the progress of despotism under the emperors was not propitious 
to any branch of learning, and philosophy of course did not escape the blight- 
ing influence. In the reign of Domitian, the philosophers were actually ban- 
ished from Italy, under a mock decree of the senate. The principal Roman 
philosopher of this period was Seneca; Pliny the elder is also worthy of par- 
ticular notice ; and the younger Pliny and Tacitus may properly be mentioned 
in the list of philosophers. Pliny in one of his letters (Ep. i. 10) mentions in 
terms of high commendation a philosopher by the name of Euphrates, who 
gave public instruction at Rome. 

In this period Oriental notions obtained currency at Rome. " The vain su- 
perstitions of the east, the magic and the occult sciences which have such 
charms for the ignorant, found at Rome more zealous friends than did the ab- 
stractions of speculative philosophy, or those principles of morality which are 
the proper end of all true philosophy. Every religion that existed on the globe, 
found a residence at the imperial capital ; the mysteries of Egypt and of Syria 
were introduced, and the titles of Mystagogi and Magi were in higher estima- 
tion than that of philosopher." Schdll, Litt. Rom. n. 427. 

§ 454. At the commencement of the last period, A. D. 160, Marcus Aurelius 
received the imperial throne, and was himself a zealous philosopher of the 
Stoic school (cf. § 106J, a circumstance which might give a new impulse to 
philosophical studies as well as impart a temporary importance to that school. 
After his reign philosophy was still cultivated, and new sects began to be 
formed, by philosophers who professed to make improvements by lejecting 



344 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

the errors and retaining the valuable truths and principles of others ; such 

were the New-Pla.tonists and the Eclectics. The progress of the Christian 

religion, in the 3d and 4th centuries, exerted a considerable influence on the 
character of Roman philosophy ; and the Latin fathers employed themselves 
in studying the pagan philosophy for the purpose of opposing the pagan re- 
ligion and supporting Christianity. This occasioned a singular admixture of 
notions, drawn partly from the pagan sects and partly from the sacred writings. 

The principal Latin authors, who may be classed among the philosophers 

of this period are Apuleius (§ 471) and Boethius (§ 474). The Latin father 
Augustine, bishop of Hippo, who died A. D. 430, at the age of 76, may also 
with propriety be named here. Petronius Arbiter (§ 472) and Marcianus Ca- 
pella (§ 473) are sometimes ranked among the philosophers. — Scholl, in. 
211. 

§ 455. It seems desirable, in addition to the rapid sketch above given of the 
progress of philosophy among the Romans, to glance separately, although 
slightly, at the principal sects, which found advocates and followers at Rome. 

It has been mentioned ($ 449) that Roman philosophy, as the subject is 
commonly viewed, had its origin in the embassy of the three philosophers from 
Athens, who were at the time leaders in three of the Greek sects, the Stoic, 
Peripatetic, and Academic. 

$ 456. The Academic was represented and advocated by Carneades, who was 
the most able man and the most popular speaker of the trio ; and of course 
awakened a partiality for the doctrines of his sect. — The immediate successor 
of Carneades in the Academy at Athens, Clitomachus (who, according to Cic- 
ero, wrote 400 treatises on philosophical subjects), is said also to have given 
personal instruction at Rome. Clitomachus was succeeded by Philo, who in 
the Mithridatic war fled from Athens to Rome. Here Cicero attended on his 
lectures, and imbibed the principles of the New Academy, which were main- 
tained by the followers of Carneades. The doctrines of the New Academy 
had been favorably received at Rome from their first introduction ; the ex j 
ample and choice of Cicero no doubt gave them greater vogue among those 
who cultivated oratory. — But the peculiar tenets of the Old Academy had 
their advocates, among whom were Brutus, Varro, and Lucullus. 

Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. u. 211ss. ed. Phil. 1827— Enfield, Hist. Philosophy, bk. iii. ch. L 
— Middleton, Life of Cicero, vol. in. p. 328, ed. Bost. 1818. 

§ 457. The Stoic school had many disciples at Rome. Its rigid doctrines 
were suited to the stern civil policy of the Romans, and the most distinguished 
jurisconsults and magistrates of the republic were generally inclined to this 
sect ; thus Rutilius Rufus, Q. Tubero, and M. Scsevola (cf. § 562J, were Sto- 
ics ; as were also Lselius and Scipio Africanus. Especially must we men#lbn 
Cato of Utica as a zealous Stoic ; he carried his principles into full practice, 
and finally, after the defeat of Pompey at the battle of Pharsalia, despairing of 
the liberties of his country, he put an end to his life with his own hand. — The 
ardent patriotism manifested by many who were professedly of the Stoic sect, 
tended to promote its popularity. Some of the poets, particularly Lucan and 
Persius, embraced and commended its doctrines. The prevalence of Chris- 
tianity is also supposed to have contributed to the success of the Stoic philos- 
ophy, as the views of the later advocates of Stoicism agreed better than the 
doctrines of the other pagan sects with the high morality of the gospel. 

One of the most distinguished philosophers of the Stoic sect at Rome, and 
the only one who has left any philosophical writings in the Latin tongue, was 
Seneca (cf. $ 469). But there were other eminent teachers and advocates of 
the system; as, Musonius Rufus, Annseus Cornutus (cf. $227), Choeremon, a 
preceptor of Nero, Dion Chrysostom (§118), Epictetus (§193), and Sextus a 
native of Chseronea, who became preceptor to Marcus Antoninus. The name 
of Antoninus is the last which is specially worthy of notice ; at the early age 
of 12, he manifested a partiality for the Stoic philosophy, and when emperor 
he zealously patronized it. He wrote in Greek (cf. §196), as did the others 
just named. Public schools of the Stoic sect were continued from his time 
until that of Alexander Severus, A. D. 230; but they greatly declined under 
the increasing prevalence of the Eclectic system. 

Enfield, Hist, of Phil. bk. iii. ch. 1. & ch. 2. sect. 7.— Tennemann , s Manual of Hist, of Phil. 



PHILOSOPHY. 345 

grans!, by J3. Johnson (Oxf. 1832. 8). § 182.— Bdhr, Geschichte der Rom. Lit. § 306, 307.— G. P. 
Hollenberg, De pnecipuis Stoicce Philosophise Docioribus et Patronis apud Romanos. Lpz.1793. 4. 

§ 458. The Peripatetic philosophy does not appear to have found very warm 
admirers among the Romans. The writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus 
were brought to Rome from Athens by Sylla ; they were, however, very dif- 
ficult for the Romans to understand. Yet this sect had its advocates; and its 
doctrines were taught in the public schools under the emperors, and numerous 
commentaries and treatises were written upon the works of its original foun- 
der. These writings, however, seem to have been entirely in the Greek lan- 
guage. The most eminent Peripatetics after the Christian era, did not reside 
at Rome ; Themistius, who illustrated several of the treatises of Aristotle, 
gave instruction at Constantinople (cf. § 125) ; Alexander Aphrodiseus, au- 
thor of several works still extant, and called by distinction the Commentator, 
taught at Athens or Alexandria, about A. D. 200. 

Enfield, bk. iii. ch. 1. ch. 2. sect. 5. — Johnson's Tennemarm, $183. 
§ 459. The Cynics seem never to have enjoyed any reputation at Rome. 
The opinion of Cicero respecting them, was, that the whole body ought to be 
banished from the state. Julian (§127) pronounces the Cynics of his day to 
be troublesome and mischievous. In the reign of the Antonines philosophers 
of this sect were forbidden to maintain any public schools. Lucian treats 
them with great severity, particularly in the piece on Peregrinus ("cf. § 121). 

Enfield, bk. iii. ch. 2. § 6. 

§ 460. The Epicurean philosophy had sunk into great discredit on account 
of the improprieties indulged by its advocates, before its introduction to Rome. 
Notwithstanding this disadvantage, it soon obtained admirers. The free in- 
dulgence of the inclinations which it allowed, greatly conduced to its popu- 
larity. Cicero condemned and opposed it ; but Atticus, his intimate friend 
and correspondent, embraced it. Horace, if not an Epicurean entirely, yet 
found the lightness and gaiety which it cherished very congenial to his feel- 
ings. The poet Lucretius (cf. § 357J was the first who gave the Romans, in 
their own language, a full account of the doctrines of Epicurus ; and the repu- 
tation of his poetry no doubt contributed in an eminent degree to give cur- 
rency to these doctrines. Pliny the elder (cf. 470) is sometimes ranked among 
the Epicureans, but he did not rigidly adhere to any sect. Lucian the satirist, 
and Celsus the early adversary of Christianity, are also included by some. 
Diogenes Laertius (cf. § 255a) likewise is thought to manifest plainly his pre- 
dilection for the doctrines of Epicurus. 

Enfield, bk. iii. ch. ii. sect. 8. — Johnson's Tennemann, § 181. — Account of the philosophy of 
Lucretius in the translations of Busby &. Good, cited § 357. 4. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 155. 

§ 461. The school of Sceptics or Pyrrhonists gained no celebrity among the 
Romans. The peculiar doctrines of the Sceptics corresponded, in some degree, 
with those of the Academy. Pyrrhonism, however, had avowed abettors and 
supporters ; among them were particularly several physicians. — We have no 
written remains from any of them in the Latin language ; and the only au- 
thor that specially deserves notice here, as an advocate of Scepticism under 
the Roman empire, is Sextus Empiiicus, who flourished about A. D. 200, and 
wrote in Greek (cf. § 197}. 

Enfield, Hist. Phil. bk. iii. ch. ii. sect. 9. —Johnson's Tennemann, $186-193. — Thorbecke, De 
discrimine inter Acad, et Sceptic. Lug. Bat. 1820. 

§ 462. It will be recollected that the four sects, which we have here men- 
tioned first, the Academic and Peripatetic, Stoic and Cynic, were derived 
through Socrates from the old Ionic school (cf. § 171-173) ; and that the two 
last mentioned, the Epicurean and Sceptic, descended from the old Italic or 
Pythagorean school (§ 170, 177). ^/ 

As the Pythagorean school in Magna Grascia was so celebrated among the 
Greeks, we might suppose that it would have attracted great attention among 
the Romans, as soon as they learned any thing of the literature and philoso- 
phy of the Greeks. This however does not appear to have been the fact, al- 
though the name of Pythagoras was ever regarded with great reverence 
(Cic. de Senect. c. 21). The poet Ennius is said to have embraced the doc- 
trine of metempsychosis, and a friend of Cicero, by the name of Publius Nigi- 
dius Figulus, is mentioned as an advocate of the doctrines of Pythagoras. 
But after the establishment at Crotona (§ 170) was broken up, no school was 



346 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

formed in Greece or Italy that adopted the principles and institutions of Py- 



Scholl, Litt. Rom. 11. 187. — Burigny, Vie et ouvrages de Publ. Nigid. Figulus, in the Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. xxix. 190. 

§ 463. There were however a number of philosophers, who are sometimes 
termed the New Pythagoreans, and who professed to be supporters of the real 
Pythagorean doctrines, although they in fact blended with them many notions 
derived from other sources. A leader in this class of philosophers was Q. 
Sextius, a Roman of the time of Augustus, who wrote in Greek. To the 
same class belonged Sotion, of Alexandria, who was preceptor to Seneca at 
Rome ; and also the famous impostor Apolloniusof Tyana, whose life is given 
by Philostratus (cf. 255b). Moderatus of Gades was another; he flourished 
in the first century; and in several different treatises he collected and illus- 
trated the remains of the Pythagorean doctrines. 

Enfield, bk. iii. ch. ii. sect. 2. — Johnson's Tennemann, §184. — Prideaux, Life of Apol- 
lonius. 

Some of these philosophers endeavored to discover a sublime and occult science in the Py- 
thagorean doctrine of Numbers. They seem to have supposed that an explanation of the 
system of the physical world was to be found in the mysterious properties of mathematical 
figures and numbers. An essay on this occult science is found in the works of Sextus Empir- 
icus against the mathematicians (x. 248). — Cf. § 197. — The celebrated Kepler is supposed to 
have been influenced by such speculations, when he wrote his treatise entitled Mysterium Cos- 
mographicum, 1598. — Cf. Maclaurin, Account of the Discoveries of Newton. 

§ 464. A school of New Platonists also appeared under the Roman emper- 
ors (cf. $ 181). Most of them wrote in Greek, in which language we have 
fragments from a few of the number. The principal Latin writer commonly 
referred to this school was Lucius Apuleius, who flourished, as is supposed, 
about the time of the latter Antoninus, and whose work entitled the Golden 
Ass has been mentioned under the head of Romance. These philosophers 
blended with their Platonic notions many derived from the Pythagoreans and 
the followers of Aristotle, aud were therefore in reality Eclectics. 

Enfield, bk. iii. ch. ii. sect. 3 Tohnson's Tennemann, § 185. 

§ 465. The Eclectics, however, although often mentioned under the name 
of the later Platonists, are usually distinguished from the last mentioned 
school. Their founder (cf. $ 181) is said to have been Ammonius of Alexan- 
dria. He was a man of low birth, obliged to gain his livelihood as a porter, 
from which circumstance he derived his surname Saccas. With much enthu- 
siasm he and his followers labored to reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Ar- 
istotle. We have in the Greek language the writings of several of the most 
eminent philosophers of this school; but nothing is preserved in the Latin, 
unless we except the commentary on Cicero's Dream of Scipio, by Macrobius 
(§430. 1), who seems to have been a disciple of the Eclectics. The emperor 
Julian was a warm patron of this sect, perhaps on account of the hostility of 
its principal advocates towards the Christian religion. 

Cf. § 182. — Enfield, bk. iii. ch. ii. sect. 4. — Johnson's Tennemann, § 203-221. 

§ 466. A species of philosophy also grew up gradually among the Christian 
Fathers, although the study of philosophy was at first deemed superfluous 
and even dangerous by some of them (P. I. § 83), especially some of the Lat- 
in church. The chief Latin writers illustrating this Christian Philosophy are 
Tertullian, Arnohius, Lactantius, Ambrose, and Augustine. 

Cf. § 182.— Johnson's Tennemann, § 222-235. — On the writings of the Fathers above named, 
cf. Clarke, Murdoch, &c. as cited $ 293. 

§ 467. In acccordance with the method followed in this work, some general 
sources of information respecting the Roman philosophy should be mentioned 
before noticing the individual authors. 

The principal original sources are the same as those from which is learned the philosophy of 

the Greeks, cf. § 183. To the modern works on the history of philosophy there cited we also, 

refer. 

More particularly on the Roman, we add the following. — K. F. Renner, De impediments 
quae apud veteres Romanos Philosophise negaverint successum. Hal. 1825. — Pagauinus Gau- 
dentius, De Philosophise apud Romanos origine et progressu. Pisa, 1643. 4. Reprinted in the 
Nova rariorum Collectio, Hal. 1717. — J. L. Blessig, Diss, de Origine Philosophise apud Roma- 
nos. Strasb. 1770. A.—Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 604-664, as cited §299. 8. 

§ 468 t. M. T. Cicero, chief among the orators of Rome, was also eminent 
in philosophy. He was a Platonist, and is commonly considered as a disciple 



PHILOSOPHERS. CICERO. 347 

of the New Academy, although in questions of morality he preferred the more 
rigid principles of the Stoics. In his philosophical writings he sets' forth the 
notions of all the various sects, and seems to be favorable to them all except- 
ing the Epicurean. These writings are a most valuable collection, and have 
proved a mine of information to succeeding ages. 

1. " The general purpose of Cicero's philosophical works was rather to 
give a history of ancient philosophy than dogmatically inculcate opinions of 
his own. It was his great aim to explain to his fellow-citizens in their own 
language whatever the sages of Greece had taught on the most important sub- 
jects, in order to enlarge their minds and reform their morals. — He was in 
many respects well qualified for the arduous and noble task which he had 
undertaken of naturalizing philosophy in Rome, and exhibiting her, according 
to the expression of Erasmus, on the stage of life. — Never was a philosopher 
placed in a situation more favorable for gathering the fruits of an experience 
employed on human nature and civil society, or for observing the effect of 
various qualities of the mind on public opinion and on the actions of men. — 
But he appears to have been destitute of that speculative disposition which 
leads us to penetrate into the more recondite and original principles of knowl- 
edge. He had cultivated eloquence as clearing the path to political honors, 
and had studied philosophy as the best auxiliary to eloquence. But the con- 
templative sciences only attracted his attention, in so far as they tended to 
elucidate ethical, practical, and political subjects, to which he applied a phi- 
losophy which was rather that of life, than of speculation. — His philosophic 
dialogues are rather to be considered as popular treatises, adapted to the ordi- 
nary comprehension of well informed men, than profound disquisitions, suited 
only to a Portico or Lyceum. They bespeak the orator even in the most se- 
rious inquiries. Elegance and fine writing he appears to have considered as 
essential to philosophy. — Although it may be honoring Cicero too highly to 
term his works, with Gibbon, a Repository of Reason, they are at least a Mis- 
cellany of Information, which has become doubly dear from the loss of the 
writings of many of those philosophers whose opinions he records." — The 
greater part of the philosophical writings of Cicero were composed during a 
single year; and this rapidity of execution has led many to suppose that they 
must have been chiefly translations from Greek works, an idea that is thought 
to be sanctioned by a passage in a letter to Atticus (Ep. Lib. xii. Ep. 52), 
u cmoyqaipa sunt." 

Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. n. 218. ed. Phil. 1827. — On C.'s philosophical writings, see also 
Bfflir, as cited § 299. 8. — Also references given below (3 & 4). 

2. The following may be properly ranked among the philosophical works of 
Cicero. — (a) Academica, or Qucestioncs Academical, in two books ; so called 
probably, because the work relates chiefly to the Academic philosophy. These 
two books are supposed by many critics to be parts of two different works of 
Cicero, or rather of two different editions of the Jicademica. The first edition 
is said to have consisted of two books, inscribed Catulus and Lucullus ; the 
former of which is lost ; the latter is one of the books now extant. The sec- 
ond edition is said to have consisted of four books, the first of which is one 
of the two books now extant, while the other three are lost ; in the extant 
book, Varro is the chief speaker and gives an account of the origin and pro- 
gress of the Academy. — — (b) De Finibvs bonorum et malorum, in five books; 
an account of the various opinions entertained by the Greeks respecting the 
supreme good and extreme evil ; and considered one of the most subtle and 

difficult of Cicero's philosophical writings. (c) Tusculance Disputation.es, 

in five books; they are so named by Cicero from having been held at his fa- 
vorite seat near Tusculum. On a certain occasion, Cicero spent five days at 
this villa in company with friends taken with him from Rome, and on the af- 
ternoon of each day, held a conference, or rather gave a sort of discourse on 
some topic suggested by them ; these were afterwards committed to writing, 
and formed the Tusculan Disputations. The first book or dialogue is enti- 
tled, De contemnenda viorte; the second, De tolerando dolore ; the third, De 
agritudine lenienda; the fourth, De reliquiis animi perturbalionibus ; in the 

fifth Cicero maintains that virtue alone is sufficient for perfect happiness. 

(d) De Natura Deorum, in three books ; containing an exposition of the doc- 



348 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

trines of three of the celebrated sects of philosophers, viz. the Epicureans^ 
the Stoics, and the Academics, respecting the Essence of the Divine Being, 
and his government and providence. In this work Cicero betrays a melan- 
choly degree of uncertainty and doubt in reference to the administration of 

God in guiding and controlling human affairs. (e) De Divinatione, in two 

books ; forming a sort of supplement to the treatise on the nature of the 
gods. In the first book, Quintus, the brother of Cicero, states the considera- 
tions urged by the various philosophers in defence of the art of divination ; 
in the second, Cicero refutes all the arguments, and shows the complete ab- 
surdity of the pretended science. (f ) De Fato,one book, or rather a frag- 
ment. The part now extant contains a refutation of the doctrine of Chrysip- 

pus the Stoic, which was that of fatality. (g) De Legibus, in three books. 

It has been supposed that the work originally consisted of six books ; Macro- 
bius quotes a fifth (Saturnal. vi. 4) ; in the three now extant considerable 
chasms occur. In the first book, Cicero speaks of the origin of laws and the 
source of obligation ; and in the others, sets forth a body of laws conformable 
to his plan of a well ordered state. The work seems to have been intended 
for a supplement to that entitled De Republica. (h) De Republica, consist- 
ing originally of six books, of which considerable fragments are now extant. 
[See below under 3 (h).] This work was begun by Cicero in the fifty-second 
year of his age, before any of his other philosophical writings ; it was made 
public previously to his departure for the government of Cilicia, and appears 
to have met with very flattering success at Rome (cf. Cic. Epist. Famil. viii. 
1. Ep. ad Att. vi). In this work Cicero presents a discussion supposed to 
have been held between Scipio Africanus, Quintus Tubero, P. Rutilius Ru- 
fus, and others, " in which," says he, " nothing important to the right consti- 
tution of a commonwealth appears to have been omitted." According to Mr. 
Dunlop, the chief scope of Cicero was a eulogy on the Roman government, 
such as it was, or as Cicero supposed it to have been, in the early ages of the 
commonwealth ; the same writer remarks, " although the work will disap- 
point those who expect to find in it much political information, still, as in Ci- 
cero's other productions, every page exhibits a rich and glowing magnificence 
of style, ever subjected to the control of a taste the most correct and pure." 
— In this work was inserted the beautiful fiction entitled Somnium Scipionis, 
which implies, and seems indeed to have been intended by Cicero expressly 

to teach, the doctrine of the soul's immortality. (i) De Officiis, in three 

books, addressed to his son. In this Cicero treats of moral obligations and 
duties ; and in some parts of it he is supposed to have closely followed a 
treatise entitled IIsqI Ka&^xovroc, written by a Greek philosopher named Pa- 
ncetius, who resided at Rome in the time of Scipio. (j) De Senectute, en- 
titled also Cato, because Cato the Censor is represented as delivering the dis- 
course. It was written in Cicero's 63d year, and is addressed to his friend At- 
ticus. The supposed evils of old age are considered under four heads ; and 
the refined pleasures, which may be secured notwithstanding all the losses 
and deprivations resulting from advanced years, are pointed out. It is an ex- 
ceedingly interesting piece, containing examples of eminent Romans, who 
passed a respectable and happy old age. — It is the model of the dialogue by 
Sir Thomas Bernard, entitled Spurinna or the Comforts of Old Age, in which 

illustrations are drawn chiefly from British history. (k) De Amicitia, 

called also Lalius, who is represented as holding a conference with Fannius 
and Scaevola his sons-in-law, shortly after the death of his very intimate friend 
Scipio Africanus. (1) Paradoxa, a piece containing a defence of six pe- 
culiar opinions or paradoxes of the Stoics ; designed perhaps :::erely as a hu- 
morous effusion, rather than a serious philosophical essay. (in) Cicero 

composed several other works that would fall under the head of philosophical, 
which are lost; as, De Consolatione, written on the death of his daughter 
Tullia; De Gloria, in two books, written while sailing along the coast of 
Campania on a voyage to Greece ; De Philosophia, or Hortensius, on the com- 
parative value of eloquence and philosophy, a piece often cited and highly 
commended by Augustine. — Some of the works falsely ascribed to Cicero 
might also be named among the philosophical ; e. g. Orpheus, ox De adolescen- 
ce studioso, purporting to have been addressed to his son while at Athens. 



PHILOSOPHERS. CICERO. SENECA. 349 

3. Editions. — For Whole Works, see § 404. 5. — Here we notice only the Philosophical 
Wokks. — (A) Collectively.— Best, R. G. Rath (& Ch.G.Schuti). Halle, 1804-11. 6 vols. 8. based 
on the editions of separate tracts by Davies, and containing the text and commentary of Davies, 
with additional notes. — LA.Garenz. Lpz. 1809-13. 3 vols, designed to be completed in 6 vols. 8. 
The first 3 vols, (containing the pieces noticed under the letters a, b, e, &. g,) are highly com- 
mended. The Princeps, by Sweynhcym <$' Pannartz. Rom. 1471. 2 vols. fol. There is a 

French translation of the Phil. Works by Barett, Boulder &. others. Par. 1796. 10 vols. 12. 

(B) Separately ; we must not omit to notice some of the works singly ; but to avoid repeating 
the titles, they will be desianated merely by the letters used in the descriptive paragraphs above. 
(a) J. Davies (Davislus). Camb. 1736. 8. T. C. Orellius. Turici, 1827. 8, Transla- 
tions.— French ; D. Durand. Par. 1796. 2 vols. 12.— English ; W. Guthrie fThe Morals of Cice- 

roj. Lond. 1744. 8. Illustrative. — A. C. Ranitz, De libr. Cic. Academicis Commentatio. 

Lpz. 1809. 4. — S. Parker, Disputationes de Deo et providentia. Ox. 1703. 4. (b) J. Daires. 

Camb. 3d ed. 1741. 8. Repr. Oxf. 1809. 8.—Fr. G. Otto. Lpz. 1831. 8. Translations.— Eng- 
lish ; S. Parker. Lond. 1702. 1812. 8. (c) J. Davies. Camb. 4th ed. 1738. 8. Repr. Oxf. 

1805. 8. — * G. H. Moser. Han. 1836-38. 3 vols. 8. Translations. — English ; J. Dollmann. 

Lond. 1561. 8. — Anonymous. Lond. 1758. 8. — A new translation, by G. A. Otis, is announced, 

Bost.1839. prepared on the suggestion of J. Q,. Adams. (A) J.Davies. Cantab.l7i8. 8. Repr. 

Oxf.1807. 8.—L. F. Heindorf. Lpz.1815. 8. critical and good. Translations.— German ; J. F. 

von Meyer. Frankf. 1806. 8. — English ; Thorn. Franklin fwith notes;. Lond. 1741. 1775.8. 

Illustrative.— Ch. V. Kindervater ; Amnierkungen und Abhandlungen &c. iiber Cic. BU- 

cher von der Natur der Gotten Lpz. 1790-92. 2 vols. 8. commended by Harles, Suppl. to Brev. 
Not. i. 287. partly incorporated, in Latin, in Kindervatcr's edition of these Books. Lpz. 1796. 8. 
— G. S. Franke, Geist und Gehalt. der Cic. Buch. von der Nat. der Gotter. Alt. 1806. 8. — Per- 
haps here ought to be named a fabrication, purporting to be a fourth Book of Cicero's De Nat. 
Deorum. It was published by an unknown author ( W. M. L. de Wette has been conjectured), 
under a fictitious name, with the following title : M. T. Cic. de nat. Deor. liber quartus ; e per- 
vetusto codice ms. membranaceo nunc prim urn edidit P. Seraphinus. Bononias, 1811. 8. Republ. 
Oxf. 1813. The real design of the author is not apparent ; the purity and elegance of Cicero 

are not preserved in the style. — Cf. Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 250. (s.) J. Davies. Camb. 

2d ed. 1745. 8. — /. F. Wagner, Gott. 1804. 2 vols. 8. The 2d vol. a commentary.— G. H. Moser 

& F. Creuzer. Francf. 1824. 8. (\i) A. Mai. Rom. 1822. 8. also in fol. and in quarto. It 

contains a simile of the palimpsest in which the work was found. Repr. Stuttg. 1822. Lond. 
1823. 8. (Also Bost. 1823. but without the introductory matter.) It is also in the 1st vol. of the 
work entitled Classic. Auctor. e codd. Vat. edit. Coll. (curante A. Maio.) Bom. 1828.4. — G. H. 
Moser & F. Creuzer. Frankf. 1826. 8. Translations.— French ; Villemain, with original Lat- 
in, and Notes &. Dissertations. Par. 1823. 3 vols. 12. — English ; G. W. Featherstonhaugh. New 
York, 1829. much censuied in South. Review, as below cited. The whole work De Repub- 
lics was extant, it is said, as late as the 11th century, after which it disappeared, and the loss 
became a theme of constant lamentation among the admirers of Cicero and al! lovers of clas- 
sical literature. About the year 1821, Angelo Mai, in examining the Palimpsests (cf. P. I. § 84) 
of the Vatican, discovered a considerable portion of it, which had been expunged (in the 10th 
century, it is supposed) and crossed by a new writing, that contained Augustine's commentary 
on the Psalms. Mai published the portion thus recovered, in the ed. just cited. — Of the first 
book, we now have about two thirds in the part recovered by Mai and two fragments preserved 
in Lactantuis and Nonius; we have about the same proportion of the second, drawn from the 
palimpsest ; of the third, the part obtained is interrupted by many chasms ; only slight frag- 
ments were found of the fourth and ffth; and of the sixth, the palimpsest presented nothing; 
but this book contained the Somnium Scipionis, which is preserved by Macrobius ($ 430) ; we 
have also a Greek version of it, which has been ascribed tn Theodore Gaza, and with more 

propriety to Planudes. For an analysis of the Republic, see Southern Review, No. vn. — Cf. 

also, JV. Am. Rev. No. xl. — For the Greek version of Scipio's Dream, see the ed. of Cato by 
Gotz, cited below. — Cf. The Theology and Philosophy in Cicero's Somnium Scipionis explained ; 
or a brief attempt to demonstrate that the Newtonian System is agreeable to the Notions of the 

wisest Ancients. Lond. 1751. 8. (\) C. Beicr. Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — There have been 

many school editions. — Johnson, Lat. & Engl. Lond. 1828. 8. — C. K. Dillaway. Bost. 1837. 12. 
Cf. Bibl. Repos. No. xxvni. p. 497. — Translations : German ; Ch. Garve. Bresl. 6th ed. 1819. 
4 vols. 8. with a commentary ; commended by Sclwll, Litt. Rom. ii. 174. — English ; W. M.Cart- 

ney. Lond. 1798. 8 W. Guthrie. Lond. 1755. 8. (} & k) J. A. Gotz. Lpz. 1816. 8. with 

Somn. Scipionis. — C. K. Dillaway. Bost. 1837. 12. — Translations. — English ; W. Guthrie, as 
just cited (i). — W. Melmoth. Lond. 1777. 1807. 8. including also Paradoxal) and Scipio's 
Dream. — J. Denham, Cato Cj), a Poem, in 4 parts. Lond. 1648. 12. — ■ — (m) Attempts were 
made, after the revival of letters, to collect the scattered fragments of the lost works. — C. Sigo- 
nius, Fragmenta Ciceronis. Ven. 1559. 8. Han. 1606. 12. — The same Sigonius published the 
fragments of De Consolatione connected together by sentences interpolated by himself. Ron. 
1583. 8. — An English tran lation, in the work entitled Paraclesis, or Consolations deduced from 
Natural and Revealed Religion ; two dissertations, the first supposed to have been composed 
by Cicero ; the last originally written by Thos. Blacklock, DD. Lond. 1767. 8.— Cf. C. F.JVobbe, 
Programm. de fngment. libror. Cic. incertorum. Lpz. 1827. — The work entitled Orpheus was 
first published, Ven. 1593. 8. republished by ./. A. Folierini. Ven. 1793. 4. — Respecting lost works 
of Cicero, and works falsely ascribed to hi:n, cf. Bahr, p. 633. — Harles, Brev. Not. Suppl. i. 
ZAl.—FabricUis, Bibl. Lat. i. 212-216. 

4. There are works (besides those already mentioned) illustrative of Cicero's philosophical 
writings, too numerous to be cited here ; we name a few. — ./. Ch. Brictrlieb, De philosoph. 
Ciceronis. Cob. 1.784. 4 — Ci. F. fc-lsemann, De infble phil. Ciceronis. Luneb. 1799. 4. — R. 
Riihwer, Cicer. in philos. ejnsq. partes merita. Hamb. 1825. 8. — H. Dodwell, Apology &c. in 
Parkei-'s translation, cited above (b). — Gautier de Stbert, Examen de la Philos. de Ciceron, in 
the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xli. 406. xliii. 101. 

§ 469. L. JlnncEvs Seneca was a zealous adherent of the Stoic philosophy, 
although he had previously made himself acquainted with the doctrines of all 

30 



350 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

the schools. In his philosophical writings there is much (acumen, and much 
matter to nourish a reflecting mind. The style, however, like that of his 
epistles (§ 442), is too elaborate, and on account of the frequent antitheses, 
is tiresome. 

1. Seneca was bom at Corduba in Spain, A. D. 2 or 3. In the reign of 
Claudius he was banished to the island of Corsica, where he remained eight 
years. After he became the instructor of Nero, he obtained great wealth (cf. 
Tac. Ann. xiii. 42), and was charged with practicing exorbitant usury (Dio 
Cass. lxi. 10). His death, by the sentence of Nero (cf. § 374. Tac. Ann. xv. 
60-64,), occurred A. D. 65. 

J. Lipsius, Vita Senecae, in his Opera Omnia. Antv. 1637. 4 vols, fol Diderot, Ess. sur la vie 

et les ecrits de Seneque. Par. 1779. 12. given in La Grange's transl.— C. P. Conz, iiber Seneca's 
Leben &c. in his translation below (5) cited. — Th. F. G. Reinhard, de Seneca? vita et Script, 
Jen. 1817. 8. — Enfield's Hist. Phil, bk.iii. ch. ii. sect. l.—Mongez, Iconographie Rom, I. p. 419, 
(Cf. P. I. $ 187.) 

2. The following are his philosophical works : De Ira, in 3 books ; De 
consolatione, in 3 books; the 1st addressed to his mother Helvia, during his 
own banishment to Corsica; the 2d addressed to one Polybius, who had lost 
a young brother; the 3d addressed to Marcia, a friend who had lost her son ; 
the genuineness of the 2d has been questioned : De Providentia, discussing 
the question, why evil happens to the good : De animi tranquilitate, in reply 
to a letter from Annseus Serenus respecting the trials of life ; it has been com- 
pared with Plutarch's treatise LTsyl ivQviiiag : De Constantla sapientis, sup- 
porting the stoical paradox, that the wise man can surfer no ill : De dementia^ 
addressed to Nero, in 3 books, of which the 3d and a great part of the 2d are 
lost : De brevitate Vital t De Vita beata, on the manner of living happily, in 
whiph Seneca takes occasion to notice the reproaches cast on him by his ene- 
mies on account of his wealth ; De Otio sapientis, of which the first 27 chap- 
ters are wanting : De Beneficiis, in 7 books, composed in the last years of his 
life and considered one of the most valuable of his performances; it treats of 
the manner of conferring benefits and of the duties of those who receive them. 

On the philosophical writings and opinions of Seneca, we may mention, besides the works 
named above, the following: J. Lipsius, Manuductio ad Stoicam Philosophiam. Lugd. Bat. 
1644. 12. — E. J. Werner, De Senecae Philosophia. Berl. 1825. 8. Vratislav. 1826. 8. — Bahr, 
Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 645. — J. G. Heineccius, De philosophis semi christianis. Hals Sax. 1714. 4. 

3. There is another work of Seneca which should be named here, entitled 
Qucestionum naturalium libri VII, and treating of various subjects of physical 
philosophy. In the 1st book he treats of fire; in the 2d, of lightning and 
thunder ; in the 3d, of water ; in the 4th, of hail, snow, and ice; in the 5th, of 
winds; in the 6th, of earthquakes ; in the 7th, of comets. This work is valu- 
able as furnishing means to judge of the attainments of the ancients in physi- 
cal science ; it exerted an important influence in the middle ages, holding a 
rank and authority second only to the treatises of Aristotle on physical sub- 
jects, even down to the 16th century. 

It has been asserted by a modern writer, that Seneca's theory of earthquakes "contains the 
germ of all that has been stated in our own times concerning the action of elastic vapors en- 
closed in the interior of the globe." (Cf Humboldt & Bonpland, Voyage aux contrees equinoct. 
Par. 1814. 4. vol. i. p. 313.— See Roller's Disquis. de Seneca QUffis. Nat. given in his edition be- 
low cited. 

Several other Works, not now extant, were ascribed to Seneca (cf, Quint. Inst. Orat. x. 1. 
AuU Gell. xii. 2). Some fragments of a treatise on friendship Were found in the Vatican, and 
published (Rom. 1820) by B. G. Ntebuhr. Several works also have been falsely ascribed to 
him ; as e. g. De Dlrtutibus eardinallbus, De paupertate, Proverbia, and others, besides the letters 
to Paul, which have been before noticed (§ 442. 2).—Fj,brlclus, Bibl. Lat. n. p.118, 123.— Bahr, 
Geschichte Rbm. Lit. p. 648. 

4. Editions. — The Philosophical Works ( opera philosophicaj, by E. F. Vogel. Lpz. 1830. 8. 
JV. Boulllet. Par. 1829. in Lemaire's Bibl. Lat. — The Qucestiones JVaturales, by G. D. Koler. 

Gdtt. 1818. 8. We notice here editions of the Whole Works of Seneca. — F. E. Ruhkupf. 

Lpz. 1797—1811. 5 vols. 8. considered excellent ; but it was not completed. Among the best of 
preceding editions were the latest Blpont edtion. Argentor. 1809. 5 vols. 3. — the edition cum 
notis variorum. Amst. 1672. 3 vols. 8.— that of J. Gruter . ( Commcliii pr.) Heidelb. 1604. f.,1. con- 
taining the not£ used by th-> Roman short-hand writers. Cf. P. I. § 117. — and that of Lipsius. 
Antw. 1652. fol.— The ed. of Erasmus. Bas. 1529. fol. was celebrated. — The Princeps, Naples, 
1475; cf. Harles, Brev. Not. Supp. i. 5J6. 

5. Translations. — French ; La Grange ('whole works;. Par. 1777. 1795. 6 vols. 8. Ger- 
man.— JT. Ph. Cjnz ^philosophical pieces;. Stuttg. 179>-92. 3 voR 8.— F. E. Ruhkopf, ("'ques- 
tions on nature"; Lpz. 1794. 8. English.— Thorn. Lodge. Lond. 1620. fJ. 

h 470. Caius P.inius Sectmdus, surnamed the elder {major) to distinguish 
him from his nephew, who was commonly called Pliny the younger (cf. $441), 



PHILOSOPHERS. PLINY THE ELDER. 351 

lived in the first century, from A. D. 23 to A. D. 79. He was a native of Ve- 
rona, or according to others of'Comum, and was one of the most learned men 
among the Romans. His Natural History is rather a sort of encyclopaedia, a 
work full of erudition, and one of the most considerable monuments of ancient 
literature. It is important to the geographer and the amateur in art, no less 
than to the naturalist ; although it may not be throughout entirely consistent 
or entitled to implicit reliance. According to his own account, it is a compi- 
lation drawn from nearly 2500 authors ; of which the greatest number are now 
lost. The younger Pliny justly calls it a work ample, learned, and scarcely 
less various than nature herself ('opus diffusum, eruditum, nee minus varium 
quam ipsa natura). 

1. At an early age he went to Rome. About his 22d year, he resided for a 
time on the coast of Africa. He also served in the Roman army in Germany, 
and held a command in the cavalry (Prafectus alee) under Lucius Pomponius. 
Afterwards at Rome he practiced the pleading of causes. Some time also he 
passed at Comum, where he attended to the education of his nephew. He 
subsequently held the office of Procurator of Spain, where it is supposed he 
remained during the wars of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. Returning to Rome 
he enjoyed the favor of Vespasian, and at the time of his death, under Titus, 
was commander of the Roman rleet at Misenum. He lost his life by the cele- 
brated eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79; the particulars are described by hia 
nephew in a letter to the historian Tacitus. He maintained through life habits 
of unremitted application to study. 

Cf. Life of Pliny ascribed to Suetonius (cf. § 537. 2).— Plin. Min. Ep. iii. 5. vi. 16. 20.— Aja»- 
sonde Grandsagne, De la vie et des ouvrages de Pline, in his trans, cited below. — Unioers. Biog. 
vol. xxxv. 

2. His principal work, the Historia JYaturalis, was finished only a short time 
before his death, and dedicated to Titus. It consists of 37 books. The first 
is a sort of index or table giving a general view of the contents of the whole 
work ; its genuineness has been questioned by some, but without sufficient 
reason. The 2d treats of subjects belonging to cosmography and astronomy; 
the 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th contain a description of the earth, its countries and 
inhabitants, forming a sort of universal geography ; the next 5 (from 7th to lltb 
inclusive) relate particularly to animals or zoology ; the following 9 (from 12th 
to 19th) treat of plants or botany ; with the 20th begins a description of medi- 
cines, which is continued through 13 books, treating first of the vegetable king- 
dom (from 20th to 27th), and then of the animal (from 28th to 32d) ; the re- 
maining 5 books (from 33d to 37th) are devoted to the mineral kingdom, com- 
prising notices of the medicinal properties of metals and stones, and to the 
fine arts, painting, sculpture, &c. with notices of the principal ancient artists 
and their productions. 

Respecting the value and character of this work, cf. B'dhr, Rom. Litt. p. 653. — Scholl, Litt. 
Rom. ii. 463.— Caylus, Memoir in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. et Belles-Lettres, vol. xxv. — Heyne, 
Antiquar. Aufs'Atze. Lpz. 1779. 8. — Sjasson de Grandsagne, as below cited. — For a very ample 
commentary on the works, see {Ant. Joseph, comes a Tune) Rezzonico, Disquisitiones Plinianae. 
Parma, 1763. 2 vol.?. fol. containing a view of the question respecting Pliny's birth-place, with 
notices of manuscripts, editions, &c. — A. L. A. Fee, Commentaires sur la Botanique &.c. de 
Pline. Par. 1833. 3 vols. 8. 

3. Several other works were written by the elder Pliny, which are lost. The following are 
mentioned : Dejaculatione equestri ; Studiosus, in 3 books, treating of the studies and discipline 
requisite to form a perfect orator ; Dubii sermonis, in 8 books, a grammatical work ; Vita Pom- 
ponii, in 2 books ; also a History of his own times, in 31 books (cf. § 518). Besides these he 
wrote 160 volumes of Excerpta or Commentarii, which were left to his nephew. — Bahr, p. 650. 

4. Editions. — Best ; Ansard. Par. 1829. in Lemaire^s Bibl. Class. — J. Stllig. Lpz. 1831-36. 
5 vols. 12. in Teubner's Classics.— Under the care of Sillig (of Dresden), who hal devoted many 
years to the study of P.'s JYat. Hist, a large and splendid edition is in progress, by the Deutsche 
JVaturforjchungsversamihlung.— T. G. Franzius. Lpz. 1778-91. 10 vols. 8.; inaccurately printed, 
yet pronounced by Dibdv.i ; ' excellent and critical." — The Bipont, 1783. 6 vols. 8. is good. — 
Dalecamp. Lugd. 1787. fol. and especially Harduiv. Par. 1723. 3 vols. fol. had celebrity. — The 
Princeps, by John de Spi.ra (printer). Ven. 1469. fol. lauded by Dibdin as a beautiful specimen 
of ancient typography.— That of Feyerabcndt, Francof. 1582. fol. is ornamented with wood-cuts 

" as bold and spirited as they are singular." Select portions have been published ; Ch. G. 

Heyne, Ex. Plin. Hist. Nat. excerpta &x. Gbtt. 1793. 8. with another volume (de picturaj. 
Gbtt. 1810. 8. — /. M. Gessner, Chrestomathia Pliniana. Lpz. 1723. 1776. 8. —J. Aikin, Selecta 
qucedam ex Plin. Hist. Nat. &c. Lond. 1776. 12. 

5. Translations. — German.— G. Grosse. Francf. 1781-88. 12 vols. 8. French.— L. Poin- 

sinett de Siery (with the orig. Latin). Par. 1771-82. 12 vols. 4.— C. B. Guerolt. Par. 1802. 3 vols. 
8. Better, but containing only the part of Pliny pertaining to zoology. — 9jasson.de Grandsagne, 

with the Latin, and notes of various authors. Par. 1829. 8 vols. 8. English.— Phil. Holland. 

Lond. 1611. 1634. 2 vols. fol. a copy of this is valued at £1. 10s. on the Catalogue of O, Rich 
(London) for 1837. 



352 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 471. Lucius Apuleius, a native of Madaura, a Roman colony in Africa, 
lived about the close of the 2d century. He was a lawyer at Rome, and a 
philosopher of the Platonic school. From circumstances connected with his 
extensive travels, he obtained the reputation of a magician and performer of 
miracles. His writings, although characterized by a style deficient in accuracy 
and often unnatural, contain frequent turns of wit, and are on the whole very 
entertaining. The principal work is the Golden Ass, in 11 books, a sort of 
satirical romance, of the class called Milesian Tales (cf. § 150). His other 
productions relate chiefly to the Platonic philosophy. 

1. Little is known of the life of Apuleius besides what is drawn from his 
own writings. He married a rich elderly widow, of Oea ("Tripolis^, where 
he was taken sick on a journey from Carthage to Alexandria. He was after- 
wards prosecuted by a brother of her former husband, on the charge of having 
employed magical arts to obtain her affections. His defence or apology on the 
trial is extant. 

SchUll, Lit. Rom. in. p. 202.— Bdhr, p. 581.— D. O. Moller, Diss, de L. Apuleio. Alt. 1691. 4. 

— A. Rode, Leben des Apuleius, in his translation below (5) cited. — Mongci & Visconti, Icono- 
graph. Anc. cited P. I. §187. 

2. The full title of the romance of the Ass is as follows : Metamorphosedn 
seu de Asino aureo libri XL Apuleius paints in this work, with great spirit 
and keen satire, the vices and crimes and the wide-spread superstition and 
delusions of the age. Respecting his real design, there has been a difference 
of opinion. " The hero of the tale is a youth named Lucius, who wishes to 
learn the magic arts of Thessaly, but in punishment for his curiosity and lusts 
is changed into an ass. Sunk in vice, he passes through various adventures, 
until at length, discovering the deep degradation of his state, he resorts to the 
Mysteries for relief, and again becomes a man, renewed and improved. The 
work is rich in episodes, and closes with a description of the Mysteries of Isis." 

— One of the episodes is the beautiful allegory of Amor & Psyche. Cf. P. 1. 
§ 198. — Warburton conceives the work to have been written in opposition to 
Christianity and intended to represent the pagan Mysteries as a remedy for 
rice. Bayle and others have considered it as merely a satire upon the frauds 
and tricks practiced by the priests and other pretenders to supernatural power. 
Those who hunted after the philosopher' s stone imagined this work to contain 
valuable secrets. 

See he Beau, sur l'ane d'Apulee, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. xxxiv. 48. — Ziegler, Disp. de L. 
Apuleio iEgyptiorum mysteriis ter initiato. Argentor. 1786. 4. — Warburton, Divine Legation of 
Moses, ii. 117. — Bayle, Dictionn. histor. et crit. article Apulee. 

3. The works of Apuleius, which are more strictly philosophical, are the fol- 
lowing: De Deo (ox dcemonio) Socratis, treating on the question, to which of 
the various classes of daimons or genii that of Socrates belonged : De dogmate 
Platonis, or, as sometimes given, De habitudine, doctrina, et nativitate Plato- 
iris, in three books, a sort of introduction to the Platonic philosophy : De mun- 
do, a translation or paraphrase of the book tisqI y.oouov, ascribed to Aristotle. 

Sclwll, Litt. Rom. in. 211. — Bdhr, p. 660. cf. p. 569, 582. There are two works which 

might properly be called rhetorical ; Apologia seu Oratio de Magia, spoken in his own defence 
when prosecuted for using magical arts ; "Florida, a sort of anthology, consisting of selections 

from his speeches and declamations, in 4 books We have the titles of many other works by 

him, now wholly lost The treatise De herbis and the piece entitled Hermetis trismegisti Ascle- 

pius are not accounted genuine. 

4. Editions. — whole works ; the best, Fr. Oudendorp fy J. Boscha. Leidae (Leyden), 1786- 
1823. 3 vols. 4. Oudendorp died just after completing the first volume, which contains the 
Metamorphoses with the notes of various critics, and a preface by Ruhn/cen. The 2d and 3d 
volumes were edited by Boscha ; they include the other works of Apuleius and a valuable Ap- 
pendix Apuleiana The more important of preceding editions ; the Bipont, 1788. 2 vols. 8. — 

J. Floridus (Fleury), in usum Delphini. Par. 1688. 2 vols. A.— Variorum. Goudse, 1650. 8.— The 

Princeps, by Sweynheym fy Pannartt, (print. J. Andrea ed.) Rom. 1469. fol. The treatise De 

herbis, by J. C. G. Ackermann. Altorf. 1788. 8. — Cupid & Psyche, by J. C. Orellius. Turici, 
1833. 8. 

5. Translations.— German.— A. Rode, (the Golden Ass). Beri. 1790. 2 vols. S.—J. J. v. Lin- 
ker (the fable of Psyche, in verse). Jen. 1805. 4. French.— Abbe Compain de St. Martin, the 

Ass (retouchee par BastienJ. Par. 1787. 8. — J. F. C. Blanvillain (Psyche). Par. 1797. with the 
original and notes. English. — C. Monde. Lond. 1724. 8.— Taylor. Lond. 1795. 8. — Anon- 
ymous, Cupid and Psyche, in verse. Lond. 1799. 8. 

§ 472. Titus Petronius Arbiter, a native of Massilia, might be classed with 
the entertaining writers (cf. $ 439) perhaps more properly than with the phi- 
losophers. He received the surname of Arbiter, as director of public amuse- 



PHILOSOPHERS. PETRONIUS ARBITER. CAPELLA. 353 

ments. His Satyricon is a representation of the prevailing licentiousness of 
his age ; often offensive in its pictures, but not destitute of wit and anima- 
tion. It is interspersed with metrical passages, of which the most remarka- 
ble is a poem on the civil war. 

1. The author of the Satyricon is commonly supposed to be the Petronius, 
who is described so graphically by Tacitus (Ann. xvi. Id). Tacitus gives him 
the praenomen of Caius, while Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvii. 7) calls the same per- 
son Titus. Although born, according to some, at Marseilles, he was educated 
at Rome. He rose to the rank of consul and held the office of governor of 
Bithynia. He was a favorite of Nero, who, according to Tacitus^ cherished 
him as a chief and leader among his chosen companions (inter paucos familia- 
rum assumptus, elegantise arbiter). This exposed him to the envy 
of Tigellinus, who accused him of treachery, and thus Petronius was con- 
strained to destroy his own life, which he did by a gradual letting of blood, 
A. D. 66. — Some writers have thought the author of the Satyricon to be a 
different person, who is by some placed in the reign of Augustus, but by oth- 
ers in the time of the Antonines. 

Gyraldus, De Petr. Vita.— Scholl, Litt. Rom. n. 416-427. The account of Schbll is given in 
Anthon , s Lempriere. — Bahr, Gescli. Rom. Lit. 577. 

2. The Satyricon (or Satyricdn liber) belongs to the class of writings called 
Menippean or Varronian Satire (cf. § 345). The work purports to be an ac- 
count of the love-adventures of a certain Encolpius,& young freedman whose 
story enables the author to portray the character of the times. We have only 
some fragments which formed episodes of the work, although it is said to have 
existed entire in the 12th century. The poem on the Civil War consists of 
295 verses, describing the fall of the Roman republic. The other most noted 
parts are the Matron of Ephesus, and the Banquet of Trimalcion. 

The latter was found in 1662 at Trau in Dalmatia, in a private library, and was first pub- 
lished at Padua in 1664. The manuscript, after being sent to Rome, was conveyed to the Royal 
Libr iry at Paris. The genuineness of the piece was at first denied by some critics, but is 
now universally admitted. — Cf. Bdhr, p. 579. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. vol. it. 157. 

3. Editions. — Best ; P. Burmann. Utr. 1709. 4. (ed. by his son Casp. B.) Leyd. 1743. 4, 
It contains the dissertations of Wagcnseil Sf De Valsis, of P. Petit (under the assumed name 
of Statdeius), & Schefer, respecting the authenticity of the fragment discovered at Trau (frag- 
menbum Tragurim invent.), besides the notes and comments of several editors. — K. G. Anton, 
Lpz. 1781. 8. considered best by Dibdin. — That of Renouard, Par. 1797. 2 vols. 12. is said to be 
accurately printed. — Earlier ; Gonsalis de Salas. Francof. 1629. 4. — Goldastf. Helenop. 

(Francof.) 1610. 8.— The Princeps, 1476, after Pliny's Panegyric, as cited § 405. 3. The poem 

on the Civil War (De Mntationc Republics), given in the 2d vol. of the Poet. Lat. Min. of Le- 

maire (cited §348. 2) Fr. Nodot, a French officer, published a volume (Par. 1693. 12. it, 

1694. S.) which purported to be a complete and perfect copy of Petronius, said to have been 
found at Belgrade in 1688 ; the fraud was, however, soon detected. Cf. Fabriciiis, Bibl. Lat. 
u. 160.— In 1800, a Spaniard, by the name of Marchena, published a pretended fragment said 
to have been found in the library at St. Gall. Cf. ScholPs Repertoire de Litt. Anc. i. 239. 

4. Translations. — German. — A. Groninger (including the interpolations >of JVodotJ. Lpz. 

1804. 8. French. — Cit. D. (followed by " considerations sur la Matrone d'Epbese et un 

conte Chinois sur le memesujet"). Par. 1803. 2 vols. 8. — Lavaur, (Banquet of Trimalcion.) 
Par. 1726. 2 vols. 12. 

§ 473. Marcianus Capella, of Madaura or Carthage, lived in the 5th centu- 
ry, and was a grammarian rather than a philosopher in the strict sense of the 
word. In advanced age, probably in the reign of Leo the Thracian, he wrote 
the work entitled Satyra. or Satyricon, consisting of nine books, of miscella- 
neous contents. The first two books contain an amusing allegory, in mingled 
prose and verse, describing the marriage of Mercury with Philology. The re- 
maining seven contain a view of the principles and the value of Grammar, 
Logic. Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music. The lan- 
guage is unpolished and inaccurate ; yet this author is not to be altogether 
condemned in regard to the ornaments of taste and wit. 

1. He was probably educated at Carthage, thence styling himself the "fos- 
ter-child of the city of Elissa." He is said to have composed his work at 
Rome. He held the rank of proconsul (vir proconsularis) ; and by some he 
is supposed to have been a Christian. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. hi. 98.— Bdhr, p. 728.— Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 215. —Life of Capella in 
Barth, Adversaria, L. cxx. c. 13. 

2. The title of Satyra may have been given to his work on account of the 
variety of its subject matter, rather than because the two first books which 
form, the introduction to it, are in the form of the Menippean Satire (cf. §345). 

30* 



354 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, 

The seven sciences or liberal arts treated in the other books constituted 
the whole course of education for. a considerable period in the middle ages, 
This work was used in the schools as a classic, was often transcribed, and 
made a subject of expositions and commentaries. It is supposed to have ex- 
erted no small influence on the state of science and learning. Copernicus is 
said to have gathered from it some hints of his system of astronomy. 

3. Editions. — The best ; H. Grotlus fin the 15th year of his age). Leyden, 1599. 8.— U. F. 
Koj>p. Franc, ad M. 1837. 4. pp. 836. with a commentary and notes of various eds. The ear- 
liest, by Fr. Vit. BodianusJ Vicent. 1499. fol. The first two books (the Allegory, de nuptiis 

Philologies et Mercurii) ; L. Walthard. Bern. 1763. 8. L j}. G'oti. Norimb. 1794. 8. — The ninth 

book (de MusicaJ is given also by Meibomius, cited § 208£. 1. Manuscript copies of some of 

the commentaries above alluded to are preserved ; one of the 11th century, by Duncant an 
Irish bishop, is in the British Museum. Cf. Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, n. p. 384. 

§ 474. Aricius Manilas Torquatus Severinus B o ethiu s, a native of Rome 
or Milan, flourished at the close of the 5th century. His education was fin- 
ished at Athens, and he became highly celebrated for his learning and integ- 
rity. He was a poet, a philosopher, and a theologian. Of his numerous the- 
ological and philosophical works, that which has gained him the greatest ce- 
lebrity, is the one entitled De consolatione philosophic, in 5 books, partly in 
prose and partly in verse ; composed while he was in prison. His style is 
not perfectly pure, but far better than that of his contemporaries. 

1. Boethius was born A. D. 470, and lived until A. D. 526, considerably 
beyond the time which we have included in our glance at Roman Literature. 
He was raised to the highest honors and offices of the empire, by Theodoric, 
king of the Ostrogoths ; but finally through the artifices of enemies who en- 
vied his reputation and hated his virtues, he lost the favor of this monarch, 
and was imprisoned in the tower of Pavia, and at length beheaded by the 
king's order. 

E. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxix. on the character, studies, and honors 
of Boethius.— Cf. Le Clerc, Bibliot. Choisie, tome xvi. p. .168-275.— Clarke, as cited § 293, vol. 
ii. p. 284. 

2. The work on the Consolation of Philosophy is a dialogue between the 
author and Philosophy, who appears to him in prison. In the 1st book, Boe- 
thius utters his lamentations, comparing his former with his present state ; in 
the 2d, Philosophy portrays the folly of complaining of Fortune, who has no 
valuable or durable blessings to bestow ; in the 3d, she shows in what true 
honor and happiness consist; in the 4th, it is proved that virtue alone can 
make happy ; the 5th treats of the subject of an overruling Providence, and 
the agreement of God's omniscience with man's free-agency. — The work was 
held in great estimation in the middle ages. At the commencement of the 
14th century, there were but four classics in the royal library at Paris; viz. 
one copy of Cicero, Ovid. Lucan, and Boethius. It was early translated into 
French, German, and English; the earliest was the Saxon translation by 
king Alfred, who died A. D. 900. A Greek translation exists, which is said 
to have been made by Maximus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople, in the 
14th century. 

Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 223. — Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, i. cxiii. exxvi. n. 342. ed. Lond. 

1824. — Cf. Cottle's Alfred. Heyne, Censura Boeth. de Consol. Philosophise. Gbtt. 1805. 8. 

also in his Opusc.Acad. (6th vol. p. 143.) Gbtt. 1812. 8. 

3. The other works of Boethius, which belonged strictly to the class of phi- 
losophical, were principally commentaries or translations ; illustrating the 
works of Aristotle, Cicero, and Porphyry. He composed, however, several 
original works pertaining to the subject of logic and rhetoric. The piece en- 
titled De Disciplina Scholarum., commonly ascribed to him, is the production 
of Thomas of Brabant, a monk of the 13th century. — Boethius left some 
mathematical works, chiefly translations or imitations of Greek originals ; as, 
Jlrithmctica, in 2 books ; De Musica, in 5 books ; and De Geometria, in 2 
books, the first of which is a mere translation of Euclid; the second treats 
of the utility and applications of the science. 

Cf. Bdhr, Ge"sch. Rom. Lit. p. 6C4, 675. Boethius wasnot without celebrity as a Christian 

author, having composed several controversial works, among which were treatises on the 
Trinity and the two-fold nature of Christ. It has been said, that he led the way to the introduc- 
tion of the Aristotelean method of reasoning in controversial theology. — Clarke, as just cited 
above. 

4. Editions. — whole works. Best ; (ex recens. Glareavi). Basil, 1570. fol. — De Cons. PM~ 
losopMw j of the very numerous editions we mention only the following ; Gruninger. Argent. 



MATHEMATICS. 355 

1501. fol. " full of cuts, and therefore may be looked upon as a great curiosity."— P. Bertius. 
Leyd. 1671; Lpz. 1753. 8. considered very good.— Th. B. Helfrecht. Hof. 1797. 8. — B. Varchi. 

fBodoni, pr.) Parma, 1798. 2 vols. 4. Lat. & Ital. — In Valpy's Delphin Classics. Ang. Mai 

discovered in a Vatican Ms. a sort of commentary on some of the metrical passages of the 
Consol. Phil. ; — also two previously unknown treatises of Boethius ; they are given in the work 
entitled Classic. Auctor. a Vatic, codicibus edit. (vol. 3d). Rom. 1831. 8. 

5. Translations.— Of the Consol. of Philosophy. — German. — Fr. K. Freytag. Rig. 1794. 8.— 
A. Koburgcr or Coburger (printer), Lat. & Germ. Norimb. 1473. fol. with a commentary as- 
cribed to Thomas Aquinas. French John of Mean (metrical). Lyons, 1483. This and two 

others are mentioned as existing before A. D. 1350 ; one by De Cis or Thri, an old French poet; 
the other, in prose, by John de Langrcs. Cf. Wartun, Hist. Eng. Poetry, n. 204, 293, 343, 417. 

English. — King Alfred, " Anglo-Saxonice." Printed (ed. Ch. Rawlinsou) Oxf. 1698. 8. — 

Geoff. Chaucer. Printed by Caxton, at Westminster, without date; the Latin and English are 
given alternately ; a period or part of a period in Latin being followed by the corresponding 
period in English, in smaller type. — Johannes Capellanus, or John the Chaplain (John Walton), 
" The Bokc of Comfort, called in Laten, Boecius de Cons. Philos., translated into Englesse 
Tonge; in Verse," &c. translated in 1410. printed in 1525. 4. — Richard, Lord Viscount Pres- 
ton. Lond. 1695. Repr. Lond. 1712. 8. — Phil. Ridpath, (with notes and illust.) Lond. 1785. 8. 
— Many curious editions and translations are named by Lcyser, on the Poetry of the Middle 
Ages, cited $ 348. 1. 



VII — Mathematicians , Geographers, and (Economists. 

§ 475 u. In regard to mathematical science the Romans cannot be said to 
have had any peculiar merit, although when they began to patronize and cul- 
tivate the sciences generally, this was not entirely neglected. The practical 
applications of the science, especially in architecture and the military art, 
were very favorably received and encouraged by them, because thereby their 
love of splendor and their desire for conquest were cherished and strength- 
ened. 

§ 476. It was not until B. C. 262, that a sun-dial or gnomon was introduced 
at Rome, being brought from Catana ; and this very dial, although not 
adapted to the latitude of Rome, was the only guide they had in determining 
the time of day, for nearly 100 years subsequently {Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 60). 
About the year B. C. 164, the first dial for the meridian of Rome was con- 
structed. And it was several years later that the Romans received their first 
instrument for measuring the hours of night, which was the clepsydra, im- 
ported by Scipio Nasica, B. C. 159. (Cf. P. V. $ 188.) In the year B. C. 168, 
a military tribune, C. Sulpitius Gallus, announced to his army an eclipse of 
the moon; this occurring as it was predicted, Gallus was regarded by his sol- 
diers as a man inspired by the gods (Livy, xliv. 37). — These facts are men- 
tioned to show how little progress had been made in sciences and arts con- 
nected with mathematics. 

§ 477. The Romans derived all their knowledge of mathematics from the 
Greeks ; and it was but shortly before the time of Augustus that the exact 
sciences seem to have been much cultivated among them, although they must 
have known something of the discoveries of Archimedes and of the mathe- 
maticians at Alexandria (cf. $ 204). In the period designated as the fourth in 
our glance (from the war of Marius and Sylla, B. C. 88, to the death of Au- 
gustus, cf. § 301), we meet with the first name specially noticeable. Publius 
Nigidius Figulus, who joined the party of Pompey against Caesar, and was 
afterwards exiled by the latter, is mentioned as an eminent mathematician 
and astrologer, and a man of great learning. — Marcus Manlius is known to us 
merely by his poem on astronomy, or rather astrology (cf. §369). — The three 
geometers commissioned under Julius Caesar to survey the Roman Empire 
(cf. § 480) must have had some reputation in practical geometry. — But the 
most distinguished name is that of Vitruvius, whose writings we shall more 
particularly notice (§490). His celebrity, however, was the fruit of his 
skill and success in architecture rather than from any contributions made by 
him to mathematical science. 

Nigidius was a friend of Cicero (cf. Ep. iv. 13), and is said to have composed a great num- 
ber of works, all of which are lost. (Cf. Aid. Gell. Noct. Att. iv. 9 ; xix. 14.) The following 
are among the titles preserved : De Sph&ra barbarica et gracanica ; Dc ventis ; De Dim ; De au- 



356 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

guriis. He is said to have predicted future events. (Suet, in August. 24, 94.— Dion Cass. xlv. I.) 
—Bahr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 666. — Burigny, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxix. where all that is 
known of him is collected. — Fragments of his writings are given in J. Rutgerslus, Var. Lecti- 
ones, Ludg. Bat. 1618. 4. 

§ 478. In the period following the death of Augustus, mathematical science 
did not flourish with any new vigor. The principal writer that is placed in 
this department is Frontinus (cf § 491), who appears to have been interested 
in mathematics chiefly as applicable to architecture and military science. 
Mention is also made of Hyginus, surnamed Gromaticus, and of Siculus Fla- 
cus ; the former of whom left a book on castrametation, and the latter some 
treatises pertaining to the survey of lands. 

The book Hyginus is given in Grcevius, Thesaur. Antiq. Rom. (cited P. IV. § 179), vol. x. — 
The treat, of Flaccus, by J. C. Schwartz, Cob. 1711. 4. — The works of both by Guenz, cited 
$ 489. 4. 

§ 479. In looking over the last period, which is included in our view of Ro- 
man letters we find but scanty gleanings in the department of mathematical 
science. The works of Firmicus Maternus (cf. § 493) and of Boethius 
($474. 3) are the chief productions; but the treatise of the former is filled 
with the reveries of astrology, and those of the latter are, as has been noticed, 
principally translations from Greek authors. Some writers on military affairs 
belong to this period, of whom the most important is Vegeti us (cf. $ 492). 
There is a treatise, entitled De vocabulis rei militaris, composed by one Mo- 
destus ; and another, from an unknown author, entitled De rebus bellicis^ 
which contains also something on financial matters, and other subjects. 

The piece of Modestus is said to have been composed by order of the emperor Tacitus A. D. 
275 ; Harles says of it, " stilus est putidus ,: ; it is given in the collection Vet. de re mil. Script. 
cited $489. 1 — The work de rebus bell, is found in Sigism. Gelenius, Notitia utriusque imperii. 
Bas. 1552. fol. 

§ 480. In Geography , the knowledge of the Romans was extended by their 
conquests ; yet they accomplished in this science little compared with what 
we might have expected. We find no Latin writer on geography until the 
time of the Emperors. Julius Csesar conceived the idea of a complete survey 
of the whole empire. For this purpose three geometers were employed ; 
Theodotus, entrusted with the survey of the northern provinces; Zenodox- 
us, with the survey Of the eastern ; and Polycletus, of the southern. It is 
stated, that this survey was finished B. C. 19 ; and that the results were laid 
down upon a sort of map or chart, by the care of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, 
who was hindered by death from publishing a great work from the materials 
collected. 

The survey of the eastern part is said to have occupied over 14 years ; that of the northern, 
above 20 years ; and that of the southern, above 25 years. Scholl (Lilt. Rom. n. 221) gives the 
numbers still higher. — The materials collected by Agrippa were lodged in the public archives 
and there consulted by Pliny ^cf. Nat. Hist. iii. 2, 3, 29, 126 ; iv. 24, 26). The chart or table is 
said to have been preserved, and to have received from time to time marks and notes to desig- 
nate the various changes in the provinces. The numerous changes at length required the con- 
struction of another chart with corrected measurements, which was effected about A. D. 230, 
under Alexander Severus. Of this chart the celebrated document called Tabula Peutingeriana 
(§ 497. 1) is supposed by some modern critics to be an imperfect copy. 

§ 481. How much the want of some comprehensive work on geography 
was felt at Rome may be conjectured from the fact that Cicero, as appears by 
a letter to Atticus, once contemplated such a work himself. He had a deep 
sense of the magnitude and difficulty of the task, and on that account shrunk 
from it. No Latin writer seems to have attempted a work of such a charac- 
ter; but we have something like it in the geography of Strabo in Greek (cf. 
§ 216). The first writer in Latin on this subject was Pomponius Mela (cf. 
§ 494) in the reign of Claudius; unless we except Juba the younger, who 
composed a geographical account of Libya and Mauretania, which is quoted 
by Pliny in his Natural History. Pliny may be mentioned as the next author 
in this department, a.sfour b o o k s of the work just named (cf § 470. 2) treat 
of geographical subjects. Tacitus, who falls*within the same period, should 
also be mentioned here, as his treatise on the Germans (cf. $ 534) may be 
placed under the head of geography perhaps as properly as under that of 
history. 

The Juba here noticed, who was king of Mauretania, wrote also a history of Rome, in Greek. 

See Sevin, Recherches sur la vie et les ouvrages de Juba le Jeune, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
vol. iv. p. 457. — Cf. G. J. Fossius, de histor. Graec. (ii. 4) cited $231. 



GEOGRAPHY. AGRICULTURE. 357 

§ 482. We find no other geographical works to notice until after the time 
of the Antonines. In our fifth and last period (cf. §301) occurs the name of 
Julianus Titianus, who at the commencement of the 3d century composed a 
description of the Roman provinces, which is lost. Solinus probably belongs 
to the same century a considerable part of whose Polyhistor (cf. § 495) con- 
sists of geographical notices. In the 3d or 4th century, it is supposed the 
extant works called Roman Itineraries (Romanorum Itineraria) were con- 
structed (cf. $497) ; those designated as Itineraries of Antonine being ascribed 
by some critics to a writer named ^Ethicus Ister, the author of a work enti- 
tled Cosmographia. Sextus Rufus and Vibius Sequester (§ 496), of the 4th 
century, should also be noticed, having left some geographical or chorograph- 
ical writings ; which are the latest that fall within the period included in our 
present sketch of Roman Literature, except the poetical performances of 
Avienus (§381. 4) and Rutilius (§ 389). — It would seem, therefore, that there 
existed in the Latin language no general system of geography except that of 
Mela, unless the treatise of Pliny may be considered as entitled to the same 
rank. The earliest modern system appears to have been that of Dicuil, an 
Irish monk of the 9th century. 

1. Titianus is sometimes named among the historians ; see G. J. Vossius, de hist. Lat. (ii. 1) 
cited §527. 1. Sextus Rufus, or Festus Rufus as he is sometimes called, is also placed among 
the historians ; we have two works by him ; one styled Breviarium rerum gestarum pop. Ro- 
mani, or otherwise Breviarium de victoriis et provinciis pop. Romani, composed, it is said, by or- 
der of the emperor Valentinian ; the other, De regionibus urbis Roma;, a topographical de- 
scription of Rome. — The former of these works is given in some editions of Eutropius ; e. g. 
in VerheyVs cited § 540. 3. Both separately, by C. Mvnnich, Hannov. 1815. 8. with a map of 
Rome, and formingthe 15th vol. of the Corpus. Histor. Lat. by Ruhkopf and Seebode (cf. §527. 
2). The description of Rome is commonly joined with a piece under the same title by Publius 
Victor, De regionibus Roma, and another, entitled Libellus provinciarum Romanarum, by some 
writer in the time of Theodosius ; given in Gratvius, Thesaur. Antiq. Rom. 

2. The work of Dicuil, entitled De Mensura orbis terra;, was published by A. Letronne, Par. 
1814. 8. considered better than the ed. of Walkenmr, Par. 1807. — In the same century with Di- 
cuil (the 9th) probably lived the writer called Geographus Ravcmia, author of a work of little 
value, with the title De Geographia seu Chorographia ; it is appended to the ed. of Mela by 
Gronov, cited § 494. 2. 

§ 483. Under the name of (Economists are included a class of writers, who 
treated particularly of the subject of Husbandry or Agriculture. Agriculture 
was from the beginning an honorable employment among the Romans. Pa- 
tricians and the most distinguished citizens engaged in it. Cincinnatus was 
laboring in his fields when informed of his election to the dictatorship. Reg- 
ulus asked leave to retire from the senate to cultivate a little farm suffering 
from neglect. The names of some illustrious families are said to have origin- 
ated from the agricultural employments of their founders ; e. g. the Fabii, 

Lentuli, Asinii, &c. This attention to the actual cultivation of the lands 

by the ablest and best informed men occasioned an advancement in the art of 
agriculture such as the Greeks never attained. It is indeed stated that there 
were numerous works written in Greek on the subject ; Varro mentions 
about fifty authors ; although of the Greek works composed before his time, 
we have now only the (Economics cf Xenophon (cf. § 186. 2), and the Works 
and Days of Hesiod (§ 51 J ; the pieces in the collection of Greek Geoponics 
(cf. §268) were of later origin. But whatever might have been written by 
the Greeks, the Romans were not in this branch mere imitators or borrowers. 
The maxims and precepts which are given by the Roman ceconomical writers 
were drawn from the experiments and observations of the Romans them- 
selves. The principles are not extensively applicable in modern agriculture ; 
yet the writings abound in useful hints and remarks, and have always been 
regarded as curious and interesting compositions. 

§ 484. The earliest Roman writer on husbandry, so far as we know, was 
Cato the Censor (§498J, whose history belongs to the first part of the second 
period in the division adopted for our present glance (§301). The next au- 
thor in this department was Varro (§ 499) ; he was born many years before 
the close of our second period, but his treatise on agriculture was not written 
until after the middle of the following period, when he was above eighty 
years old. 

§ 485. Columella, who was a contemporary of Seneca, in our third period, 
seems to have been less regarded among the ancients than his two predeces- 



358 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

sors ; but he has so adorned his subject by the purity and elegance of his 
style, that his work (§500a) is still agreeable to the man of letters. One of 
the books is a hexameter poem on gardening, a topic which was purposely 
omitted by Virgil (§ 362), whose Gcorgics may properly be adverted to as il- 
lustrating the agriculture of the Romans. — Martialis Gargilius was a writer 
on agriculture and gardening, who probably belonged to the same period ; 
only slight fragments of his works remain (cf. § 500b. 2. & § 548). — The last 
author we have to name is Falladius, whose treatise, although consisting of 
14 books, is chiefly drawn from previous writers. The time when he lived is 
differently stated by the critics. 

§ 486. The modern writers on Roman Literature have usually placed in the 
class of ceconomists an author called Callus Apicius of whom little is known 
($501), but to whom is ascribed a curious work on the culinary art, or what 
may perhaps be termed the ceconomy of the kitchen. It is perhaps worthy 
of remark here, that directions as to domestic affairs are not unfrequently in- 
troduced by the writers on agriculture. Cato gives recipes for making cakes 
and puddings ; and indeed a considerable part of his work is chiefly appropri- 
ate to the housewife. 

§ 487. There is another class of writings, which may be spoken of in this 
place perhaps as properly as elsewhere ; although from their peculiar charac- 
ter, it may perhaps be a question, whether they should be noticed under the 
head of agriculture, of jurisprudence, or of mathematics ; we refer to the 
works of the Roman Jlgrimensores or measurers of land. These writings are 
sometimes termed Gromatic ( Gromatici) , as Gromatice was a word employed 
to designate the art of surveying. 

The Romans had peculiar laws and customs in respect to the division of 
their lands, and the determining and marking of boundaries. Ample busi- 
ness was furnished for professional surveyors, in dividing and measuring dis- 
tricts assigned by the state for colonies ; in measuring lands belonging to the 
public domain; and in settling the limits of private estates (cf. P. III. $88). 
It is obvious, that these men would need an acquaintance with practical ge- 
ometry, with former and existing agrarian laws, and with all the ancient cus- 
toms in the distribution and use of lands. In the later periods of the empire, 
if not before, they held a high rank in the state, and received a handsome 
public salary-.; and schools existed expressly for their education. 

§ 488. It would seem that numerous treatises were written on the different 
branches of the art of the agrimensores. A body of curious but obscure and 
difficult fragments still exists ; some of them are ascribed to Siculus Flaccus 
and Hyginus (or Hygenus) Gromaticus already named ($478) ; but there is 
much uncertainty respecting their authors. The collection now extant f$489. 
4) is considered by Niebuhr to be an abstract from an older collection, with 
additions, made by an ignorant compiler of the 7th century. 

G. B. Niebuhr, the distinguished author of the History of Rome, was led by his speculations 
respecting the agrarian institutions among the Romans, to study these remains. " We lose 
ourselves," says he, " in the contemplation of the destinies of Rome and the changes that 
Italy has undergone, in reading these singular books. All the epochs of Roman history stand 
here side by side ; the ancient aruspicy and religion and Christianity ; ordinances of the plebs, 
and sections of the Theodosian code, and the Pandects ; the Latin of the earliest ages and the 

embryo Italian of the seventh century." ISPirbuhr, Diss, on the Agrimensores, in Appendix to 

his History of Rome, vol. n. p. 474. Eng. Trails!, republished Phil. 1835. 

§ 489. Our proposed method requires here a specification of works pertain- 
ing to the classes of authors just reviewed. 

1. Mathematical writers. — Montucla, Hist, de Math. P. iii. L. l.—B'dhr, Rom. Lit. p. 665 ss. 
Aldus, Astronomicorum Latin. Opera. Ven. 1499. fol. Rhegii Lingobardise. 1503. fol. con- 
taining Greek and Latin astrologers. On military affairs ; P. Scriver, Script. Rei Milit, 

Lugd. Bat. 1644. 12. — Veteres de Re mil. Scriptores, with comments of J. Stewechius &c. Ve- 

saliae (Wesel), 1670. 8 T. Waideke, Index militaris Scriptor. Vet. GiEeco-Latinorum. Soroas, 

1782. 4. 

2. Geographers. — E. L. W. Dacheroden, Von den Verdiensten der Romer um Ausbreitung 
und Berichtigung der Erdkundeoder Geographie. Erlang. 1780.— R. Mannert, as cited $7. 7(6), 
— Bahr, Rom. Lit. p. 675. Aldus, Geographi Latini. Ven. 1518. 8. 

3. (Economists. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. jR. Bradley, Survey of ancient Husbandry and 
Gardening ; from Cato, Varro &c. Lond. 1725. 8. — A. Dickson, Husbandry of the Ancients. 
Edinb. 1738. 2 vols. Q.—Rollin, Arts and Sciences of Ancients, in Am. Hist, ed N. York, 1835, 

vol. ii. p. 357. Collections. — Prmceps, by G. Merula (ed. JV. Jenson pr.) Ven. 1470. fol. — 

Several others before that of J. M. Gessmr, Lpz. 1735. 4.— Gessner^s, republished ( Ernesti ed.^i 
Lpz. 1773. 2 vols. 4. 7. C. Schneider, Script, rei rust. vet. Lat. &c. Lpz. 1794-96. 4 vols. 8, 



MATHEMATICIANS. VITRUVIUS. FRONTINUS. 359 

considered the best. Didot (print.), Traduct. d'anciens ouvrages Lat. relatifs a I'agriculture 

&c. Par. 1775. 6 vols. 8. 

4. Gromattc writers, or Agrimensores. — Niebuhr, as cited $488. — Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 227. 
— Bohr, Rom. Lit. p 672. — - Collections. — Princeps, by Jl. Turnebus, De agror. condit. et 
constit. limit. Par. 1554. 4. — N. Rigaltius, Auctores finium regund. 1613. 4. — Gal. Goensius 
Tor GoesiusJ, Rei agrariae auctores &c. Amst. 1674. 4, The contents of this are given by Fab- 
ricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 511, who remarks that these writings were first found in Ms. in the mon- 
astery of Bobbio, A. D. 1493. 

§ 490. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, of Verona, flourished about the time of the 
Christian era. He performed military service under Caesar. By Augustus he 
was appointed to the oversight of military engines and public edifices. The 
city of Rome is said to have been greatly adorned by the buildings projected 
by him. His work on Architecture, in 10 books, has been preserved entire, 
with the exception of the plans, which originally belonged to it. Only the first 
7 books treat of Architecture, properly speaking ; the 8th is on Aqueducts; the 
9th on Dials ; and the 10th on Mechanics. His style has often been censured 
as wanting in elegance ; this charge is made without adverting sufficiently to 
the peculiar nature of the subjects treated by him. The text also needs vari- 
ous corrections. 

1. Newton, in his translation, cited below, places Vitruvius in the reign of Titus. Newton's 
arguments are answered by Hirt, at the close of his Dissertation on the Pantheon. — See Wolf 
£c Buttmann, Museum der Alterthumswissenchaft, vol. i. Berl. 1807. 8. — Also Scholl, Litt. Rom. 
ii. 189. — The Prolegomena in the ed. of Schneider cited below. 

2. The work of Vitruvius, entitled De Architectura, is said to have been the 
first written on that subject in the Latin language ; and is the only one on the 
subject which is preserved to us from ancient times. Its contents are drawn 
in part from Greek authors now lost. It is therefore a work of the highest 
importance in the history of the art. The loss of the designs, which originally 
accompanied it, is much to be regretted. The 1st book treats of the art in 
general; the 2d, of the materials employed in building; the 3d, of temples ; 
the 4th, of the several orders of architecture ; the 5th, of public edifices ; the 
6th, of villas and country residences ; the 7th, of decorations. — Cf. Bahr, 
p. 667. 

3. Editions. — Best.— J. G. Schneider. Lpz. 1807, 8. 4 vols. 8.— Aug. Rode. Berl. 1800. 2 vols. 

4. to which belongs a volume of plates (Kupfer zu Vitruvs X Backer &c.) publ. Berl. 1801. fol. 

5. Stratico. Utini. 1825-29. 4 vols. fol. with the exercitations of Polenus (Exercit. Vitruviana 
&c. Patav. 1739. 4), and notes of various others. — More celebrated among the earlier; J. do 
Laet. (Elzevir, pr.) Amst. 1649. fol. with plates and the Lexicon f-'itruvianum of B. Baldi. — The 
Princeps, by J. Sulpiaus, along with Frontinus, without name of place or date (probably Rome, 
before 1490 > fol. — There is an abridgment of Vitruvius extant, Epitome Vitruvii, found in the 
monastery of ft. Gall by Poggio ; published by Guliel. Postellus. Par. 1540. 4. — Cf. Fabricius, 
Bibl. Lat. i. 483, 493. 

4. Translations. — German. — 2ug. Rode. Lpz. 1796. 2 vols. 4. French.— C. Perrault, 2d ed, 

with orig. Par. 1684. fol. Perrault also published an abridgment in French ; which was re- 
printed Par.1768. 8. ; and translated into English, Lond. 1703. 8. Italian. — B. Galiani. Nap. 

1758. fol. much commended. Spanish. — J.Ortiz y Sanz. Madr.1787. fol. with plates. Eng- 
lish. — R.Castel, with orig. Lat. Lond.1730. fol. with notes of Inip-o Jones and others, and nume- 
rous plates W. Newton. Lond. 1771. fol. 1792. 2 vols. foL— W. Wdkins, as cited P. 1. <S 242. 4. 

5. Illustrative. — H. Ch. Genelli, Exegetische Briefe tiber Vitruv, Berl. 1801. 1804. 2'Parts 4. 

with plates I. F. v. Rosch, Erl-iuterungen zu Vitruvs Baukunst. Stuttg. 1802. 8.— C. L. Stie- 

gliti, Archaeologische Unterhaltungen. Lpz. 1820. 8. (The 1st Abtheiluug is on Vitruvius.) — 
Vitrumus on the Temples and intercolumniations of the Ancients ; with a Dictionary of Terms. 
Lond. 1794. 8. with 10 plates. Cf. P. I. $ 242. 4. 

§ 491. Sextus Julius Frontinus, who was consul A. D. 74, and died in the 
office of augur, A. D. 106, was the author of two works still extant. The one 
first written and most celebrated is entitled Strategematica, in 4 books; con- 
taining notices of the military manoeuvres and remarkable speeches of the 
Greek and Roman heroes ; the 4th book treats particularly of military science. 
The other was on the Aqueducts of Rome, of which the author had the super- 
intendance under the emperor Nerva. 

1. The treatise on the Roman Aqueducts, in two books, is considered as a 
valuable work on account of its description of those remarkable specimens of 
architecture ; it is written with ease, but without elegance. — The other work 
(entitled sometimes Strategeticdn libri IV) is a compilation, bearing marks of 
negligence, yet containing informatipn not elsewhere found. 

There are some treatises attributed to Frontinu3, which evidently belong to a later age ; e. g. 
the pieces entitled De arrorum quahtate, De limitibu*, and De Coloniis, found in the collection of 
Gromatic writers by Goesius (cit;;d § 469. 4u Mention is also made of a lost work, De tactica 
HomerL — Schiill, Litt. Rom. n. 453. — Polcnu.?, Vita Frontini, in his ed. and also that of Ouden- 
4*rp below cited.— D. Q. Moller, Diss, da Frontino. Alt. 1l9U. 4. 



360 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

2. Editions. — Both works ; Frontini Opera. Bipont. 1788. 8. " Editio aceurata" (Harlts).— 
De Aquaductibus ; best, O. Ch. Adler. Alton. 1792. 8. with plates. — J. Polenus. Patav. 1722. 4. 
—Given also in Oreevius, cited P. IV. § 197. — Stratcgcmatica ; best, F. Oudendorp. Lugd. Bat. 
2d ed. 1779. 8. — JV*. Schwebel. Lpz. 1772. 8. — Given also in the Collection of military writers 
cited $ 489. 1. — Princeps. Rom. 1487. 4. 

3. Translations. — German. — Of the Strategetics ; J. Ch. Kind (with transl. of Polyfenus), 
Lpz.1750. 8. — Better in the work entitled Kricgswissenschaftl. Anecdoten von bernhmten Feldherrn. 
Gotha,1792. 8. French.— Bourdon de Sigrais (Strategetics). Par. 1759. 8. — J. Rondelet (Aque- 
ducts, with orig. Lat. and plates. Par. 1720. 8. English ; unknown author, Lond. 1686. 12. 

§ 492. Flavins Vegetius Renatus', probably a native of Rome, lived in the 4th 
century at Rome or Constantinople. It has been supposed that he was a 
Christian. He wrote a work on the military art, in five books, addressed to 
Valentinian II. It is drawn from earlier writers, and from the constitutions 
and ordinances of some of the emperors. 

1. Vegetius is styled, in the manuscripts, vir illustris, and comes. His work, 
written about A. D. 375, is entitled Epitome institutionum rei militaris. The 
first book treats of the forming and training of soldiers ; the 2d, of the disci- 
pline and regulation of an army ; the 3d, of the various arts brought into re- 
quisition in military affairs ; the 4th, of machines employed in attack and de- 
fence ; the 5th, of naval affairs. Cato, Celsus, Patemus, and Frontinus are 
among the authors from whom matter is collected. 

Bdhr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. 671 Waldeke, Index militaris, cited § 489. 1. — Comte Turpin de 

Crisse, Commentaires sur les institutions militaires de Vegece. 2d ed. Par. 1783. 2 vols. 4. 

2. Editions. — Best. — JV*. Schwebel. Norimb. 1767. 4. with plates. — The Biponiine. Argentor. 
1806. 8. — B. Giamboni. Flor. 1815. 8. — Princeps, either that printed at Rome, 1478. 4. or one, 
without date or name of place, but supposed, Oxf. 1468. 4. — Contained also in the Collections 
of writers on military affairs cited § 489. 1. 

3. Translations. — German. — R. Mcineke. Halle, 1799. 8. French. — Chevalier de Bongars. 

Par. 1772. 12. English.— J. Clark. Lond. 1767. 8. 

4. There is a work extant, entitled De Mulomedicina, seu de arte veterinaria, in four books, 
which has sometimes been ascribed to this author. It is now referred, however, to a later 
writer, named Publius Vegetius. Cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 232. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. ni.177. 
— First printed, Basil. 1548. 4. — Contained in Schneider's Collection, cited $ 489. 3. — A 
French translation is given in the Collection of Didot, cited $ 489. 3. English translation ; 

- Lond. 1748. 8. 

§ 493. Julius Firmicus Maternus, a native of Sicily, lived in the first part of 
the 4th century, and was a lawyer under Constantine. He wrote a work en- 
titled Matheseos libri VIII ; which is an astrological rather than a Mathemati- 
cal performance. There is also a treatise on pagan errors, composed by him 
after his conversion to Christianity. 

1. Some have considered the works above mentioned as the productions of 
two different authors by the same name. The author of the mathematical or 
or rather astrological work seems to have been evidently a pagan at the time 
of writing it. The time when this was composed is fixed by an allusion to an 
eclipse that occurred A. D. 334. 

Cf. Scholl, Lit. Rom. in. 225 Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 114-122 — Mongitor, Bibl. Sicula, as 

cited by Harles, Brev. Not. Lit. Rom. Supplem. ii. 226. — Munter, in his ed. below cited. — Hertt, 
Diss, de Julio Firmico &c. Havniae. 1817. 

2. Editions. — Mathesis ; best, N. Pruckner. Bas. 1551. fol. with other astronomical writers. 

Princeps, by Pescennius Fr. Niger. Ven. 1497. fol. — Contained in Aldus, cited $ 489. 1. De 

Errore profanarum religionum ; best, F. Munter. Havn. 1826. 8. — Cum notis Variorum. Roter- 
dam. 1743. 8. 

§ 494. Pomponitis Mela, who lived in the first century, was a native of Spain. 
His geographical work, entitled De Situ Orbis, in three books, is commendable 
for the good style, and the union of brevity and accuracy, by which it is char- 
acterized. It is, properly, a compend, after the system of Eratosthenes, and 
is drawn chiefly from Greek sources. 

1. His name, according to some, should be Mella. The place of his birth is 
mentioned by him, lib. ii. c. 6; but the critics do not agree as to the genuine 
reading; Ting enter a, or Cingentera, is perhaps the most authorized. He is 
supposed by some to have been the third son of the rhetorician Marcus Sene- 
ca ; and to have belonged only by adoption to the family of the Pomponii, who 
traced their origin back to Numa. A passage in his work (lib. iii. c. 6) is con- 
sidered as evincing that he lived in the reign of Claudius. — His geography, 
which is entitled in some manuscripts De Chorographia, commences with a 
brief glance at the world in general, and the three ancient divisions, Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. The author then proceeds to notice particular portions, in 
the following order : Mauretania, Africa Propria, Cyrenaica ; then Egypt, 



GEOGRAPHERS. MELA. SOLINUS. VIBIUS. 361 

which he includes under Asia ; next Arabia, Syria, Asia Minor ; then, in the 
2d book, he notices Scythia, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Illyria, Italy, Gaul, 
Spain, and the isles of the Mediterranean ; in the 3d, he again touches upon 
Spain and Gaul, and proceeds to Germany, Sarmatia, the Northern and East- 
ern Oceans, India, Persia, and then passes to Ethiopia and finally to the west- 
ern coast of Africa. 

Balir, Gesch. Rom. Lit. 678.— G. J. Voss, lib. i. c.25. as cited § 527. 1. — Tzschucke, Diss, de 
Pomp. Mela, in his ed. below cited. — Fvhrman, Kl. Handb. 776, "and references there given. — 
J. A. M"ttcr, Animadversiones in Pomp. Melam. Misn. 1802. 8. — G. G. Kirsch, Progr. de vera 
Africa? figura secundum Pomp. Melam. Hofre, 1791. 4. 

2. Editions. — Best, K. II. Tzschucke. Lpz. 1807. 3 vols. 8. with maps. A reduction of this 
for use of schools by A. Weichert. Lpz. 1816. 8.— The Bipontine, Argentor. 1809. 8. is good, and 
contains also Villus Sequester, Claudius Rutilius, &.C. — Of previous editions, the better ; J. 
Kapp. Hof. f781. 8. — Mr. Gronov. Leyd. 1748. 8. — J. Remold. Lond. 1748. 4. (1st ed. 1711.) 
Repr. Eton. 1761. 4. & Lond. 1814. 4. with maps.— Princeps. Milan. 1471. 4. 

3. Translations. — German. — J. Ch. Dletz. Giessen, 1774. 8. French. — C. P. Fradin. 

Par. 1804. 3 vols. 8. English.— A. Golding. Lond. 1590. 4. 

§ 495. Caius Julius Solinus, of an uncertain age, although probably of the 
3d century, wrote a collection of miscellaneous curiosities, to which on the 
second publication he gave the title of Polyhistor. It consists chiefly of geo- 
graphical accounts, and is taken almost entirely from the elder Pliny (§ 470), 
Many passages are in the exact words of that author ; and the extracts are not 
made with remarkable judgment or taste. 

1. The author is supposed to have published two editions of the work ; the 
first under the title Collectanea rerum memorabilium. It consists of fifty-six 
chapters. — There is extant a small portion of a poem entitled Fragmentum 
Ponticdn, which has sometimes been ascribed to Solinus. 

Salmasius, Prolegomena to his ed. below cited.— D. G. Moller, Diss, de Solino. Altorf. 1693. 4. 
— Bdhr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 657. 

2. Editions. — Best ; CI. Salmasius (Saumaise), Plinian. Exercitat. in C. J. Solini Polyhist. 
2d ed. (enra S. Pitisci.) Traject. ad Rhen. (Utr.) 1689. 2 vols. fol. — A. Gbtz. Lpz. 1777. 8. — 
Bipont. 1794. 8. — Princeps, by JV*» Jenson (printer). Ven. 1473. fol. — The Fragmentum Ponti- 
cdn is given in Lcmaire's Poet. Lat. Min. vol. i. 

§ 496. Vibius Sequester, whose native place is unknown, is supposed to have 
lived towards the close of the 4th century. He composed a geographical cata- 
logue of rivers, lakes, mountains, f or ests,&c. for the use of his son Virgilianus. 
Many illustrations of other authors, particularly the poets, may be derived, 
from this performance. 

1. This author is placed by Oberlin (in his ed. below cited) much later. The title of his work 
is De fiuminibus, foniibus, lacubus, memoribus, paludibus, montibus, gentibus, quorum mentio apud 
poetasfit. — Boccacio composed a similar work, in preparing which he made use of Vibius, 
although without acknowledgment. — Schb'll, Lit. Rom. in. 262. 

2. Editions. — Best. Jer. J. Oberlin. Argentor. (Strassb.) 1778. 8 Fr. Hesscl. Rotterd. 1711. 8. 

— The Bipontine, with Mela, as cited § 494. 2. — Princeps. Pisaur. 1512. fol. with Solinus. 

§ 497. The Roman Itineraries it may be proper to mention here. These 
were either topographical delineations, a sort of chart (itineraria picta), or de- 
scriptions or specifications of the most important places (itineraria scripta or 
adnotata). The monument called Tabula Peutingeriana is a specimen of the 
former; and the Itineraries of Jintonine are examples of the latter. Besides 
these, which are the most important, we have what is called the Itinerary of 
Jerusalem, and another called the Itinerary of Alexander. 

1. The Tabula Peutingeriana is supposed by some modern critics, particu- 
larly Mannert, to be an imperfect copy of a chart constructed in the beginning 
of the third century, under Alexander Severus. (See § 480.) They think it 
was executed by some monk of the thirteenth century, and taken not from the 
original chart of Severus but from another copy, with omissions and additions. 

— But it has commonly been considered as the copy of a chart or table con- 
structed in the time of Theodosius the Great, and from that circumstance it is 
sometimes called the Theodosian Table. 

It wa^ found in a German library in the fifteenth century, and came into the possession of 
ConradPeutin <rer of Augsburg, who died A. D. 1547. It was sent to the famous geographer Ortelius, 
who died at Antwerp, A. D. 1593. After a various fortune, it way lodged, A. D. 1738, in the 
Imperial Library at Vienna, where it still remains. It is upwards of twenty one German feet 

in length and about one foot in breadth, formed by united pieces of parchment. It was first 

published (ari vacisa), by F. Ch. de Schevb. Vien. 1753. f ; ,J. — Republished, with an Introduc- 
tion by C. Mannert. Lpz. 1824. fol. — Also in M. P. Eatanesich, Orhis Antiquum. Bnda, 1825. 4. 

— Cf. Scliadl, Litt. Rom. in. 251. — J. G. Loiterus, De Tab. Peutinger. Commentnriu^. Lpz. 
7.732. 4. — G. Meer.nann, Commentar. in epigramma Sedulii, given in Burmaun's Anthol. Lat. 

31 



362 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

vol. 11. — Mannert, as just cited, and also in his treatise entitled Res Trajani ad Danube gesta?. 
Norimb. 1793. 8. — Freret, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xiv. 174. xviii. 249. 

2. The Itineraria Antonini are two ; one designating routes by land, and 
the other routes by sea. They merely specify the distances between the dif- 
ferent posts. It is well known that they are not the work of the emperor An- 
toninus ; nor were they composed by his order ; they were posterior to the 
time of Constantine the Great. Yet it is not improbable that they grew out 
of official sketches or draughts, which were preserved in the imperial archives^ 
and successively changed as new routes or new stations were established. 
There are two authors to whom these Itineraries have been ascribed ; one is 
Julius Honorius, from whom we have an insignificant fragment usually joined 
with the Itineraries ; the other is JEthicus Ister, a Christian of the 4th century. 
The latter is also the supposed author of the work entitled Cosmo graphic, 
which presents a geographical table or nomenclature of the ancient world, un- 
der four divisions, styled east and west, north and south. The Itinerarium 

HierosolymManum was constructed by a citizen of Bordeaux., in the fourth 
century ; it traces the routes of travel from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, and from 
Heraclea by Rome to Milan. It is called also Itinerarium Burdigalense. 

The best edition of these Itineraries is that of Peter Wesseling, Vetera Romanorum Itinera- 
ria. Amst. 1753. 4. — The best edition of the Cosmo graphia is in A. Gronov's Pomponius Mela, 

cited § 494. 2. The first ed. was by J. Simler. Bas. 1575. 12. Cf. Schozll, Litt. Roin. in. 

258 ss. 

3. The Itinerarium Mexandri is a curtailed account of the route of Alex- 
ander the Great in the invasion of Persia. It was constructed by an unknown 
heathen author, about A. D. 340 or 350, for the benefit of the emperor Con- 
stantius, in his war with the Persians. A part of this work was inserted by 
Muratori, in his Italian Antiquities ; but the whole was first published by Mai, 
from a manuscript found in the Ambrosian library at Milan. 

B'dhr, Ges. Rom. Lit. 687.— Fiihrmann, Kl. Handb. 779.— Muratori, Antiquit. Ital. medii Mv\, 
vol. in. Diss. xnv. — 1. Mai, Itinerarium Alexandri, ad Oonstantium Augustum &.c. Mil. 1817. 4. 
Reprinted, Frankf. 1818. 8.— This contains also a treatise found in the same manuscript, with 
the following title : Julii Valerii Res gestae Mexandri Macedonis translates ex JEsopo Orcec. 
— Cf. Class. Journ. xix. 374. 

§ 498. Marcus Porcius Cato, of Tusculum, was illustrious in the earlier 
times of the Roman republic, about B. C. 200. He was distinguished as a 
general, consul, and censor; as an orator, civilian, historian, and oeconomist. 
He is discriminated from Cato of Utica, who was his great-grand-son, by the 
epithet elder (major) ; and, on account of his rigid moral principles, he was 
also called Censor. Of his numerous writings we have merely fragments, ex- 
cepting the book on Agriculture. Respecting the genuineness of this there 
have been doubts ; and if it be his work, it must have been greatly mutilated 
and marred by transcribers, as it does not correspond to the genius of his style 
nor to the testimony of the ancients. 

1. He was born B. C. 235, and died B. C. 149, according to the common 
statements. He is said to have been present in a battle against Hannibal, at 
the age of seventeen, and to have behaved with great valor. He was called 
to all the more important offices of the state. But when not kept abroad by 
military duty, or employed in civil and forensic business at Rome, he chiefly 
spent his time at a farm in the Sabine territory, which he inherited from his 
father. His opposition to the learning and refinement of the Greeks has often 
been noticed (cf. $ 391) ; yet in his old age he took pains t6 acquire the Greek 
language. — We have his life by JVepos (§ 530) and by Plutarch (§ 349). 

2. The book De Agricultura, or Be Re rustica, is destitute of method. It 
consists of 162 chapters, and seems to be merely a sort of journal containing 
rules and observations recorded in the order of accidental suggestion. 

Of the lost works of Cato, the one most regretted is that entitled Origines, 
or De Originibus, in seven books ; a work treating of the history and antiqui- 
ties of Rome. The 1st book contained the history of the kings of Rome ; the 
2d and 3d gave an account of the origin of the states of Italy ; the 4th and 5th 
described the first and second Punic wars ; and the 6th and 7th, the Roman 
affairs down to the victory of Servius Galba over the Lusitanians, B. C. 152. 
The work was held in high estimation ; Cicero (Brutus, c. 17, 87) praises the 
conciseness and simplicity of the style. We have a few genuine fragments 
of it; those published by Nanni are spurious. 
A m ong the lost works of Cato are mentioned 150 orations, which were extant in the time of 



(ECONOMISTS. CATO. VARRO. COLUMELLA. 363 

Cicero. Nearly a third of them are said to have been spoken in his own defence ; according 
to Plutarch he was accused about fifty times and as often acquitted. — Cato also wrote a book 
de re militari, of which Vegetius (cf. § 492) made a free use. He also left a treatise on medi- 
cine (cf. $ 546). The following titles of works by him are likewise given ; Carmen demoribus, 
a prose performance, which must not be confounded with the verses called Distieha deMoribus 
(cf. §382) ; Libri QiuEstionum Epistolicarum (cf. Aid. Gell. vii. 10) ; De Oratore, adfilium (Quin- 
til. iii. 1) ; De liberis educandis (Macrob. iii. 6) ; Apothegmata (cf. Cic. de off. i. 29.) 

Schneider, De M. P. Catonis vita, studiis et scriptis, in his Collection cited § 489. 3. — J. Hugo 
Van Bolliuis, Diatribe in M. P. Catonis scripta et fragmenta. Utrecht, 1826. — W. E. Weber, De 
M. P. Cat. vita et moribus. Brem.1831. 4. — J. Vossius, De Hist. Lat. i. 5. — Bdhr, Gesch. Rom. 
Lit. p. 347,700.— Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. U.—Schbll, Litt. Rom. i. 188.— Plutarch, &. JVepos, 
Vit. Cat. Cf. Cic. Brut. c. 20.— Plin. Nat. Hist. xix. l.—Liv. xxxix. 40.— Valer. Max. viii. 7. 

3. Editions. — The Book De Re rustica is given in the Collections cited § 489. 3. — First pub- 
lished in that of J\T. Jenson. Separately, Aus.^Popma (with pref. by Meursius) Franequer.1620. 8. 
— J. Ch. Haynisch. Schleiz. 1743. 8. — Fragments of lost works, by Aus. Poprna, in his ed. just 
cited. — The fragments fabricated by JVanni, or Annius Viterbiensis, were published in his Art- 
tiquitates Var'm. Rom. 1498. Cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. i. 35. 

4. Translations. — German. — G. F. Grosse. Halle, 1787. 8. French. — Saboureux de la Bon- 

neterie, in the collection of Didot, cited § 489. 3. English, of considerable portions, in Dick- 

son, cited § 489. 3. 

5. The following works are mentioned here as illustrating passages in the work on agricul- 
ture : L. F. Meister, De torculario Catonis. Gb'tt.1765.4. Cf. Schneider's coll. above cited, vol. n. 
— J. A. Markussen, Des M. P. Cat. Beschreibung eines Wein- und Oel- Kelterhauses &c. Lpz. 
1805. 8. with plates. 

§ 499. M. Terentius Varro, who has already "been mentioned among the 
Grammarians (§ 423), wrote in advanced life, three books on Husbandry, 
which deserve the highest rank among the similar works of antiquity. It con- 
tains much that is valuable not only as pertaining to the particular subject of 
agriculture, but also in reference to literature in general. 

1. The first book of Varro's work treats of the object and the rules of agri- 
culture ; occasion is taken to speak of the soil, climate, and productions of It- 
aly, of the proper situation and construction of villas, and of the culture of 
flowers. The 2d book discusses the proper management of flocks and herds 
(De re vecuaria). The 3d treats. of poultry, fish, and game, which are all in- 
cluded under the denomination Villicce pastiones. — The work is constructed 
in the form of dialogue. Varro treats his subject much more methodically than 
Cato, exhibitng less of the practical farmer and more of the scholar and anti- 
quarian. 

See Bdhr, Gesch. R'dm. Lit. p. 703.— References given § 423. 1. 

2. Editions. — The treatise on Husbandry is given in the editions of V.'s works, cited § 423. 
2. — Also in the agricultural collections cited § 489. 3. — It was published separately, Halle, 
1730. 12. 

3. Translations. — German.— G. Grosse. Halle, 1788. English Owen. Oxf. 1800. 8. 

§ 500a. L. Junius Modcratus Columella, a native of Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, 
lived in the first century. He composed a work on agriculture, in twelve books, 
to which is added a thirteenth book on the cultivation of trees. The latter book 
may have been originally an appendix to the work, or it may be the remnant 
of another distinct production. The tenth book is in verse, and contains rules 
for gardening. The work possesses value both from the beauty of the style 
and the richness of the matter. 

1. Little is known respecting his life. He was born in the reign of Augus- 
tus or Tiberius. He speaks (L. iii. 3) of Seneca as a contemporary, and is 
repeatedly named by the elder Pliny. Some critics (particularly the two 
Spanish brothers by the name of Mohedano, cited below) have maintained, that 
he was the same person with the Moderatus, who wrote in Greek on the Pythe- 
gorean philosophy (cf. § 463). — In the first of the twelve books De re rustica, 
Columella treats of the utility and the pleasures of husbandry ; in the 2d, of 
fields, of sowing, and of harvesting ; in the 3d and 4th, of vineyards ; in the 
5th, of dividing and measuring time ; in the 6th, of cattle and their diseases ; 
in the 7th, of sheep and swine ; in the 8th, of the inner-yard ; in the 9th, of 
bees ; in the 10th, of gardening, as above noticed; in the 11th, of various du- 
ties of the farmer; the 12th, which is the longest, contains miscellaneous in- 
structions and precepts in rural economy. — The book De arboribus, is sup- 
posed by some to have belonged to a work in four books, which formed the 
original of the one afterwards published by him in twelve ; and that, in this 
way, there was reason for the remark of Cassiodorus, that Columella com- 
posed a work on agriculture in sixteen books. 

Sclioll, n. 468.— Bdhr, 705.— Raph. &. Petr. Mohedano, Histor. Lit. de Espanna fin vol. 8th). 
£Iadr,1781, 4.—J. R. de Castro, Biblioth. Hispanica (In Spanish) (in vol. 2d.) Madrid. 1786. foi. 



364 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

2. Editions. — Best, in the Collections of Gessncr &, Schneider, cited § 489. 3 J. H. Ress, 

Flensburg, 1795. 8. 1st vol. only executed, including 4 books.— The 10th book, in the Poet. LaU 
Mm. by Wernsdorf, and by Lentaire. 

3. Translations.— German.— M. C. Cartius (De re rusticaj. Brem. 1769. 8.—/. Rlem (Dearbo- 
ribus). Dresd. 1791. 8. Italian.— G. Paganio. Ven. 1793. 8. English ; Lond. 1745. 4. 

§ 500 b. PaUadius RutUius Taurus JEmilianus, probably a Roman, who 
lived about the close of the second century, was a man of much information, 
especially in Grecian literature. We have from him a work on Husbandry, 
in fourteen books, in which he evidently makes use of the earlier writings of 
the Greeks and Romans on the same subject. It is written with considerable, 
yet by no means uniform, correctness and simplicity. The last book is in ele- 
giac verse. 

1. The critics have not been agreed either as to his native country or the 
time when he lived. He bears, in the manuscripts, the title of vir illustris. — 
Among the authors from whomPaliadius derived his materials are Columella, 
Martialis Gargilius, and Vitruvius. The style is inferior to that of Columella, 
and indicates an author belonging to a later age. The first book contains 
general precepts on the cultivation of land ; the twelve following detail the 
various agricultural labors of the year, in the order of the months, so that a 
book is devoted to each month ; the 14th is a didactic poem, on the grafting 
of trees (de insitione). 

Ba.hr, 706.— Scholl, in. 243. — Fabricius, Bib!. Lat. in. 69. — Cellarius (in the Proleg. to his) 
Curs Posteriores. Jena? 1735. 12. 

2. One of the lost works of Martialis Gargilius, from which Palladius bor- 
rowed, was entitled De liortis. A fragment of this was discovered by Mai, in 
a palimpsest manuscript formerly belonging to the monastery of Bobbio ; it is 
entitled de arbor ib us pom ip her is, and treats, in four sections, de cydoneis, de 
jjersicis, de amydalis, and de castaneis. 

It is published in the work entitled Classic. Auctor. e codd. Vatican ( by A. Mai). Rom. 1828. 
8. — Another Fragment which has been ascribed to Gargilius, entitled De cura bourn, is usually 
joined with the veterinary treatise of Vegetius. Cf. § 492. 4. The critics now ascribe it to a 
later author. 

3. Palladius seems to have been much read in the middle ages. Two writers of the thirteenth 
century are mentioned particularly as having drawn from him ; Vincens de Beavais, or Vincen- 
tius, in his Speculum Hist.oriale. Ven. 1494. fol. ; and Crescentius, in a work called Commoda 
Ruralia, in 12 books. Bas. 1548. fol.— Bahr, 707.— Harlc.s, Brev. Not. 792. 

4. Editions. — Palladius is contained in the Collections cited <S 489. 3.— Separately, Heidelb. 
1598. 8. 

§ 501. Codius Apicius, of whom very little is known, is named as the au- 
thor of a book still extant on cookery (De arte coquinaria), in ten books. Some 
place him in the third century, and think that his name was simply Coelius, 
and that he put forth his work, on account of the nature of the contents, un- 
der the name of Apicius, who was a famous Roman gourmand. 

1. There were three known epicures by the name of Jlpicius. Athenaaus 
(Deipnosoph. iv. 19) mentions Marcus Jlpicius, a contemporary of king Nico- 
medes, and also (Deipnos. i. 6. 12. cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. ix. 17) M. Gavius jlpi- 
cius, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius, and after whom certain kinds 

of cake bore the name \.-l n 'utia. A third of the name lived under Trajan. 

The work is sometimes entitled De re culinaria, or De opsoniis et condimentis » 
those who consider the name Apicius as part of the title, would give it as fol- 
lows : C o e 1 i i Apicius, sive De re culinaria. — The books have each a sepa- 
rate title in Greek, indicating in general the contents; the titles are the fol- 
lowing : i En i a s a i ( c, the careful; 2a^x6nrijc, the carver ; K tjTrovoizu, things 
pertaining to the garden ; nurdizTtjc, the all-receiving ; ''Ootiqioc, relating to 
pulse; \-dE(jomrl i g, the flying ; no?.vtt?.i,c, the sumptuous ; TerQunov;, the 
four-footed ; Qul.ucraa, the sea; c Alitrc, the fisherman. 
Scholl, Hi. 242.— Bdhr, 708.— Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. n. 365. 

2. Editions. — Best ; Th, J. ab Ahneloveen. Amst. 1709. 8. — J. M. Bernhold. Onold. ( Ansb.) 
1787.8. 1800.8. 



VIII. — My thogr ciphers. 



§ 502m. The system of gods among the Romans, and their fabulous stories, 
taken as a whole, had a close resemblance and relationship to the mythology 



M YTH O GR APHERS . HYGINUS. FULGENTIUS. 365 

of the Greeks, and indeed differed from it merely by some changes and addi- 
tions. (See P. III.) The Roman mythographers accordingly drew chiefly 
from Grecian sources, and therefore they present little that is new or peculiar, 
either in the tales themselves, or in the application and interpretation made 
of them. The domestic mythology of the Romans, the later additions to their 
system of deities, and their whole scheme of religion, may be learned more 
correctly and fully from their historical and antiquarian writers, than from 
these collectors of fables. 

§503. The few writers that are usually placed in this class, might with 
equal propriety perhaps be ranked among the grammarians. And, in fact, 
only one of them, Hyginus, falls within the time included in our present 
sketch ; as the others, whose names are given below, lived after the close of 
the fifth century. — The lost mythological writings of Varro would, it is be- 
lieved, be of more value than all the works of these authors. Cf. $ 423. 

The following are the principal Collections. — Thorn. Muncker, Mythogr. Lat. Amst, 
1681. 8. with figures. — More complete, Aug. V. Staveren, Auct. Mythog. Latini. Leyd. 1747. 
2 vols. 4. — The 3d vol. of A. Max's Class." Auctores e Codic. Vat. (Rom. 1831.) contains three 
additional mythographical works not before published. These were republished by G. H. Bode, 
Mythogvaphi Auct. Lat. e Vat. Codicibus. Cellis, 1833. 8. 

§ 504. Cuius Julius Hyginus, whose n^ive country is not known, was a 
freedman of the emperor Augustus, and the keeper of the Palatine library. 
(Cf. P. I. § 126.) Little else is known respecting his life. Perhaps the my- 
thographer named Hyginus, was a later author, who lived in the time of the 
Antonines. The work ascribed to him (Fabularum Liber) consists of a collec- 
tion of 277 brief mythological tales. It is a mere compilation from ancient 
grammarians and scholiasts, and is written in a style not entirely pure. The 
work seems to have contained a greater number of fables, and to have been 
divided into two books. We have also, from the same author, a work entitled 
Poeticon Astronomicon, in four books, illustrating the constellations as repre- 
sented by the poets. Much of it is drawn from the Catasterisms of Eratos- 
thenes (cf. §215). 

1. The Hyginus, who lived in the time of Augustus, was a distinguished 
grammarian, and is named as the author of several other works ; particularly 
one entitled De urbibus Italicis ; another entitled De vita rebusque illustrium 
virorum. — The language and style of the Fables are considered as evidence 
that the work was not written by this author. Some have supposed it to be a 
compilation or a translation from Greek, made even later than the time of the 
Antonines. 

A mythological Fragment discovered by Niebuhr (fragmentum de rebus Thcbanis mythologicisj 
is considered by him as a section from the original book out of which, as enlarged by the 'addi- 
tions of later times, the work now passing under the name of Hyginus was constructed. The 
first of the three mythological works discovered by Mai contains an intimation that it includes 
the second book of Hyginus ; but notwithstanding this, Mai considers it as the production of a 
writer in the fifth century. Cf. § 506. 3. 

J. Scheffer, De Hygini script. fab. setate atque stylo, in his ed. below cited. Th, Muncker, De 

auctore, stylo et state Mythologies, quag C. J. Hygini nomen praefert, in his ed. cited § 503. ■ 

Niebuhr, Orat. Cic. proRabir. etc. Fragm. Rom. 1820. S.—Bdhr, 713. — Mohedano, cited § 500a. 1. 

2. Editions. — Hygini. opera, by J. Mycillus. Bas.1535. fol. Lugd. Eat. 1608. 8 Liber Fabu- 
iarum ; best, in the collection of Staveren, cited ^ 503. — J. Scheffcr. Hamb. 1674. 8 Poet. As- 
tronomicon ; in same collection. — Will. Morell. Par. 1559. 4. with the phenomena of Aratus. 

§ 505. Fabius Planciades Fulgentius, a native of Africa, of whom also little 
is known, probably lived in the sixth century. His most important production 
is a mythological work, in three books, addressed to Catus, a Presbyter of 
Carthage. 

1. The work is entitled Mythologicon seu Mythologiarum libri tres ; also 
Mythologicum. The 1st book treats of Saturn, Neptune, Pluto, Cerberus, the 
Furies, the Harpies, Proserpine, Apollo, the Muses, Mercury, &c. The 2d of 
Minerva, Juno, Venus, Hercules, Ulysses and the Sirens, Scylla, Bacchus, 
Ixion, &c. The 3d, of Bellerophon, Acteon, Psyche & Cupido, Myrrha & 
Adonis, &c. — There are two other works, both of a philological character, 
ascribed to the same Fulgentius ; one entitled Expositio sermonum antiquorum, 
and the other, De expositione Virgifiance continentice. or De allegoria librorum 
Virgilii. Some, however, ascribe these to another Fulgentius ; five different 
individuals of this name have been pointed out. 

Scholl, in. 331. — Muncker, Prtef. ad Fulgent, in his Collect, cited § 503.— G. I. Vossius, De 
Philoloe. c. 5. 

31* 



366 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, 

2. Editions. — The three works of Fulgeniios are contained in the Collections cited § 503* 
Published also by J. Locker, under the name of Pkilomusus. Augsb. 1521. fol. — The Expositio 
serm. antiq. by J. Mercer, in his ed. of Nonius, cited § 427. 2. 

3u. We have a mythological work from Aibricus, which is almost entirely 
a compilation from Fulgentius. The name of this author is sometimes written 
Albericus, and Alfricus ; he lived in England, at the commencement of the 
thirteenth century. His work is entitled De Deorum imaginibus, and in some 
manuscripts Poetrica or Poetarium ; it relates chiefly to the mode of repre- 
senting the gods in images, and gives brief explanations of the reasons for the 
various representations. 

_ The Poetarium, of Albricus is given in the Coll. of Staveren, cited § 503. It was first pub- 
lished in the 15th century, with the treatise De magistratibus Roma, written by Fiochi, or Floe- 
co of Florence, and falsely ascribed to Fenestella, who lived under the emperor Augustus. Cf. 
Harles, Brev. Notit. p. 210. Suppl. ii. p. 466.— Also, Rom. 1517. 4. 

§ 506. Lactantius Placidus is also of an uncertain age. He is generally sup- 
posed to have been the same person as Lutatius, a Christian grammarian of 
the sixth century, who wrote a commentary on the Thebaid of Statius. We 
have from him a brief abridgment, in prose, of Ovid's Metamorphoses. 

1. The Lactantius here noticed must not be confounded with the eminent 
Father named Firmianus Lactantivf, who lived in the fourth century, and in 
some of whose writings, especially in his Divine Institutions and the Epitome 
of the same, ancient mythology is considerably illustrated. In the first two 
books of the former (treating de falsa religione) are long quotations from the 

lost work of Euhemerus (cf. § 222. 4) on the gods. There is also a kind of 

mythological poem extant, which is ascribed to Firmianus Lactantius, entitled 
De Phaenice ; and the subject of which is the Egyptian fable respecting the 
bird called Phenix. The mythus is given by Herodotus (ii. 73) with a decla- 
ration of his disbelief of the story. A modern writer, Marcoz, has attempted 
to resolve the whole into an astronomical fiction, intended to describe the 
Great Year (Annus Magnus) of the fixed stars, or period of nearly 26,000 years 
that elapses during the precession of the equinoxes through the circle of the 
ecliptic. 

A. Martini, Lactantii carmen De Phcenice. Lunsb. 1825. 8. — Marcoz, Astronomie &c. cited 

$ 204 Mem. Institut. Royal, Classe dPHist. et Lit. Anc. vol. i. p. 166. " sur le Phoenix, ou Re- 

cherches sur fes Periodes astron. des Egyptiens." — Ant. Mctral, Le Phenix, ou l'Oise au du 
Sobeil. Par. 1824, containing the accounts of all the ancient authors. 

2. Editions. — The Argumenta Metam. Ovid, are given in the Collect, cited § 503.— They are 
also found in various editions of Ovid, introduced together by themselves, or separately as in- 
troductions to the several books of the Metamorphoses. — The Commentary on the Thebaid is given 
in many editions of Statius (cf. § 378. 3). 

3. To the Lactantius or Placidus, here noticed, Mai ascribes by conjecture the second of the 
three mytholoeical works discovered by him in the Vatican library. The first of these works 
consists of 234~fables, Greek & Roman, promiscuously thrown together and divided into three 
books ; at the end of the 2d book stands the following note ; Explicit liber secundus C. Hygini 
fabularum, i. e. Here closes the second book of the fables of C. Hyginus. Cf. § 504. 1. — The 
second work consists of 225 chapters, besides a proem ; the contents often agree verbatim with 
those of the first-mentioned, although they are also frequently very different ; this Mai conjec- 
tures to be the work of Lactantius.— The third writing bears the title De Diis gentium, et Mo- 
rum allegoriis ; it consists of a number of sections, which were found in different manuscripts ; 
each section treating of a single deity or mythical personage. It is ascribed by Mai to a Chris- 
tian writer of the ninth or tenth century, bv the name of Leontius.— These works are given in 
the publication of Mai, cited § 503 ; which also contains some other mythological fragments. 



IX. — Historians and Biographers. 

507?«. The Romans, even in the earliest periods of the state, began to record 
in writing the most remarkable events. These first historical writings were, 
however, merely dry registers of the principal circumstances, although they 
were sometimes composed in a metrical language and arranged in the form of 
Annals. 

§ 508. The following are among the earliest historical records of tlie^ Ro- 
mans of which we find any notice ; the Annales or Commentarii PontifciMi, 
the Fasti Mao-istratuum, and the Libri Lintei. — The first mentioned were the 
records which it was the duty of the Pontifex Maximus to make of the leading 



HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 367 

events of each year, upon tablets that were to be hung up in his house for 
the use of the people. They were also termed Annales Maximi or Publici. 
The custom was commenced as early, at least as the time of Kuraa, and ac- 
cording to Cicero {De Or. ii. 12, 13), with the very founding of the city. It 
was continued, with some interruptions, until the Pontificate of Mucius, B. C. 
125. — The Fasti Magistr&tuwm {Liv. iv. 7. ix. 18) were the lists of magistrates, 
especially of the consuls, whose names it was customary to insert in the Cal- 
endar of each year, which it was the business also of the Pontiff and his col- 
lege to construct. — The Libri Lintel (Liv. iv. 8. 23. x. 38) were writings on 
linen, kept in the temple of Juno Moneta, containing public records, which 
were of comparatively minor value ; as the more important were inscribed on 
tablets of lead. 

M. Kalm, & C. A. Gruner, Diss, de libris finteis. Aboae. 1815. 4. Cf. Dudwell, delibris linteis 
&c. in his Prelect. Acad. p. 651, as cited § 542. 7. 

§ 509. We may also mention, as a sort of historical documents, the laws of 
the kings {Leges regice), which were collected by Papirius (cf. $ 561 J. There 
were likewise the treaties of the kings (fader a regum, Hor. Ep. ii. 1), which 
were kept in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus (Polyb. iii. 22, 25, 26). The 
laws of the ticelvc tables (§ 56l) ought perhaps to be named here also. — At a 
comparatively early period there were memoirs of the censors ( Commentarii 
censorumj, which were journals of persons who had held that office ; they 
were but a variety of the class of writings termed family memoirs, which ere 
long became common, and which effected much, it is said (Liv. viii. 40), in 
corrupting and falsifying history, by embellishments and exaggerations de- 
signed to exalt particular individuals and families. There were also the Lau- 
dationes funebres (cf. P. IV. § 340), which for the same reason could not be 
relied on as accurate historic statements (Cic. Brut. 16). — The early ballads 
already mentioned (§ 306) may likewise be noticed among the sources of Ro- 
man history, although it may be a question how far such productions were 
ever committed to writing. 

§ 510. But whatever may have been the early historical records and monu- 
ments of the Romans, they were almost entirely destroyed {Liv. vi. 1) in that, 
conflagration by which the whole city of Rome was laid in ruins on its capture 
by the Gauls, B. C. 385. Efforts were made to recover and replace these 
records and monuments, as far as possible ; but it cannot be doubted that 
much was irretrievably lost ; and it is supposed that the earliest writers after- 
wards depended chiefly on tradition as the authority for their narratives. 
Hence the authenticity of the common accounts of the early history of Rome 
has been much questioned. 

The literary controversy respecting the authenticity of the early Roman history seems to have 
commenced in France. It has been long continued and earnest. In 1722, Pouilly brought for- 
ward arguments against its authenticity, in the Memoires deP 'Acad, des Inscriptions(cf.vo\.vi. p. 14. 
vol. vm), and was soim opposed by Saltier in a memoir published in the same work (vol. vi). 
L. dc Beaufort defended the argument of Pouilly, in another Memoir, and more fully in a treatise 
published separately, sur P Incertitude des cinq premiers siccles de PHist. Romainc. Utrecht. 1738. 8. 
The total uncertainty of the early history has also been more recently maintained, in the Me- 
moires de PLi<t:tvt, by Levesque, while its credibility, on the other hand, has been strongly advo- 
cated by Larcher. Cf. Mem. de PInst. Royale, Classe d' Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. n. p. 394. (Par. 
1815). The views of Levesque are also given in his Hisioirc Critique de la Rep. Rom. Par.1807, 
— Gibbon has argued for the certainty of the history (cf. Miscellaneous Works iv). Neibuhr con- 
siders much of it as entirely fabulous (cf. Rom. Gesch. cited § 299. 7. — Beck vindicates the au- 
thenticity in part, in the introduction to his Translation of' Fern-arson' s Roman Republic (cf. 
$ 299. 7) ; see also his treatise entitled Epicrisis quastionis de Hist. Rom. antiq. veritate. Lpz.1812. 
Fiedler (cf. § 299. 7) maintains that much was rescued from ruin in the Gailic conflagration, 
and that valuable documents existed in other states of Italy, of which the early Roman histo- 
rians made use. — B'ahr, 345. — Dunlop, p. 56* ss. — Ii may be worthy of remark, that the portions 
of Cicero's treatir-e De Republica lately discovered (cf. § 468f. 2 (h) evince that orator's belief in 
the common accounts. 

§ 511. In the second period of Roman letters, according to the division we 
have adopted, which extends from B. C. 240 to B. C 88, the Roman history 
was treated by a number of authors that are included under the name of An- 
nalists. The metrical annals of Neevius and Ennins have already been no- 
ticed (cf. § 350, 351), and we here refer to annalists who wrote in prose. The 
earliest of them was Q Fabius Pictor. Cato the Elder is included among them 
on account of his Qrigirtes (cf. § 498. 2). Several of these authors are said to 
have written the history of Roman affairs in the Greek language. The works 
of the Annalists are almost entirely lost ; a few fragments have been collected, 
and published. 



368 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

These fragments are given in the collect, of Popma, cited § 527. 2. — Respecting Fabius Pictar 3 
see D. 6. Moller. Diss, de Q. Fab. Picture. JEt. 1689. A.—Ernesti, Pro Fabii Fide adversus Po- 

lybium, in his Opusc. Philolo gica. Lpz. 1764.— Liv. i. 44. 55. ii. 40 Polyb. i. 14. iii. 9. — Dio- 

nys. Hal. Ant. Rom. iv. 30. vii. 70, 71 From Cicero and Jlulus Oellius, we gather the names 

of ten or twelve others belonging to this period ; among them is Valerius Jlntias, whose work 
must have been large, as the 74th and 75th books of it are cited ; and L. Cornelius Slsenna, 
whose work seems to have been continued by Sallust. — On the Annalists, see Vossius & Han^ 
kius, as cited § 527. 1. — Heeren, as cited § 249. 1. — Luchmami, DeVfont. Liv. as cited § 531. 3. — 
Dunlop, ii. p. 267. — Bdhr, p. 345 ss. 

§ 512. These authors generally followed the account of Fabius Pictor re- 
specting the affairs of Rome previous to its destruction by the Gauls. But in 
reference to the history of events subsequent to that catastrophe, they enjoyed 
ample means and helps; e. g. the decrees of the senate, treaties, tables of tri- 
umphs, official despatches, and the like. The vast number of documents or 
monuments, which w T ere found among the ruins of the capitol when it was re- 
stored by Vespasian, is an evidence of this fact ; according to Suetonius (in 
Vespasianum, c. 8), 3000 brazen tables were gathered from these ruins. Be- 
sides all the help derived from such sources, most of the annalists were actu- 
ally engaged, to some extent, in the affairs respecting which they wrote. 

§ 513. The writers termed Annalists were not confined to the period above 
noticed (§ 511) ; in the next period, extending from B. C. 88 to A. D. 14, we 
find the name of several. Among them were M. Terentius Varro, the learned 
grammarian (§ 423), and Q. Hortensius Ortalus, the rival of Cicero in elo- 
quence (§ 397). In this period some of the Roman writers began to com- 
pose universal histories ; Q. Pomponius Atticus is mentioned as one of the 
earliest that attempted this. The principal writer of this class was Trogus 
Pompeius, of whose work we have an abridgment made by Justinus (§ 538). 
— In this period also we notice the class of works styled Commentarii, a sort 
of auto-biography, in which the authors relate the history of events that oc- 
curred in connection with their own civil or military life. The most noted are 
the Commentaries of Caesar (§ 528J. Those of Sylla, in 21 books, are lost ; 
so are those of JEmilius Scaurus, in 3 books, and those of Rutilius Rufus ; the 
two latter, however, belong to the preceding period. The history, which Cic- 
ero wrote of his own consulship, might with propriety be assigned to this class ; 
and likewise the work of Augustus the emperor, who wrote memoirs of his 
own life, in 13 books. M. Vipsanius Agrippa, a friend and general of Augus- 
tus (cf. § 480) wrote memoirs of himself. 

M. Pompilius Andronicus f cf. Sueton. de illust. gram. 8) ; Procilius (cf. Plin. Hist. N. viii. 2) ; 
and Csecina (cf. Cic. Ep. Famil. vi. 7) are also included, with others, in the list of annalists of 

this period. Respecting Po>«po?ims Atticus, see J. Ch. F. Stuss, T. Pomp. Atticus, eine Apolo- 

gie. Eisen. 1784. Cf. Veil. Paterc. ii. 16. — Respecting the history by Cicero, cf. De Leg. i. 1. 3. 
Ep. ad Fam. i. 9. v. 12. It was written in Greek, in a style imitating that of Isocrates ; and 
was sent to his friend Atticus, to be published at Athens. He also composed a work on the 

same subject in Latin verse. The memoirs of Augustus, extending to B. C. 26, are wholly 

lost. He is said to have drawn up a summary of his life to be inscribed upon tablets and placed 
by his tomb. The Monumentum Ancyranwm (cf. P. I. § 133. 5 J is supposed to furnish, partially 
at least, a copy of this.— Cf. Sueton. in Aug. — Dio Cass. (vi. 32). — Jac. de Rhoer, Diss, de Stu- 
diis Caes. Augusti. Gron. 1770.— Vossius as cited § 527. 1. 

§ 514. In the period now before us, the third of our arrangement (§ 301), 
there were three writers of special eminence in the department of history. 
Julius Caesar has already been named; he is the earliest that is ranked among 
the great Roman historians. Next in order of time is Sallust f§ 529), who is 
by many considered as the first among the Romans who truly merited the title 
of historian. The third distinguished name in this period is that of Livy* 
(§ 531). The first is remarkable for simplicity, clearness and purity of style ; 
he is often compared to Xenophon. The second excels in force and in the 
apt delineation of character ; he appears to have imitated Thucydides. Livy 
has less of simplicity than Caesar, and less of discrimination perhaps than Sal- 
lust ; and is more ambitious of rhetorical ornament and effect than either. 

§ 515. Many other writers, in this period, composed historical works. The 
following should not be omitted here ; A. Hirtius (§ 528.5), who added a con- 
tinuation to the works of Caesar; Cornelius Nepos (§ 530J, who, besides his 
lives of illustrious men, composed a historical work entitled Chronica ; Ver- 
rius Flaccus, who was the author of several works on history and grammar. 
Among the historical writers we also find Lucius Lucceius, whom Cicero re- 
quested to write the history of his consulship; and Asinius Pollio, to whom is 



HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 369 

ascribed the honor of founding the first public library at Rome (cf. P. I. §126,}. 
The names of Valerius Messala Corvinus, Lucius Fenestella, and Aufidius 
Bassus, may be added. 

The writ inns of V. Flaccus are lost ; some portions of the Calendar ( Fasti. KaUndares), which 
he caused to be inscribed at Prreneste are preserved ; cf. P. I. $133. 6. — Lucceius wrote a history 
of the Social war, and of the civil wars of Sylla, cf. Cic. Ep. Fainil. v. 12. ad Au. iv. 6. — C. A. 
PoHio composed a history, in 16 books, of the civil war between Ccesar & Pompey, and the 
events succeeding it until the reign of Augustus. See J. R. Thorbecke, Comment, de A. Pol- 
lionis vita et studiis. Lngd. Pat. 1820i — Scholl, Lit. Rom. n. 2(i. — Messala Corvinus was the 
author of a work entitled De. Rvmanisfamiliis, which is lost. The book now extant in his name, 
De progenie Augusti, is a meager sketch of Roman history from .•Eneas to Augustus, and is a 
production of the middle ases. It is published in Sylburg &. Fiedler (cited $ 527. 2) and sepa- 
rately by C. O. Tzschucke. Lpz. 1793. Cf.*D. O. Moller, Diss, de W. Messala Corvine Altorf, 
1689. — Burigny, in the Mem. Scad. Tnscr. torn, xsxiv. — Fenestella wrote a history entitled An- 
nates, which was freely used by Asconius Pcdianus (cf. $424). — The life of A. Bassus extended 
into the next period ; he wrote a history of the civil war. and of the wars in Germany ; both 
works are lost. He is highly commended by Quintilian. See Quint. Inst. Orat. x. 1. Cf. Dial. 

de causis corr. eloquentire. 23. To these may also be added the names of several others, 

whose historical writings are lost ; Volumnius, who wrote a history of the war between the 
murderers of Caesar and his avengers ; Arruntius, who wrote a history of the first Punic war ; 
Hyginus (cf. $ 5U4), who wrote an account of the Italian cities, and other historical pieces ; 
Labienus, who composed a historical work so free and seditious in its character, that it was 
condemned to be burned, bv a decree of the senate, under Augustus. — Cf. Scltoll, n. 32 ss. — 
Bahr, 360, 390, 411 Vossius, as cited $ 527. 1. 

§ 516. Before leaving this period it may be proper to advert to the peculiar 
means which the writers enjoyed for learning the course of public affairs. 
The official annals of the chief Pontiff ceased, as has been mentioned ($508). 
about B. C. 125 ; perhaps because this method of keeping the records was 
found inadequate in the increasing multiplicity and variety of events. When 
Caesar was consul for the first time, B. C. 60, he ordered the acts of the sen- 
ate (acta senatns) and also those of the people {acta populi) to be committed 
to writing daily, and to be published. Augustus prohibited the publishing of 
the acts of the senate, and appointed a particular senator to the duty of re- 
cording them, or in other words, of keeping the journals; this senator re- 
ceived the title a euro, actorum, and the copyists or secretaries employed by 
him were called actuarii. These journals were preserved in the Archives of 
the state, and were a source of information to the writers of history, in addi- 
tion to all that was freely published. 

The journals of-thc senate were sometimes styled commentarii ,• Tac. Ann. xv. 74. — Cf. Sue- 
ton. J. Cass. 20. Oct. 30. — Tac. Ann. v. 4, 5. The other journals, acta popuii, seem also to 

have been termed acta, publico,, acta urbana, and acta diurna. Cf. Sueton. Tib. 5. — Tac. Ann. 

iii. 3 .• xvi. 22. But the journals that are frequently cited by the simple name cf Acta, or of 

Diurna, contained micelianeous information for the u-e of all classes of readers ; not merely 
the votes of the people in assembly (P. IV. $259), but notices of the courts and judicial pro- 
ceedings of all meetings, such as games, spectacles, and the like, of public works, marriages, 
births, and deaths. — Besides these in the Latin tongue, there seem to have been journals or 
daily papers, published in Greek, containing acecdotes and accounts of political affairs and 
passing events. Perhaps both these and those in Latin are included under the l^Quiutaxa 
Gtjfisiu mentioned by Dion Cassius. — There appears also to have been another kind of journal, 
called acta Ccesaru:n, which had respect more particularly to the affairs of the imperial court 

and family. " Under the emperors, four different records grew into use ; namely, first, the 

acts of the prince ; secondly, the proceedings of the senate; thirdly, the public transactions 
of the people; and fourthly, the daily occurrences of the city, called the Dinar. . The last 
were sent into the provinces, and were there received as the Roman Cfazette." — See Murphy, 
Note on Tac. Ann. v. 4. — Lipsius, Excursus on the same passage. — Fr. Ch. Srfihsser, Archiv 
fur Ge ih cht ■■. Fi ankf. lbW. ( i. p. 80. ) — H. Dodwell, Praelectt. Acadd. p. 6G5. Oxf. 1692. 8. — 
Fabriciui, Bibl. Lat. iii. 314. — Hist, of Rome, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia, bk. v. ch. 6. p. 
402, as republ. separately, Phil. 1837. 8. 

$ 517. In our next period, from the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, to the time 
of the Antonines, the writers in the department of history were not so nu- 
merous ; yet the department was by no means neglected. The preeminence 
among them is generally conceded to Tacitus ($ 534). Suetonius holds a high 
rank, although his principal work (§537) is biographical, rather than histori- 
cal. Velleius Paterculus (§532) and Florus ($536) are authors of considera- 
ble merit ; yet their works are merely compends. The four writers just 
named all confined themselves to Roman affairs, except that Paterculus ap- 
pears to have designed to give in his introduction a glance at general history. 
Two other authors of this period have obtained some celebrity ; namely, Va- 
lerius Maximus ( 533), and Quintus Curtius ($535). The former in his rela- 
tions includes events of Grecian as well as Roman history. The latter is oc- 



370 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

cupied wholly with the achievements of Alexander. The works of these 
several authors will be separately noticed. 

§ 518. There were other historical writers, whose names ought perhaps to 
be presented here, although time has spared none of their productions. Cre- 
mutius Cordus (a) published a series of annals, which the senate under the 
influence of Tiberius sentenced to the flames, because the author had dared 
to call Brutus and Cassius the last of the Romans. Cneius Lentulus (b) al- 
ready alluded to as an epigrammatist (§ 340), is cited by Suetonius as a histo- 
rian. Claudius (c) the emperor is said to have composed, besides his own 
memoirs, a history of Rome, beginning with the victory of Augustus over 
Antony, in 41 books. Cluvius Rufus, who was consul under Claudius, wrote 
a history of the reign of Nero. Pliny the elder (§ 470J wrote a work in con- 
tinuation of the history of Bassus (§515J, and another, in 20 books, on the 
Roman wars in Germany. Pliny the younger is also mentioned as a his- 
torian. 

Several authors also composed commentaries or memoirs of the class al- 
ready described (§ 513). Those of Claudius just named consisted of 8 books. 
Tiberius (d) is also said to have written a memoir of his own life. Cn. Do- 
mitius Corbulo (e), who commanded in Germany under Claudius and in Ar- 
menia and Syria under Nero, composed memoirs which seem to have been 
frequently used by Tacitus. C. Suetonius Paulinus (/) wrote an account of 
his campaign in Africa. The memoirs of Crassus Mucianus, who held a 
command in Syria and took an active part in securing the empire to Vespa- 
sian, are often cited by Pliny. The emperor Nerva, it would seem, prepared 
a journal of his wars in Dacia. — There were also some individual biographies-. 
L. Thraseas Pectus (g) wrote the life of Cato of Utica ; and Herennius Sene- 
cio (A) the life of Helvidius Priscus ; a work which cost him his life through 
the jealousy of Domitian. 

(a) Tac. Ann. iv. 34, 35 Sueton. Tiber. 61. — (6) Cf. Sueton. Calig. 8. — (c) Sueton. Claud. 

41.— (d) Sueton. Tiber. 61 ; Dom. 20.— (e) Tac. Ann. xi. 18 ; xiii. 8. 35ss 5 xv. 5ss. — (/) Plin. 
Hist. N. v. 1. — {g) Tac. Ann. xv. 23 ; xvi. 21ss. — (A; Tac. Vit. Agr. 2, 3.— Plin. Ep. iii. 33. 

To the above we might add several ; as C. Balbillus, who wrote an account of Egypt, where 
he commanded under Nero. Cf. Seneca, Q,uses. Nat. iv. 11. ; M. Servilius, cf. Tac. Ann. xiv. 
19 j &c— See Vossius, as cited § 527. 1. Bahr, 456. Scholl, 11. 390. 

§ 519. In the last period we have to notice, from the time of the Antonines, 
A. D. 160, we may observe the same decline in history as in other branches 
of literature. Writers were not wanting, it is true ; but the spirit which 
should penetrate and enliven history was wanting. The danger which under 
the imperial tyranny threatened every independent and faithful inquirer after 
truth, exerted a fatal influence upon historical studies. It rendered the exhi- 
bition of the real causes and consequences of events almost impossible. The 
disposition to flattery was cultivated in a degree wholly inconsistent with im- 
partial history. It is not strange, therefore, that we find in this period noth- 
ing specially eminent in the department now under review. Most of what 
was written related to the Roman emperors, and comparatively little of the 
whole amount of productions has been preserved to our times. 

§ 520. The first author to be mentioned in this period is Justin (§ 538), who 
is commonly supposed to have lived in the reign of M. Aurelius Antoninus ; 
he is known by his abridgment of the general history of Trogus Pompeius.— 
Of writers who attempted to give a view of the whole Roman history, Aure- 
lius Victor ($ 539) and Flavius Eutropius ($ 540) were the principal. An au- 
thor by the name of Sextus Rufus (§ 540. 5) has also left us a compend of the 
Roman history. We have a much more important and valuable work in the 
history of Ammianus Marcellinus ($541) ; with greater fullness he treated of 
a definite portion of Roman history, commencing with the reign of Nerva, 
where the history of Tacitus closes, and extending to the death of Valens. 
He wrote at the close of the fourth century, and is considered as the last of 
the Roman historians, that truly deserved the name. 

§ 521. Nearly all the other writers that can be properly included in this de- 
partment belong to the class of biographers. The principal are those com- 
monly styled Scriptores Historic Augusta, or writers of the imperial history; 
these were particularly JElius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pol- 
lio, and Flavius Vopiscus. Of their collected writings we shall speak below 



HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 371 

(§542).- — It is worthy of notice, that these writers cite twenty-five different 
authors, who lived in the second century, and composed the biography of one 
emperor or more ; but whose works are now wholly lost; their names it is of 
no importance here to repeat. The emperor Septimius Severus is also cited 
as having written his own memoir. 

§ 522. We close this glance by adverting to a few other writers, that are 
sometimes named among the historians of this period. Quintus Septimius («■) 
is mentioned as the translator of the Greek work of Praxis purporting to be 
the journal of Dictys Cretensis. Julius Exsuperantius, probably at the be- 
ginning of the fifth century, wrote a tract entitled De Marii, Lepidi et Serto- 
rii bellis civilibus. — Hieronymus Stridonensis, or as he is commonly called, 
St. Jerome (c), who died in the beginning of the fifth century, left, with nu- 
merous other works, a translation of the Universal History or Chronicle of 
Eusebius. Two other Christian writers, belonging to the fifth century, may 
be mentioned here as chronologists. Flavius Lucius Dexter dedicated to St. 
Jerome a work (dj entitled Historia Omnimoda, which was a general chronol- 
ogy extending from the birth of Christ to his own times. Prosper Aquita- 
nus CO composed a work entitled Chronicon, reaching from the creation of the 
world to the capture of Rome by Genseric, A. D. 455. 

(a) Cf. $238, 260. — This translation, in 6 books, is entitled De Bcllo Trojano, or Ephemeris 
Belli Trojani. It contains some things drawn from lost works, and embraces a greater com- 
pass than is taken by Homer. It commences with the elopement of Helen and ends with the 
death of Ulysses. It appears to have been much used by the later Byzantines ; cf. Heinrich- 
sen, De Carmm. Cypriis. Havn. 1828. — Editions; by L. Smids, Amst. 1702. 4. containing the 

Dissertation of Perizonius on the original and the translator In Valpfs Delph. and Var. 

Classics.— By A. Dedcrich, Bon. 1833. 8 SchSll, Litt. Rom. in. 158. — Bdhr, 455. (b) The 

work of Exsuperantius is supposed to be an abridgment of a lost work of Sallust ; it is given 

in many of the editions of Sallust, e. g. Gcrlach's cited $ 529. 5. (c) This translation is 

given in the edition of Jerome's works, by Vallarsi, Veron. 1734ss. 11 vols. fol. reprinted Ven. 
1766. 11 vols. 4. — Also by T. Roucalli, Vetust. Lat. Scriptor. Chronica. Pa v. 1787. 2 vols. 4.— - 

B'dJir, Gesch. Rom. Lit. Supplem. p. 95. (d) A Jesuit named Jeronimo de la Higuera, at the 

beginning of the 17th century, fabricated a work purporting to be the lost Chronicle of Lucius 
Dexter, and pretended that the manuscript had been found in the monastery of Worms. It 
was published after his death, by J. Calderon, Cres.-August. (Saragossa,) 1694. 4. — Sclwll, in. 

169. (e) The Chronicon of Prosper is contained, with the chronological writings of some 

others, in the work entitled Chronica medii cevi, by Ch. F. Bossier, Tubing. 1798. — Schbll, in, 
172. — Bdhr, as last cited. 

§ 523. It may not be amiss to advert here distinctly to the biographical wri- 
tings of the Romans, although the most important of them have already been 
named in glancing at the historians. This form of historical literature seems 
to have been cultivated much more among the Romans than among the 
Greeks ; at least we have evidence that there were many biographical wri- 
tings at Rome, earlier than those of Plutarch ($ 249), whose series of parallel 
lives is the most important work in the Greek language belonging to this 
branch of letters. Indeed there is no doubt that Plutarch derived much assis- 
tance from Roman sources. — The earliest of these biographical writings 
which are distinctly noticed are the memoirs of the censors, already named 
(§ 509). The censorial office was established B. C. 442, which was above 50 
years before the burning of Rome by the Gauls. Dionysius Halycarnasseus 
appeals to certain of these memoirs {riuTrvixaVTcoiJiv^uara, Rom. Ant. i. 74), as 
monuments examined by himself, and confirming his statements as to this ear- 
ly period. The family memoirs (cf. Plin. Hist. N. xxxv. 2) and the funeral 
eulogies already mentioned (§ 509), belong also to the department of biog- 
raphy. 

§ 524. There were very numerous biographical works of another class, viz, 
the Commentaries or Memoirs, which have been before spoken of (§ 513) as a 
species of autobiography. Among these we find the memoirs of generals, de- 
tailing their own military achievements; e. g. those of Scaurus, Rutilius Ru- 
fus, Sylla, Julius Caesar, Corbulo, Mucianus, and others; of which time has 
spared to us only the Commentaries of Coesar. We find also the memoirs of 
consuls and civil governors describing the events of their official life ; e.g. 
Cicero's memoirs of his consulship ($ 513), which he wrote first in Greek 
prose, and afterwards in Latin verse- There were likewise in this class a 
number of imperial memoirs, none of which, however, are preserved ; those of 
Tiberius, Claudius, and Nerva have been mentioned. Here may be named 
the work of Agrippina, Nero's mother, whose memoirs of herself are cited by 
Tacitus (Ann. iv. 53) and commended by Pliny (Hist. vii. 8). 



372 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 525. A different class of biographical writings is presented in collections 
including- the lives of a number of eminent persons. 1 he eariiest probably, 
was that of Varro, whose collection (§423. 1), is said to have contained a 
notice of seven hundred distinguished men. Here belong the biographical 
works of Suetonius (§ 537), of which the lives of the Ccesars, and the lives of 
the Grammarians are specially valuable. In the same class are the biograph- 
ical collections of Cornelius Nepos (§ 530) and Aurelius Victor f$ 539;.— 
There was a work of the grammarian Hyginus f§ 504j, on the achievements 
of eminent men, which would be ranked under this kind. Caius Appius is 
mentioned as having written the Lives of illustrious Commanders. Here also 
belong the biographies included in what is called the Augustan History f§ 542;. 
It may not be wholly out of place here to advert to a work of Jerome, entitled 
Liber de Scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, which contains brief notices of more than a 
hundred Christian authors. 

§ 526. Finally, v/e have to mention in this glance several works which were 
simply individual biographies. The history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius 
(§ 535) may be put in this class. We have one beautiful specimen of the kind 
here designated in the life of Agricolo- by Tacitus f§ 534;. The classical wri- 
ters refer to several other single biographies, which are not extant. Muratius 
Rufus (a) is said to have written a life of the younger Cato. Thraseas Partus 
(b) published a biography of the same illustrious person. Bibulus wrote the 
life of M. Brutus. Brutidius Niger (c) composed an account of the closing 
scenes of Cicero's life. Pliny the elder is said to have given a life of Pompo- 
nius Secundus, a poet and general, who was honored with a triumph under 
Nero. Herennius Senecio (d) wrote the biography of Helvidius Priscus ; a 
work which cost him his life, through the jealousy of Domitian. 

(a) Cf. Heeren, De Fontibus Plut. cited § 249. 1. — Rufus and Bibulus are among the Roman 
biographers of whom Plutarch made use.— '(b) Cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 23. xvi. 21 ss. — (c) Cf. Tac. 
Ann. iii. 66. — Senec. Suasor. vii. — (d) Tac. Vit. Agric. 2. 3. — Plin. Ep. iii. 33. 

§ 527. We here mention some of the works which illustrate the general 
subject; and some of the collections. 

1. G. J. Vossius, De Historicis Latinis. Lugd. Bat. 1651. 4. with the Supplement to the same, 
by J. Ji. Fabricms. Hamb. 17U9. 8. — M. Hankius, De Rom. rerum Scriptoribus. Lpz. 1688. 4. — 
Bait. Bouifaciivs, De quadraginta Rom. Hist. Scriptoribus. Helmst. 1620. 4. — Cf. Fabricius, 

Bibl. Lat. iii. 287. Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. i. 160 ss. n. 2 ss. 357 ss. in. 139 ss. — Ba.hr, 338- 

478. — Rollin, Of Polite Learning, ch. ii. Art. 2. f vol. u. p. 507. in ed. N. York, 1835.; — G- L. 
Walch. Abhandlung iiber die Kuntsform der antiken Biographie, in his ed. of Tac. cited § 534. 
4. — Freret, Sur l'etude des anciennes histoires &.c. in the Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. vol. vi. 
p. 146 — Mcusel, as cited. <S 240. 

2. Collections. — F. Sylburg, Hist. Rom. Script. Lat. et Grac. Frankf. 1588-90. 3 vols, fol.— 
Aus. Popma, Frasm. hist, vet! Lat. &c. Amst. 1620. 8. — Klettenbr.rg & Wilder, Script. Hist. 
Rom. nat. vet. (ed. B. C. Haurisius) Heidelb. 1743-48. 3 vols. fol. with notes and figures. — 
Ruhkopflk. Seebode, Corpus Historicorum Latinorum. Lpz. 1815. 8. commenced. — Fr. Fiedler, 
Script. Hist. Rom. minores sex. Lpz. 1833. 8. — Eichhorn, as cited § 240. — Conciones et Ora- 
tiones ex Historicis Latinis Excerpts. Oxf. 1820. 12. 

§ 528. Julius Casa.r, whose life and character are prominent in the political 
history of Rome, is also conspicuous as a historical author, on account of his 
works called Commentaries or Memoirs (vrcouv^uaTa). The Commentaries on 
the Gallic War consist of seven books, treating of the events during as many 
years ; the eighth book (usually added to these j is ascribed to Aulus Hirtius, 
who was Csesar's lieutenant (legatus) and confidential friend. The Commen- 
taries on the Civil War consist of three books. These two works are of great 
value, both from the fact that Caesar was principal actor in the events related, 
and also from the style in which they are composed, which is simple yet per- 
fectly appropriate, and brief without becoming dry. — The books pertaining to 
the Alexandrian, African, and Spanish wars, are ascribed to A. Hirtius, or to 
Caius Oppius, another friend and companion of Csesar. 

1. Ceesar was born at Rome B. C. 99, and was assassinated B. C. 44. He 
was eminent for his learning and his eloquence, as well as for his military- 
talents. — We have his life by Suetonius and by Plutarch. There is also a bi- 
ography formerly ascribed to J. Celsus, but now considered as the work of 
Petrarch. 

Cf. S. H. Dodwell, Diss, de J. Ccesaris vita per J. Celsum, annexed to his Jimmies Qiiivtilian. 
&.c. Oxon. 1698. 8.— C. E. Ch. Sehvcidrr, Petrarcl:a; Historia Jul. Ca?saris &c. Lpz. 1827. 8.— 
The life of Casar has also been ti rated by modern writers ; J2. G. Meissvrr, Lehen des J. C. 
fended by JIakenJ. Bed. 1812. 4 vols. 8. — F. D. Grater, Ueber Csesar's Ermordung &c. Zur. 



HISTORIANS. JULIUS CJSSAR. SALLUST. 373 

V 530. 8.— C. Coote, LL. D. Life of C. J. Caesar. Lond. 1793. Vi.— Oudendorp, Orat. de J. C. Cass. 
Hteratis studiis. Lugd. Bat. J 740. — D. G. Moller, Diss, de J. Caesare. Alt. 1687. 4. 

2. The Commentaries of Caesar are chiefly occupied with the detail of mili- 
tary operations. The military spirit of the Roman character and institutions 
is everywhere exhibited ; and almost everything which the scenes of war can 
cffer to awaken and sustain our interest in a narrative, is found in these writings. 

Dunlop, ii. 95.— F. Schlegel, Lect. on Hist. Lit. — On Caesar's style, cf. Cic. Brut. 75. — Quint. 
Ins. Or. x. l.— Tac. Ann. xiii. 3.— Jacob, Diss, de ubertate et verbositate Cassaris, in the Quccst. 
Luciann. ad Toxar.— Berger, De natuvali pulchritudine orationis. Lpz. 1720. 4.— On his credi- 
bility, cf. Sueton. Jul. Cass. 56.— C. H. Eckard, De C. A. Pollione iniquo optim. Latinit. censore. 
Jen. 1743. 4.—H. O. Duysiug, De ride C. J. Ccesaris dubia &c. Marb. 1784. — There is a Greek 
version of the Gallic war, by a certain Planudes, which is of some value in settling the Latin 
text. It is given in the ed. of Lemaire, cited below. — Cf. Flad, Comparatio Jul. Cessans Grasci 
c. Latino. Freib. 1815. 

3. Csesar wrote other works, which are lost. The treatise De Analogia, on 
the analogies of the Latin tongue, in two books, addressed to Cicero, was 
written (a) while crossing the Alps. The works entitled Auguralia and De 
Auspiciis, treated of topics belonging to the art of divination; as did also the 
treatise De Motu siderum(b ) . — A collection of anecdotes called Apophthegraata, 
is said to have been made by him ; the publication of which was hindered by 
Augustus. — He composed a work entitled Anticato, in two books, which are 
a sort of rhetorical declamations, somewhat in the manner cf speeches before 
a judicial tribunal, and are said to have been written (c) in reply to a work of 
Cicero entitled Luus Catonis. — Ancient writers speak of a work of Caesar 
called Ephemcris ; respecting which there is a dispute among critics whether 
it was was, or was not, the same work as his Commentaries. 

(a) Cf. Sueton. J.Cees. 56.— Aul.G ell. Noct. Att. i.10. vii. 9 (b)Cf. Plin. Hist.Nat.xviii.26. 

(c) Cf. Cic. Ep. ad Att. xii. 40 Aul. Gell. N. A. iv. 16. Dunlop, ii. 100 ss — Bdhr, 353. 

— ScJwll, n. 6. — A collection of the Fragments of Cassar is given in the ed. of Oudendorp, be- 
low cited. 

4. The name of Cassar is connected with several scientific improvements 
among the Romans. It was by his counsel that the geometrical survey of the 
whole empire was decreed by the senate (cf. § 480). — He also greatly amended 
the Roman Calendar, and introduced a method of computing time which is 
still retained as the basis of the modern calendar. 

Cf. P. V. $ 192. — Blondel, Hist, du Calendrier Romain. Par. 1682. 4. — Bianchinus, Diss, de 
Calendario et Cyclo Claris. Rom. 1703. fol. 

5. There was doubt, in the time of Suetonius, respecting the actual author of the works 
on the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars. — Cf. Sueton. Jul. Cass. 56. — H. Dodwell, Diss, 
de autore Bell. Alexand. &c. ?iven in Oudendorp , s ed. below cited. — Vossius, as cited § 527. 1. 

6. Editions. — Opera.— Best; JV. L. Achaintre & JV. E. Lemaire. Par. 1819-22. 4 vols. 8. in 
Lemaire - s Bibl. Lat. — J. J. Oberlin. Lpz. 1805. 1819. 8. Lond. 1825. 8. Vien. 1825. 3 vols. 8. 
The text of Oberlin is followed in Valpifs ed. Lond. 1819. No. 8-12 of the Delphin and Vario- 
rum Classics. — Fr. Oudendorp. Leyd. 1737. 4. Repr. (ed. F. JV. Morus) Lpz. 1780. 8. & Stuttg. 
1822. 2 vols. 8. — Other recent editions ; J. B. Giani. Mil. 1820. 3 vols. B.—J. Ch. Ddhne. Lpz. 
1825. 8.—F. C. Pottier. Par. 1826. 3 vols. 8.— A. Baron. Brux. 1827. 2 vols. 8.— C..Anthon. New 
York, 1833. 12. school ed. Of earlier editions ; S. Clarice. Lond. 1712. fol. with 87 copper- 
plate enginvings ; " magnificent and celebrated." — Davisius (Davics). Camb. 1706. 4. with 
the Greek version of the Bell. Gall. — The Princeps, by Sweynheym if Pannarlz (printers). Rom. 

1469. fol. Moss mentions eight other folio editions in the 15th century. De Bello G a 1 1 i c o j 

A. Mmbius. Hannov. 1830/2 vols. 8. containing also the Alex. Afr. & Span. wars. — De Bell. 
C i v i 1 i ; C. G. Hcrzog. Lpz. 1834. 8. 

7. Translations.— German.— j?. Wagner. Hof. 1815. 2 vols. 8. French. — Turpin de Grissi. 

Montarq. 1785. 3 vols. 4. with 40 plates ; Lat. & Fr. with notes. — -English.— Best, JV. Duncan. 
Lond.1753.ful. 1755. 8. 1819. 8. with a discourse on the Rom. art of war. — For others, cf. Moss, 
Bibliogr. i. 240. 

8. Illustrative. — In addition to works already named ; J. F. Rosch, uber die Comm. des Cas- 
sar. Hal. 1763. 8.— F. Brown, Diss, on the Mona of Cnssar &c. Lond. 1702. 12.— Diss, on Cas- 
fiar's passage of the Thames (by S. Gale), and other Pieces, in the work entitled Arcliceologia, 
publ. by tiie Society of Antiquaries of London. — Guiscard, as cited P. IV. § 275. — Elbei-Ung, 
Obs. Crit. in Cass. Havn. 1828. 8. containing notices of manuscripts. — Cf.' Harles, Brev. Not. 
JSuppl. i. 279. — J. von H«.f,ier, Geographis des Transalp. Galliens <fcc. Munch. 1836. 8. with a 
map. — By same, Geographie zu J. C. Comm. de bello civili. Munch. 1837. 8. 

§ 529. Cuius Sallustius Crispus. of Amiternum in the Sabine territory, was 
a contemporary of Csesar. His character as a writer is more reputable than 
his morals, according to the common account, which appears to be not without, 
foundation. In history he adopted Thucydides as his model. A noble brevity 
and a vivid manner of representing events, were the happy fruits of this imi- 
tation. He indulges, however, too often in expressions which are unusual 
and obsolete. The works which we have from him relate to two very impor- 
tant events in Roman history ; namely, the Conspiracy of Cataline, and the 

32 



374 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

war of the Romans with the Numidian king Jugurtha. Of his Roman History 
in six books, from the death of Sylla to the conspiracy of Cataline, only a few 
fragments are extant. — We may doubt the genuineness of the declamations 
which are ascribed to him, and also of the two treatises or letters addressed to 
J. Csesar on the administration of the state. 

1. Sallust was born B. C. 85, and died B. C. 35. In the year B. C. 48 he 
was excluded from the senate on the charge of immorality (Aul. Gell. Noct. 
Att. xvii. 18). He embraced the side of Caesar against Pompey, and was 
made by him governor of Numidia, where he enriched himself by plundering 
the province. When he returned to Rome he built a magnificent palace near 
the city, which was surrounded by the delightful pleasure-grounds afterwards 
celebrated by the name of the Gardens of Sallust (Horti Sallustiani) ; this pal- 
ace became the residence of several of the emperors, and was consumed by 
fire when Alaric took the city. — A life of Sallust, full of hostility towards him, 
was written by Lenceus, the freedman of Pompey ; and another by Asconius 
Pedianus : both of them are lost. There is extant a declamation against 
Sallust, which was once ascribed to Cicero, but is now generally ascribed to 
Porcius Latro, a rhetorician in the time of Claudius. The charge of excessive 
licentiousness upon Sallust is supposed by many to be a calumny occasioned 
by confounding him with his nephew, mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 2. 48. 
cf. Od. ii. 2). 

On the Life of S. see D.G. Moller, De Sallustio. Alt. 1684. A.—De Brasses, in the Mem. Acad. 
Inscr. vol. xxiv. ; also in his Transl. below cited. — O. M. Mailer, Sallustius, oder hist. krit. 
Untersuch. der Nachrict. von S. Leben &c. ZUllich. 1817. 8. — J. W. Lobell, zur Beurtheilung 
des Sail. Bresl. 1818. 8. written in answer to the preceding.— Le Clerc, Sallustii Vita, given in 
the ed. of Havercamp, cited below.— Wieland, on Hor. Sat. i. 2. 48. in his Trans, cited $ 363. 5. 

— Roos, Bemerk. iiber d. moral. Charakt. d. Sallust. Giess. 1788. 4. — Histoire de Cataline par 
Plutarque &c. trad, en Franc. Amst. 1756. 8. 

2. The two histories now extant are supposed by many of the critics to have 
been written after Sallust's return from Numidia to Rome. The Jugurthine 
War certainly was. In relation to this, he consulted the documents preserved 
in the archives of king Hiempsal. 

Dunlop, ii. 85ss.—Bdhr, 378 Scholl, ii. 20. — Respecting the authorities used by Sallust, cf. 

Qerlach, in his ed. below cited.— On his style &c. JYast, De virtutibus hist. Sallustianse. Stutg. 
1785. and in his Opusc. Lat. Tub. 1821. — Oerlach, Progr. iiber den Geschichtscr. C. Sallust. 
Bas. 1831. 

3. The Roman History consisted of only five books, as modern critics show, 
instead of six as formerly believed. It included a period of thirteen years, 
beginning where the annals of Sisenna (cf. § 511) ended ; its loss is much re- 
gretted. Many brief and disconnected fragments have been collected ; but 
the most important remains of the work are four orations, and two letters, 
found by Pomponius Lsetus in a Ms. of the Vatican, containing a collection of 
speeches from Roman history. 

The fragments are given in De Brasses (Brossasus & De Brossius), Fragmenta Sallustiana 
&c. Dijon. 1780. Repr. Lunajb. 1828. 8. The same author, in a French work, entitled Histoire 
de la Republ. Rom. par Salluste. Dijon. 1777. 3 vols. 8. had attempted to reconstruct the work 
of Sallust by a translation of the fragments and by additions ; this work was translated 
into German by J. C. Schliiter. Osnab. 1799-1804. 6 vols. 8. — Cf. F. Kritz, De C. Sail, fragm. a 
C. De Brossio digest. &c. Erf. 1829. 4. — Also J. J. Kreissio-, C. Sail. Historiarum iii (tertu) 
Fragm. e cod. Vat. edita ab A. Maio &x. Mis. 1830. 8.— J. C. Orellius, Orat. et Epist. ex Sail, 
hist, libris deperd. &c. Turici, 1831. 8. Cf. Orellius (same), Hist. crit. Eclogarum ex Sail. &c. 
Tur. 1832. 8. 

4. The two declamations are entitled declamatio in Catalinam and declamatio in Ctceronem ; sup- 
posed by some to be the work of Porcius Latro. There is extant a speech against Sallust, 
which is ascribed to Cicero, but was the work of some rhetorician (cf. § 404. 3). — The two let- 
ters to Cffisar, orationes or epistolas, de republica ordinanda, are also considered as rhetorical fab- 
rications. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. i. 240, 41.— Bdlir, 380.— Cf. Quint. Inst. Or. iv. 1. ix. 3. 

5. Editions.— Whole Works ; best, F. D. Qerlach. Bas. 1823 ss. 3 vols. 4.— C. H. Frotscher. 
Lpz. 1825-30. 3 vols. 8. — E. J. Richter, commenced Rlon. 1836. 8. also in the Bibliotheca Com- 
mentariorum in Scriptores tarn Gracos quam Latinos. — Best of the last century, J. Wasse. 
Cambr. 1710. 4. formed by a collation of nearly 80 Mss. and containing a Lexicon Sallustianum. 

— G. Corte ( CortiusJ. Lpz. 1724. 4. — S. Haver camp. Amst. 1742. 2 vols. 4. - There are many 
other good editions ; H. Homer. Lond. 1789. 8.— W. Lange. Hal. 1815. 8.— F. Kmtzuis. Lpz. 

1835. 2 vols. 8.— A. Pappuar. Vien.1837. 2 vols. 8. The Prineeps, by V. De Spira. Ven.1470. 

fol. (Moss, ii. 555.)— There have been many school editions of the two histories ; J. Seibt. Brag. 
1822, 1833. 8.— C. Anthon. N. York, 1835. 12. 

6. Translations.— German.— Among the best ; J. C. Schlvter, Miinst. 1806, 1818. 2 vols. 8.— 

K. L. von Woltmann. Piag. 1814. 8. French.— Mc. Beauzec. Par. 1769. 12.— Dur. de LamalU. 

Par. 1808. 8. For a notice of this and other French versions, cf. DussauWs Annales Litt. 3d 

vol English.— Earliest, by " Syr Alexander Barclay preest," Lond. fol. without date. 

Reprinted Lond. 1557. 8. cf. Moss, ii. 564.— Not less than 12 other English versions are named, 



HISTORIANS. NEPOS. LIVY. 375 

The better among them ; W. Rose. Lond. 1757. 8.— J. Mair, with Lat. Edinb. 1774. 8.— W. 
Stewart. Lond. 1806. 2 vols. A.— A. Murphy. Lond. 1807. 8. 

§ 530. Cornelius Nepos, a native of Hostilia in the territory of Verona, 
lived a short time before the Christian era. Respecting the circumstances of 
his life little is known. He was a friend of Cicero and Atticus. Of his writ- 
ings we have only a work entitled Vitce ezcellentium imperatorum. Some have 
ascribed it to iEmilius Probus, who lived in the time of Theodosius the Great, 
and was probably only a transcriber of the work; others have considered it 
as an abridgment made by Probus from a more complete production by Nepos. 
These lives are models of biographical composition, in respect of ^simplicity 
and beauty, although too brief and not wholly satisfactory as to their con- 
tents. Nepos was author of several other works, which are lost. 

1. There is some doubt even respecting the place of his birth. The state- 
ment that he came to his death by poison received from his freedman is a 
mistake. 

Cf. Plin. Hist. N. iii. 18. Ep. iv. 28 ; v. 3, Q.—Plut. Vit. Luculli, 43.— Moller, Diss, de Corn. 
Nepote. Alt. 1683. 8.— C. F. Rankius, Comment, de C. Nep. vita et scriptis. Q.uedl. 1827. 4. 

2. Modern critics have pointed out many mistakes in the work entitled 
Vita imperatorum. It contains the lives of twenty-two generals (nineteen 
Grecian, one Persian, and two Carthaginian) ; and also a brief notice or cata- 
logue of the Grecian and Persian kings. In some manuscripts are also con- 
tained a life of Cato Major and a life of Atticus; which however must have 
belonged originally to a separate production. — Those who consider the work 
to be an abridgment made by Probus, suppose it to have been drawn from 
the work ascribed to Nepos by the ancients, under the title of Libri Virorum 
illustrium. 

Cf. Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. xi. 8. — Bdhr, 366. — Respecting the origin of the work, see J. W. 
Mosche, C. Nep. liber etc. utrum opus integrum an operis maj. pars quredam sit. Lub. 1807. 
— G. F. Rinck, Saggio di un Esame crit. per restituire a Emil. Prob. il libr. de Vit. exc. imper. 
<fcc. Ven. 1818. 8. Trans, into German by D. Hermann, with the title, Versuch einer krit. 
Priifung den Mm. Prob. &c. Lpz. 1819. 8 — Ddhne, De vit. exc. imper. C. Nep. non Mm. Prob. 
attribuendis. Ciz. 1827. 

Respecting the authority &c. see Dunlop, vol. 3d, as cited § 299. 8.— J. J. Hisely, Diss. Crit. 
de fontibus et auctor. C. Nep. Delph. Bat. 1827. — J. Held, Prolegom. ad vitam Attici, quae C. 
Nep. adscribitur. Vratisl. 1826. 8. 

3. Works under the following titles are ascribed to Nepos by the ancients ; Chronica or An- 
nates, in 3 books ; Exemplorum libri, of which a 5th book is cited ; Libri vir. illustrium, already 
named ; De historicis, including both Greek and Roman historians. Letters to Cicero are also 
mentioned, and Pliny speaks of Cornelius as having cultivated poetry. — The composition ex- 
tant under the title De viris illustribus, formerly ascribed to Nepos, is now acknowledged as 
the work of Aurelius Victor (§ 539). The pretended translation of Dares is an admitted fab- 
rication (cf. Q 260). 

Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. xvii. 21 ; vii. 18 ; xi. 8 ; xv. 28 Corn. Nep. Vit. Dion. 3.— Lactant.Insl. 

Div. iii. 15. — Plin. Ep. v. 3. — Bdhr, 363. — Bardili and Tzschucke, in their editions below cited. 
— Some fragments of the lost works were collected by A. Schott, in the edition of Nepos, publ. 
Frankf. 1608. fol. — They are given in the editions of Bardili and others. 

4. Editions. — Best ; W. H. Bardili. Stuttg. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — K. H. Tzschucke. GStt. 1804. 
(with a commentary,) 2 vols. 8. — J. F. Fischer, (ed. by Harles.) Lpz. 1806. 8. — J. Ch. Ddhne. 

Lpz. 1827. 8. The Princrps, by N. Jenson. Ven. 1471. 4. — Very numerous are the editions 

specially designed for schools ; A. Stewart. Edinb. 1819. 8. — Ch. F. Lvttmann, with a Lexicon. 
Lpz. 1816. 8.— J. Billerbcch. 3d ed. Han. 1838. 8. with a German Lexicon. 

5. Translations. — German. — J. A. B. Bergstrdsser. 3d ed. impr. by G. Eichoff. Frankf. 1815. 
8. French. — Abbe Paul. Par. 1781. 12. Italian. — ^. Bandiera. Ven. 1743. 8. 'Eng- 
lish.— Sir Matt. Hale, with observations. Lond. 1677. 8. — T. Creech, and others. Oxf. 1684. 12. 
— J. Clarke, (exactly literal, with orig. Lat.) Lond. 1722. 8. often reprinted. 

6. Illustrative. — H. L. Hartmann, Animadversiones in C. Nepotem. Frankf. 1805-8. 4. — r 
C. H. Paufler, De rebus quibusdam dubiis in C. Nep. &c. Dresd. 1815. 4. — J. H. Schlegel, Ob- 
serv. crit. et hist, in C. Nep. Hafn. 1778. 4. — J. Jortin, in his Tracts philological <fccf Lond. 
1790. 8. — For others see Klugling, suppl. to Harles. p. 135ss Moss, Bibliogr. ii. 323. 

§ 531. Titus Livius, a native of Patavium (Padua), w r as living at Rome at 
the time when Augustus died, having enjoyed that emperor's patronage. Af- 
terwards he resided at his native city until his death, A. D. 18. He deserves 
the first rank among the formal historians of Rome. His history, in its whole 
compass, extended from the arrival of JEneas in Italy until the death of Dru- 
sus, B. C. 8 or 9, the year 744 from the building of the city. It consisted of 
140 or 142 books, of which only 35 are now extant; namely, the first ten and 
the twenty-jive from the 21st to the 45th. There is, however, an abridgment 
of the whole work, from which Freinsheim attempted to restore it, by form- 
ing supplements to replace the lost books. Livy is characterized by truth 
and precision, a talent for observation, and a masterly style ; combining all 
the qualities of a dignified practical historian. 



S76 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

1. Livy was born B. C. 58. It is not known when he removed to Romey 
but he devoted 20 years to writing his history, most of which were spent in 
the city. — His grave, as was thought, was discovered from an inscription 
found at Padua in 1413, and a splendid mausoleum was erected in 1548; bu3 
it was afterwards ascertained, that the inscription did not refer to the his- 
torian. 

J. Ph. Thomasinus, T. Livii vita. Patav. 1630. also- in the ed. of Drakenborch below cited. — 
D. G.Moller, Disp. de T. Livio. Alt. 1688. — The inscription is in Grater, cited P. I. § 130. 

2. The history of Livy, which he termed Jlnnalcs, was by the copyists ar- 
ranged in Decades, or portions consisting of ten books ; a circumstance which 
perhaps contributed to the loss of so great a part of the work, as the decades 
were separately transcribed. The loss is sometimes ascribed to Gregory I. 
who is said to have caused all the copies of Livy he conld obtain to be burned. 
Much research has been made since the revival of letters to obtain a complete 
copy of the work, but in vain. The supplements of Freinsheim, the abridg- 
ment above mentioned which is commonly ascribed to Florus, and a few frag- 
ments, are all that we have in addition to the 35 books that have been named. 

B'dhr, 393.— J. Freinsheim, Supplementa &x. Argent. 1654. 4. given also in the ed. of Dra- 
kenborch. — JSTiebuhr, Ciceronis, Livii, &c. fragm. Rom. 1820. — J. Th..Kreyssig, Fragm. ex Livii 
libro xci. Chemn. 1807. — Same fragment in Niebuhr as cited § 404,5. It was found at Rome by 
P. I. Brims, and first printed Hamb. 1773. foL — On a fragm. of the I6th bk. cf. Hist, de VAcad. 
des Inscr. vol. iv. 

3. There has been discussion among the critics respecting the materials 
employed by Livy, and his fidelity in the use of them. He has been charged 
with mistakes, with partiality, and with credulity. — The style of Livy w T as 
censured by an ancient critic, Asinius Pbllio, for what he called Patavinity 
( u quandam Patavinitatem") ; wherein this fault consisted has been a theme 
of dispute among the moderns. — Some writings of Livy are mentioned which 
are lost ; the principalis a work entitled Diatogi, dialogues or philosophical 
and political questions. 

Schdll, ii. 37ss. — Dunlop, 3d vol. Eng. ed. p. 469. — Also, on the matter of Livy ; Lachmann, 
De fontibus Livii. Comment. I. Gott. 1822. 4, Comment. II. Gott.. 1828. 4.—Jocher, De Sus- 
pecta Liv. fide. Lpz. 1743. 4.— J. F. Eschenbach, Defensio fidei Liv. Lpz. 1777. 4.— I. H. Meie- 
rotto, De testim. Liv. fide. Berl. 1797. fol.— C. Krose, De fide Liv. recte restimanda. Lpz. 1812. 
4. — Toland, T. Livius a Superstitione vindicatus. Hag. Com. 1709*— Klotsch, Disp. de diligen - 
tia Livii in enar. prodig. recte restimanda.. Wittemb. 1789. 4. — Machiavd, Discorsi sopra la 
prima deca di T. Liv';o. Rom. 1531. 4. Also in his Works printed, in 8vo, Hague, 1726. Trans- 
lated into English, (by E. D.J Lond. 1674. 8. On the style ; J. H. Parreidt, De lactea Livii 

-abertate. Lpz. 1746. 4. "Lactea ubertas " is a phrase applied by Qnintilian (Tnst. Or. X. 1, 32). 
Cf. Dr. S. Parr, Characters of Ch. J. Fox &c. Lond. 1809. 2 vols. 8. (vol. 2d, p. 594.) — H. C. 
Crellius, De T. L. dictione. Francof. 1729.—/'. H. Meierotto, de T. L. arte narrandi. Berl. 1798.. 
f l. __ Morhof, De Liv. Patavinitate, in his Disputat. Academ. Hamb. 1699. and also in Draken- 
borch'' s ed. below cited. — A. G. Ernesti, De paneg. Liv. efoquentia. Lpz. 1787. 4. — Pref. in Le- 
maire's ed. below cited. 

4. Livy's account of Hannibal's passage of the Alps, compared with that 
given by Polybius, has also afforded a theme for interesting discussion. 

Gibbon, Miscel. works, vol. 3d, p. 199.. Bas. 1796.— Folard, in the Trans, of Thuillicr cited 

§ 245. 4. h Whitaker, Course of H. over the Alps. Lond. 1794. 2 vols. 8. — De Luc, Hist, du 

Passage des Alps &c. Par. 1818. 2d ed. improved 1825.— Letronne, in the Journ. des Savans, Jan. 
1819. — Fortia d'Urban, Diss, sur le pass, des Alps &c. Par. 1821. — Larauia, Hist. Crit. du 
pass, des Alpes &c. Par. 1836.— H. L. Wickham 8f J. A. Cramer, Dissert, on the passage of Han- 
nibal over the Alps. 2d ed. Lond. 1828. 8. with maps. Cf. Edinb. Rev. for Nov. 1825. 

5. Editions. — Best ; A. Drakenborch. Amst. 1738-42.7 vols. 4. superior to every preceding 
ed. according to Dibdin. Repr. (C. F. Klaiber ed.) Stuttg. 1820-27. 15 vols. 8. — B. L. Crevier. 
Par. 1735-42. 6 vols. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1818. 3 vols. 8. —From the Clarendon Press, Oxf. 1821. 6 vols. 
8. text of Drakenborch ; notes of Crevier ; " best of all the Oxford reprints " ( Dibdin). — /. G. 
Kreyssio-. Lpz. 1823ss. 5 vols 8.— Lemaire, in the BibL Class. There are several other mod- 
ern editions, much approved ; H. Homer. Lond. 1794. 8 vols 8. without notes, valued for its 
index. — A. W. Ernesti, (as finished by Schafcr.J Lpz. 1801-4. 5 vols. 8. containing a Glossari- 
im Livianum. — F. G. During, the 2d ed. Goth. 1816-24. 7 vols. 8. — Besides these, we notice, 
G. A. Rupert. Gott. 1807. 6 vols. 8. The commentary (not fully commended by Klugling) was 
republ. Loud. 1825. 8.— C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius. Lpz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. — J. E. Raschig. BerL 

1830. 3 vols. 8. Of editions in the 17th cent, the best is J. Gronovius. Amst. 1679. 3 vols. 8. 

The Princeps, bv Swcynheym &f Pannartz. Rom. 1469. fol. — On the Mss. of Livy in the Li- 
brary of the Escuria'l, J. Harris, Philological Inquiries or Miscellanies, vol. xliv. p. 553. 

6. Translations. — German. — K. Heusinger. Brunsw. 1821. 5 vols. 8. — Klaiber, in the Col- 
lection by Osiander, Tafcl, Sfc. — Five others are named! ; one printed 1505. fol. French.— 

Guerin, (retouche par Cousson.) Par. 1769. 10 vols. 12.— Dureau de la Malle et Noel. Par. 1812. 

15 vols. 8. English.— Philem. Holland. Lond. 1600. fol. Repr. 1686. fol. with cuts.— Several 

anonymous authors. Lond. 1743. 6 vols. 8. Repr. Edinb. 1761. 8 vols. 12. — Gordon. Glasg. 1783. 
2 vols. 12.— G. Baker. Lond. 1797. 6 vols. 8. the most popular translation ; often reprinted. 

7. Illustrative. —J. Ch. Brieglieb, Diss, de Livio ejusque virtutibus. Cob., 1778. 8. — Rapm, 



HISTORIANS. VELLEIUS. VALERIUS. 377 

Cotnpar. de Thucydide et de T. Live. Par. 1681. 12. Transl. intoEng. by Thorn. Taylor. Lond. 
1694. 8. T. Hunter, Livy as a historian compared with Tacitus, in his Observations on Taci- 
tus. Lond. 1752. 8. — R. Alves, Herodotus and Livy compared, in his Sketches of Literature. 
Edinb. 1795. 8. — D. H. Hevewisch, Ueber den politischen Character des Livius, in his JVeue 
Samml. Kleiner hist, und lit. Schriften. Alt. 1809. 8. 

§ 532. Caius Velleius Paterculus, belonging to the same period, was a pre- 
fect of horse under Augustus, and praetor under Tiberius. He was the author 
of a summary history of Rome, in 2 books, extending from the origin of Rome 
down to the writer's own times. The beginning of the first book is lost. The 
work has higher merit in respect of style than it has in point of historic cred- 
ibility ; since Velleius is evidently swayed by partiality towards Tiberius 
and Sejanus. 

1. Velleius is supposed to have been involved in the disgrace of Sejanua, 
A. D. 31, and to have been put to death with others who had followed the 
fortunes of that minister. His name is scarcely mentioned by ancient au- 
thors. 

H. Dodwell, Annales Velleiani, seu Vita Velleii pro temporum ordine disposita. Oxon.1698, 
8. given also in the ed. of Ruhnken, below cited, and others. — Krause, Proleg. to his ed. below 
cited.— D. G. Moller, Disp. de Veil. Paterc. Alt. 1685. 4. 

2. The work is entitled Historia Romana. But it would seem that Velleius 
intended to give, in the first book, an outline of the general history, although 
the loss of the first part of the work hinders the reader from learning his plan. 
For the Roman history is preceded by a notice of the Assyrian empire, of 
Greece, and of Macedonia. The style is considered as generally pure. He is 
thought to have imitated the manner of Sallust, whom he resembles in con- 
ciseness and energy. — Several critics have defended the general credibility of 
his statements. 

Bdhr, All. — Scholl, li. 357. — J. F. Herel, Betrachtungen uber die Gesch. des Veil. Paterc. 
Erf. 1791. 4. — Morgenstem, Com. crit. de fide hist. Veil. Pat. &c. Danz. 1798. Given also in 
Krause, in ed. below cited. — Bcedcr, Characteres politici in Veil. Pat. Argent. 1672. 8. — JS. 
Burton, Obs. on Veil. Pat. in his Anc. Characters deduced from Classical Remains. Lond. 
1763. 8. 

3. Editions. — The first edition was by Beatus Rhenanus (Froben, printer). Bas. 1520. fol. from 
a Ms. found by him in the convent of Murbach in Alsace. This Ms. "Codex Murbacensis," was 
then in a bad state, and is supposed to have been lost in a removal of the library to another site. 
Cf. Scfitill, Litt. Rom. n. 358. The genuineness of the work was at first doubted. Cf. Dibdin, 
ii. 523. — The best editions ; D. Ruhnken. Leyd. 1779. 2 vols. 8.— C. H. Frotscher ed. Lpz. 1830. 
8. — J. Ch. H. Krause (begun by Jani). Lpz. 1800. 8.—H. H. Cludius. Hann. 1815. 2 vols. 8. the 
notes of Ruhnken form one of the vols.— JV. Lemaire. Par. 1822. 8.—,/. T. Kreyssig. Mis. 1836. 
12. value not known. 

4. Translations. — German.— Fr. Jacobs. Lpz. 1793. 8.—F. N. Walter (Lat. & Germ.) Re- 

gensb. 1830. 8 French.— Abbe Paul. (Lat. &c Gall.) Par. 1785. 12.— Despres. (Lat. & Gall.) 

Par. 1828. 8. English. — Thorn. Newton. Lond. 1721. 12. — Patterson. Edinb. 1722. 8. 

"best" {Moss). 

§ 533. Valerius Maximus, a Roman of noble family, flourished about the 
same time. He made a collection, in nine books, of the sayings and deeds of 
remarkable men, which he dedicated to Tiberius. The matter relates chiefly 
to Grecian and Roman history ; it is drawn from various writers, and is ar- 
ranged under certain heads. The work is commendable for the contents rather 
than the style, which is pompous, affected, and unsuitable to history. 

1. The name has sometimes the pn-enomen Publius. There is an anonymous life, which is 
ancient.— See D. G. Moller, Diss, de Valer. Maximo. Alt. 1684. 4.—Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. u.49. 

2. The title of the work is Factorum dictorumque memorabilium libri ix ad 
Tib. Cms. Augustum. The titles of the chapters are considered to be the work 
of grammarians and copyists, not of the author. There is a fragment, entitled 
de norninibus, of an abridgment of the Annals of Valerius of Antium (cf. §511) 
made by Julius Paris, which is usually annexed to this work, and in some 
copies as a tenth book. — There is an abridgment of the work of Valerius Maxi- 
mus, by the same Jul. Paris, lately published by Mai. 

Bdhr, AW.— Scholl, n. 364 — ICapp, pref. to his ed. below cited. — The abridgment of Paris is 
given in A. Mai, Script, vet. nova Collectio. Rom. 1823. 4. — An abridgment by a later writer 

Januarius Ncpotia>ms, is mentioned ; Januar. Ncpot. Epitoma &c. Cellis. 183L 4 Another 

was made in the 15th century by J. Honorms; published, Lpz. 1503. 4. 

3. Editions. — Best ; J. Kapp. Lpz. 1782. 8.— G. B. Helfrecht. Stiassb. 1806. 2 vols. 8.— C. B. 
Ha.se. Par. 1822. 8. in Lemairc's Bibl. Lat. — Most celebrated of earlier, A. Torrenius. Levd! 
1726. 4. — Chr. Colerus. Francof. 1627. 8. collated with twenty Mss. by Gudius. Cf. Fabric'ius' 
Bibl. Lat. ii. 56. — Princc.ps, by Mentelin (printer). Argent, without date (about 1470) fol. ' 

4. Translations. — German.— C. E. Westphol. Lemg. 1780. 8.— Hoffmann. Stuttff.1829 8 

French.— C. A. Fremion (Lat. & Gall.) Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8 Tarboicher. Par.1713! English 

—Speed. Lond. 1678. 8. 

32* 



378 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

$ 534. Caius Cornelius Tacitus, born in the reign of Nero, flourished in the 
latter part of the first century, and was Roman consul under Nerva. He was 
celebrated while young for his eloquence at the bar. His historical writings 
are characterized by remarkable political acumen, a noble freedom of spirit, a 
judicious arrangement of circumstances in narration, and very great richness 
of thought together with the most condensed brevity of expression. It is 
much to be regretted, that his most important works have come down to us only 
in an imperfect state. Of his History, which extended from the death of Nero 
to the death of Domitian, we have but five books, containing little more than 
the events of a single year. Of his Annals, which extended from the death of 
Augustus to that of Nero, we have only the first six books, and the books from 
the eleventh to the sixteenth inclusive ; and of these, the 5th and the 16th are 
incomplete. We have from him also a treatise on the manners of the Germans ; 
and a life of Agricola, his father in-law, which is a master-piece of biography. 
The dialogue on the decline of eloquence, before noticed (§ 415), has been 
ascribed to Tacitus, but without sufficient grounds. 

1. Tacitus was born, it is supposed, at Interamna, about A. D. 47 or 50. 
He was educated at Massilia. He began to rise in office under Vespasian, and 
gained the highest honors of the state. He is supposed to have survived the 
emperor Trajan, who died A. D. 117. Marcus Claudius Tacitus, who became 
emperor A. D. 276, claimed to be (a) a descendant of the historian. 

(a)cf. Vopisc. vit. Claud. Tac. 10. J. Lipsius, Tac. vita. — D. G.Moller, Diss, de Tacito. 

Alt. 1684. 4. — ./. S. Oestrich, Diss, de vita et script. Tac. Lund. 1805. 8. — G. W. Bbttichcr, 
Prolog, de Taciti vita &c. in his Lexicon, cited below. — JV. Bach, Corn. Tac. eine biogr. Unter- 
suchung. Sulz. 1831.'— Broticr, in his ed. and La Blatcrie, in his transl. below cited.— A. Mur- 
phy, Essay on the Life and Genius of Tacitus, prefixed to his translation. 

2. The Latin titles of the works above named are the following : Historiarum libri ; Annales, 
or as in some Mss. Aclorum seu Actionum diurnalium etc. libri ; Vita Agricolce ; Dc situ, moribus, 
populisque Germanim. Besides these we find mention made of his orations, Orationcs, and of a 
work called Liber Facctiavum ; which are wholly lost. Tacitus had a d«sign (cf. Ann. iii. 24) to 
write a history of the reign of Augustus, but seems never to have executed it. — The Annals 
and History are not parts of the same work, although the latter commences where the former 
terminates (Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. v. 18). — The Annals consisted originally of 16 books ; the 
History of 14 books ; hence Jerome (Comment, in Zachar. 14) speaks of the thirty volumes of 
Tacitus. , 

On Tacitus as a biographer; Walch, in pref. to his ed. of Agricola below cited. — Woltmann, 

in his trans, below cited. On his historical works ; Bdhr, 429. — Scholl, n. 367 ss. — Lipsius, 

Epist. ad Maximil. II. Imper. before his notes to Tac. — J. Hill, Essays on the Princ. of Hist. 
Compos, with an application to Tacitus, in Transactions of Roy. Soc. of Edinb. 1786. vol. i. 86, 
181. Transl. into Germ, by Buhle. Gott. 1789. 8. ; into Ital. with an Appendix. Pad. 1789. 8. 
— H. L. Meierotto, de Taciti moribus. Berl. 1790. fol.— By same, Progr. de fontibus, quibus Taci- 
tus &c. Berl. 1795. fol. — D. H. Hegewisch, Tiber den schriftstell. Charakt. des Tac. in his His- 
torisch. und literar Aufsdlz. Kiel. 1801. 8. — T. Hunter, Observ. on Tacitus. Lond. 1752. 8. — 
F. Rath, Ueber Thucydides und Tacitus, vergleichende Betrachtungen &c. Monach. 1812. 4. 

— Especially Frisbie, in his Remains, p. 31. On the credibility of Tacitus ; R. C. Barth, Diss. 

de dubia Tac. fide. Jen. 1719.— II. Justus, De fide Taciti. Zittau. 1827.8.— G. A. Arndt, Disp. 
quatenus Tac. de Germ, libello fides sit tribuenda. Lpz. 1775. 4. — Volkcl, de fontibus, undo 

Tac. quse de Germ. trad, hauserit &c. Marb.1789. 8. On the charge of impiety made against 

him ; Strada, in his Prolus. Academics. Agripp. Col. 1617. — K. Wolf, De divina mundi mode- 
ratione e mente C. C. Taciti. Fuld. 1830. 8. — A. J. Kynaston, C. C. Tacitus a falso impietati9 
crimine vindicatus. Oxf. 1672. 4. — Stdudlin, iiber die Pliilosophie des Tacitus, in his Geschichte 

und Geist des Scepticismus. On his style ; Hill, as above cited.— M. Lundblad, De Stilo Taciti. 

Lund. 1789.— J. G. Buhle, De C. C. Tac. stilo Obs. critics. Bruns. 1817.— Wernicke, De elocu- 
tione Taciti. Thorun. 1829. 4.— Roth, Tac. synonyma et per figuram sv Silt dvoiv dicta. No- 
rimb. 1826.— Murphy, Essay &c. already cited. — G. Walchius, Diatr. de Tac. ejusdemque stilo, 
given in Hauff's ed. of Tac. Lpz. 1714. 2 vols. 8. 

3. There is an interesting passage in Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44) respecting the 
persecution of Christians by Nero, which furnishes an early profane testimony 
to the credibility of the gospel. 

See E. Gibbon's Remarks on this passage, in his Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xvi.— Monthly- 
Rev. June, 1796. p. 199. — Ch. A. Tcaber, Exerc. historico-critica de Martyribus Christian is &c. 
Bruns. 1734.— Palcy, Evidences of Christianity, pt. i. ch. 2. — Murphy, Note on the passage, in 
his Transl. 

4. Editions. — Whole Works. Ranked among the best ; G. Brotier. Par. 1776. 7 vols. 12. 
and 4 vols. 4. ; it contains Supplements by Brotier to supply the lost books of the Annals ; also 
Dissertations. Repr. Edinb. 1796. 4. Lond. (by Valpy) 1823. 4 vols. 8. — J. J. Obcrlin. Lpz. 
1801. 2 vols. 8. Repr. Oxf. 1813. 4 vols. 8. Lond. 1825. 4 vols. 8. — J. JSTmcdet. Par. 1819. 5 vols. 
8. in Lemairc's Bibl. Lat.— G. II. Walther. Lpz. 1831. 4 vols. 8.—Im. Bekker. Lpz. 1831. 2 vols. 8. 
Later editions ; F. Rittcr. Bonn. 1834-36. 2 vols. 8.— JV. Bach. i,pz. 1836. 2 vols. 8.— More cele- 
brated among earlier editions ; J. Sf A, Gronov. Traj. ad Rhen. 1721. 2 vols. 4. — J. Lipsius. 
Antw. 1600. fol. — Ph. Beroaldus. Rom. 1515. fol. ; in this, the first five books of the Annals 
were printed for the first time, from a Ms. purchased by Leo X. — The Princeps (as supposed), 
by Find. Spira. Ven, 1470. fol. Agricola & Germany have been printed separately 



HISTORIANS. TACITUS. CURTIUS. FLORUS. 379 

very often ; O. L. Wahh, Agricola. Berl. 1828. 8. Germania. Berl. 1829. 8. — T.H. Bekker, Ag- 
ricola. Hamb. 1826. 8.— J. Grimm, Germany, with extracts from other parts of lac. pertaining 
to Germany. GStt. 1835. 8. — E. H. Barker, Germany & Agricola. Lond. 1824. 12. — In our 
country, these pieces are united with the H i s t o r y , for the purpose of a text-book ; the besS 
school-edition, ./. K. New Haven, 1827. 12. containing also the Dialogue on eloquence. 

5. Translations. — German.— Best ; C. F. Bahrdt, Hal. 1781. 2 vols. 8.— Fr. k. von Strombeck. 
Brunsw. 1816. 3 vols. 8.— That of K. L.von Woltmann. Berl. 1811. 6 vols. 8. is considered inele- 
gant, hut valued for its notes and dissertations. French. — La Bletterie (8f J. II. Dotteville). 

Par. 1799. 7 vols. 8. — Dm: de La Malic, or Lamalle (Lat. & Gall, with the supplements of Bro- 
tier, transl. by JVori). Par. 1827. 6 vols. 8. — J. L. Burnovf (Lat. & Gall.) Par. 1833. 6 vols. 8. 

C. L. F. Panckuncke (Lat. &> Gall.) Par. 1830. 6 vols. 8. English. — Best, Arthur Murphy. 

Lond. 1793. 4 vols. 4. with an Essay on the life &c. and notes, supplements, and maps ; often 
reprinted ; Boston, 1822. 6 vols. 8.— There had been three earlier translations ; Sir H. Saville & 
R. Grencway. Lond. 1798. 2 vols. M.—Dryden, with others. Lond. 1698. 3 vols. 8.-7". Gordon. 
Lond. 1731. 2 vols. fol. with political discourses on Tac— Cf. Crit. Rev. June, 17S3. — J. Aiken 
{Germany and Agricola). Lond. 1778. 8. 

6. Illustrative. — Although so many references have been given, we select a few of the mul- 
titude that might be added. — G. C. Gebauer, Vestigia juris Germanici in C. C. Tac. Germania 

&c. Gbtt. 1766. 8 G. Bblticher, Lexicon Taciteum. Berl. 1830. 8.— E. Ferlet, Observations &c 

sur les histoires de Tacite (with the Lat. text). Par. 1801. 2 vols. 12. — A. Huffimeister, Die 
Weltanschauung des Tacitus. Ess. 1831. 8. 

§ 535. Quintus Curtius Rufus, of whom little is known, probably lived about 
the middle of the first century, perhaps at a later period ; so uncertain, how- 
ever, is this, that some critics, although without reason, have hesitated to 
class him among the ancient authors. He wrote a history of the achievements 
of Alexander, in 10 books. The first two books and some other portions are 
wanting ; Bruno, Freinsheim, and Cellarius, have attempted to supply these 
parts. The manner of Curtius differs very much from the noble simplicity of 
most of the Greek and Roman historians, and often sinks into the extravagant 
and romantic. His style is too elaborate and too much ornamented. Yet hia 
narrative is agreeable and entertaining. 

1. Different critics have assigned Curtius to different eras ; the reign of Augustus, Tiberius, 

Claudius, Vespasian, Trajan, Constantine, and Theodosius, have each been advocated. J. 

Vossius, De Hist. Lat. cited § 527. l.—D. G. Moller, Disp. de Curtii retate. Alt. 1683. 4.—Bag- 
•nolo, Delia gente Curzia et dell' eta di Q,. Curzio. Bologn. 1741. — A. Hirt, liber das Leben des 
d. C. Rufus. Berl. 1820. 8. — Buttmann, uber das Leben etc. (written with reference to Hirfa 
treatise just cited.) Berl. 1820. 8. — G. Pinzger, liber das Zeitalter des Q,. C. R. in Seebode's 
Archiv fiir Philologie und Psdagogik. 1824. 

2. The work of Curtius, De rebus gestis Jllexandri magni, is considered aa 
not possessing strict historical truth. The author is supposed to have followed 
Greek writers, who had adorned the story of Alexander with fabulous addi- 
tions or exaggerations. — The letters published under the name of Curtius, are 
wholly a fabrication made by Hugo Rugerius. 

Scholl, ii. 383. — Bd.hr, 444. — Perhonius, Curtius Rufus restitutus et vindicatus. Lugd. Bat» 
1703. 8. — St. Croix, Examen &c. cited § 235 — J. J. Sartorius, Curtius Rufus a quorund. repre- 
hens. defensus. Erl. 1773. 8.— J. Rook, Le Clerc's criticism on Q,. Curt. &c. pref. to his TransL 

of Arrian, cited § 250. 4. On the style ; G. L. Walch, Meletem. crit. specimen. Jena, 1809. 4, 

— J.H.Ernesti, usurpata a Curtio in partic. Latinitas. Lpz.1719. — Came, in his ed. below cited. 

Respecting the pretended letters, cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. iii. 355.— Harles, Brev. Not. SuppL 

ii. 18. — Scholl, ii. 387.— They were first published by Rugerius. Reg. Lep. 1500. 4. in 5 books. 

3. Editions. — Best ; H. Snakenburg. Lugd. Bat. 1724. 4. — J. T. Kunze. Helinst. 1st vol. 
published 1802. 8. whether completed, not known. — Lcmaire. Par. 3 vols. 8. in the Bibl. Lat. 
Class. — Good, F. Schmiedcr. Gbtt. 1804. 2 vols. 8. — A. Baumstark. Stuttg. 1829. 3 vols. 8. in 

Zell's Lat. Classics. The Supplements alluded to above were given in the following : C. 

Bruno. Bas. 1545. fol. Lugd. 1584. 12. — J. Freinsheim. Argent. 1640. 2 vols. 8. — Ch. Cellarius*. 
Lpz. 1688. 12. 

4. Translations. — German.— J. Ph. Ostertag. Frankf. 1799. 2 vols. 8. French.— Vaugelas* 

Par. 1647. 4. V. is said to have devoted thirty years to this translation, and to have left hia 

corpse to the surgeons for the benefit of his creditors. (£>' Israeli's Curios, of Lit.) Quo-. $ 

Alph. Trognon (Lat. & Gall.) Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. English.— Th.Codrivgton. Lond. 1652. 4. 

— J. Digby. Lond. 1714. 12. Revised by W. Young. Lond. 1747. 2 vols. 12. 

§ 536. Lucius Annaus Florus, a native of Gaul probably, or of Spain ac- 
cording to the opinion of some, lived at the close of the first century and be- 
ginning of the second. He composed an Epitome of Roman History, in four 
books, extending from the founding of the city until the general peace under 
Augustus. His style is not marked by any very uniform or fixed character ; 
it rises sometimes far above the limits of prose, and is not unfrequently over- 
loaded with the decorations of idle learning. 

1. A modern critic has maintained that this person was the same with the Julius Florus, who 
was the friend of Horace (cf. Ep. i. 3. ii. 2). He is commonly supposed to have written in the 

reign of Trajan. Fr.N. Titzc,De Epit. Rer. Rom. quae sub. nom. L. Ann. Flor. fertur, estate 

etc. Line. 1804. 8.— D. G. Moller, Disp. de L. Ann. Floro. Alt. 1684. \^-Dukcr, in his ed. below 
cited. 



380 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

2. The work of Florus is entitled Epitome de Gestis Romanorum, or Rerum 
Romanarum Libri IV. It has been called a eulogium on the Romans, rather 
than a history. The division into four periods, infancy, youth, manhood, and 
old age, is ascribed to transcribers by some critics, who suppose the author to 
have made but three divisions. — The abridgment of Livy, Argumenta librorum 
historic Liviance, is commonly ascribed to this author, but not with certainty. 

JBdhr, 452. — Heintze, De Floro non historico sed rhetore. Vim. 1787. — C. H. Hausutter, Diss, 
de suspect. Flori fide. Lpz. 1747. 4. 

3. Editions.— Best, C. A. Dakcr, 2d ed. Lugd. Bat. 1744. 2 vols. 8. Repr. Lpz. 1822. 2 vols. & 
•— F. JV. Titze. Prag. 1819. 8. — J. A. Amar. Par. 1822. 8.— That of J. F. Fischer. Lpz. 1760. 8. is 
good. — There are four editions, two in quarto and two in folio printed without date or name of 
place, probably about 1470 ; which of them is the Prlnceps is doubtful. 

4. Since the edition of Salmasius (Lugd. Bat. 1638. 12), Florus has usually heen accompanied 
with the Liber Memorialis of Lucius Ampelius, a writer who lived perhaps under Tiieodosius, 
but of whom little is known ; this work consists of excerpts pertaining to astronomy, geogra- 
phy, and history, from various writers. Ampelius has been edited separately ; C. H.Tzschucku 
Lpz. 1793. 8.—F. A. Beck. Lpz. 1826. 8.— Cf. § 421. 

5. Translations. — German. — C. F. Kretschmann. Lpz. 1785. 8. French. — ftbbe Paul. Par. 

1774. 12. — J. L. Bel. Par. 1776. 12. English.— J". Davies. Lond. 1667. 8 J. Clarke. York, 

1727. 8. ; often repr. — J. Sterling. Lond. 1738. 8. 

§ 537. Caius Suetonius Tranquillus. a grammarian, rhetorician, and lawyer 
at Rome, flourished about the same time. Like Tacitus he was a friend of the 
younger Pliny. His lives of the first twelve Ccesars have the merit of candid 
impartiality, conscientious love of truth, and an admirable copiousness in the 
exhibition of important circumstances. They are marked also by an easy and 
simple style. Yet there is a want of historic art in the arrangement. Besides 
the work just named, we have from him some smaller critical and biographical 
pieces, on distinguished grammarians, rhetoricians, and poets ; he wrote other 
works, whose titles only are known. 

1. Under Hadrian, Suetonius was private secretary, Magister epistolarum., 
but lost the office, it is said, because he was wanting in respect to the empress 
Sabina. The time of his death is not known. 

Cf. Plin. Ep. i. 18, 24. v. 11. ix. 34. x. 95, 96.— Sueton. Oth. 10 Ner. 57. Dom. 12.— D. G, 
Moller, Diss, de Suetonio. Alt. 1685. 4. 

2. The imperial biography of Suetonius is entitled Vita XII imperatorum ; 
in some Mss. it is divided into eight books, the lives of Julius Caesar, Augus- 
tus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, forming each one book ; those of 
Galba, Otho, and v 7 itellius, the seventh; and those of Vespasian, Titus, and 
Domitian, the eighth. The situation which the author held at the imperial 
court gave him access to the best authorities and sources of information. — 
The work entitled De illustribus grammaticis, is said to have been a part of a 
larger work, De viris illustribus ; to which also belonged perhaps another 
piece that is partly preserved unto us, entitled De Claris rhetoribus. There are 
extant several other biographies, which have been commonly ascribed to Sue- 
tonius, and which may have belonged to a more complete work De poetis ; 
viz. Vita Terentii, — Horatii, — Persii, — Lucani, — Juvenalis. The piece styled 
Vita Plinii is not allowed to be the production of Suetonius. 

Bdhr, 450. — F. A. L. Schweigcr, de fontibus atq. auctorit. Vit. xii Suetonii. Gb'tt. 1830. 4. — 
JE. Burton, in his Ancient Characters, &c. cited § 532. 2. 1. Browne, Ess. on the Compar. au- 
thentic, of Tacitus and Suetonius &c. in Transact, of Boyal Irish Acad. — Also in his Miscella- 
neous Sketches &c. Dtibl. 1798. 8.— G. H. Walther, Obs. in Sueton. vitas Csesarum. Torg. 1813. 
8. — R. Krause, De fontibus et auctoritate Suetonii. Berl. 1831. 8.— J. Geel, De Ruhnken's scho- 
lia in Sueton. Vit. Caes. Lugd. 1828. 8. 

3. There is a passage in the life of Claudius (c. 25) in which Suetonius states that the Jewa 
were banished from Rome because they were seditious under the instigations of a certain Chres- 
tus. This has occasioned an inquiry, of some interest, whether Suetonius here refers to Jesus 
Christ. — P. C.Hilschcr, Programma de Chresto, cujus mentionem facit Suetonius. Lips, (sine 
anno.)— G. C.Oettel, De Judceis, impulsore Chresto, &c. Salf. 1779.— H. T. Tschimcr, On allu- 
sions to Christianity in Greek and Roman writers; transl. by H. B. Hackett, in the Bibl. Repos. 
vol. xt. p. 203. 

4. Editions. — Whole Works. Best ; Ph. Burmann. Amst. 1736. 2 vols. 4. — A. Wolf. Lpz. 
1802. 4 vols. 8.— D. K. W. Baumgarten-Crusius. Lpz. 1816-18. 3 vols. 8. the 3d vol. including a 

Clavis. — C. B. Hase. Par. 1828. 2 vols. 8. Best of earlier editions ; J. G. Grcevius. Traject. 

1703. 4. containing the commentary of C.Patinus, who published Sueton. illustrated from coins, 
Bas. 1675. 4. — S. Pitiscus, Leov. (Leuwarden.) 1714. 2 vols. 4.— The Princcps, by Phil, de Lig- 
namine (as is supposed). Rom. 1470. fol. S elect Lives ; H. Paldam, Hal. 1829. Q.— Vita Ho- 
ratii, by E. J. Richter. Zwick. 1831. 4. 

5. Translations. — German.— JV. G. Eichhoff, 1821. 8. French.— Maurice Levesque (Lat. & 

Gall.) Par. 1807. 2 vols. 8.— De Golberv (Lat. & Gall.) Par. 1832, 33. 3 vols. 8. English. 

—Philem. Holland. Lond. 1606. fol. — Jab. Hughes. Lond. 1717. 2 vols. 12 John Clarke (Lat. & 

Eng.) Lond. 1732. 8. — Dr. Al. Thomson. Lond. 1796. 8. with observations on the Government 
and Literature of the different periods. Cf. Moss, Bibliogr. ii. 637. 



HISTORIANS. SUETONIUS. JUSTIN. EUTROPIUS. 381 

§ 538. Justinus, who is supposed to have lived in the second century under 
the Antonines, wrote an abridgment of the Universal History of Trogus Porn- 
peius. Trogus was a native of Gaul, and lived under Augustus ; his larger 
work is lost. The abridgment of Justin is in 44 books, extending from Ninus 
to Augustus. The style is not destitute of merit, and the work is highly en- 
tertaining in its character. 

1. Nothing is known respecting the life of Justin ; his name is sometimes given M. Junianus 

Justinus, and sometimes Justinus Frontinus. D. G. Moller, Diss, de Justino. Alt. 1684. 4. — 

J. H. St. Rzesinski, De Justino &c. Cracov. 1826. 8. 

2. The Epitome of Justin is entitled Historiarum Philippicarum et totius 
mundi et terra situs, ex Trogo Pompeio excerptarum libri xliv. The subjects 
of the several books are stated b}^ Scholl. Much of the original work of Tro- 
gus seems to have been drawn from Greek authors, especially fromTheopom- 
pus (cf. § 233J . 

Scholl, Lit. Rom. in. 140.— Bdhr, 410.— J. G. Gatterer, Plan des Trogus &c. in the Allgemeine 
Histor. Bibliuthek. vol. 3d. Hal. 1767. 8.— Koch's Proleg. cited $ 233.— A. H. L. Heerc.n, De Trog. 
Pomp, ejusqne'epitomatoris font, et auctoritate, in the Comment. Societ. reg. scient. Gbtting. 
vol. xv. 1803. 

3. Editions. — Best ; Abr. Gronovius, 2d ed. Lusd. Bat. 1760. 8. Repr. ed. C. A. Frotscher. 
Lpz. 1828. 3 vols. 8.— J. F. Fischer. Lpz. 1757. 8.— C. F. Wetzel. Leign. 1806. 8.— JV. Lemaire. 

Par. 1823. 8. There are other recent editions ; J. Seibt. Prag. 182fl 8. — F. Deubner. Lpz. 

1831. 8. — The Princeps, by Jenson (pr.) Rom. 1470. 4. There are Prologi to the several 

books of the history, which are supposed to be the -,vork not of Justin, but of some ancient 
grammarian. G. H. Graucrt, Tros. Pomp, histor. Philipp. prologi. Monast. 1827. 8. 

4. Translations. — German.—/. P. Ostrrtag. Frankf. 1792. 2 vols. 8. French.— Abbe Fa- 

vicr. Par. 1737. 12. — Abbe Paxil. Par. 1774. 1805. 1817. 2 vols. 12 with notes, and geography 

Diet. Enslish.— Arthur Golding. Lond. 1564. 4.— Phil. Holland. Lond. 1606. fol.— TurnbulL 

Lond. 1746. 12.— There are several others. Cf. Moss. ii. 135. 

§ 539. Scxtus Aurelius Victor, a native of Africa, lived in the 4th century, 
and was a favorite of Julian, who raised him to honorable offices Under 
Theodosius he was made consul at Rome. His history of the Origin of the 
Roman People, according to its title extended from Janus to the tenth consu- 
late of Constantius ; but the portion we have extends only to the first year 
after the founding of the city ; it contains some things not mentioned by 
others, or at least not so minutely. The work entitled De viris illustrious 
Romce, which usually passes under his name, is by some ascribed to Suetoni- 
us, or to the younger Pliny. 

1. Two other works bear his name ; one entitled De Ccesaribus, from Au- 
gustus to Constantius ; the other Epitome de Ccesaribus, from Augustus to 
Theodosius. The latter is an abridgment of the former, and was made by a 
later author called Victor junior, or Victorious. — Some consider the first of 
the works above mentioned, Origo gentis Romans, to be the production of 
some compiler later than Aurelius Victor. 

Scholl, in. 159. — Bdhr, 466. — Vossius, cited $ 527 D.G. Moller, Diss, de S. Aur. Victore, 

Alt. 1685. 4. irnztsn, Pref. to his ed. below cited. 

2. Editions. — Best ; S. Pitiscus. Utrecht, 1696. 8. — J. Arntten. Amst. 1733. 4.— J. F. Grit- 
iter. Cob. 1757. 8. (cur. G. C. Harles.) Erl. 1787. 8. fcur. p. Schonbenrer.) Vindob. 1820. 8. — 
F. Schroter. Lpz. 1831. 2 vols. 8. 

3. Translations. — German. — J. H. Hddsbrand. Lpz. 1795. 8. French. — Savin. Par. 

1780. 12. English. — By several pupils of Mr. Maidwell. Lond. 1693. 8. 

§ 540. Flavins Eutropius, probably a native of Italy, lived in the 4th cen- 
tury. He was private secretary (^Eniaros.oyouipoc) under Constantine the 
Great; afterwards he accompanied Julian in the expedition against the Per- 
sians, and in the year 371 he was proconsul in Asia. By the direction of the 
emperor Valens he composed an Epitome of Roman History, in 10 books, from 
the founding of the city to the reign of Jovian. It is written in an easy and 
plain style, but without critical acumen. We have a Greek translation of 
it, although not quite complete, by a certain Pceanivs. 

1. The title of Vir clorissimus is given to Eutropius in the manuscript ; and 
he is spoken of by subsequent writers with respect. Some have thought him 

to have been a Christian, but without sufficient evidence. His epitome, 

Breviarium historiai Romana>, was a favorite work in the middle ages, and was 
often copied. It is inserted, with some additions, in the work called Historia 
Miscella, the production chiefly of Paul Winfrid, called also Paul Diaconus. 

Scholl, in. 161.— Bdhr, 469— Vossius, cited $527.— D.G. Moller, Diss, de Eutropio. Alt.1685., 
4. — Tzschucke, Diss, de vit. et Script. Eutrop. in his ed. below cited. Respecting the His- 
toria miscella, cf. SchHll } ai. 178. — It is given in Muratori, Script. Rer. Italicarum, vol. n 



382 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

2. There is extant a letter, purporting to be written from Jerusalem by Pu- 
blius Lentulus and containing- a description of the person of Jesus Christ, 
which has been published as belonging to Eutropius. It is given in the Ec- 
clesiastical History of the Centuriatorcs Magdeburg ens es (Bas. 1559. fol.), 
with this inscription " Lentuli epistola, &c. qua? apud Eutropium in annalibus 
Senat. Rom. extat." What Eutropius or what annals can here be designated 
is unknown. It seems inadmissible to apply the passage to the Roman histo- 
rian, since no manuscript or copy of his work exhibits the least trace of any 
such epistle. — This letter was published in England in 1817, as having been 
recently discovered in a manuscript in the library of the Vatican and pre- 
viously unknown, although the existence of such a manuscript had been 
mentioned by Fabricius a century before. The letter is generally and justly 
considered to be a mere fabrication. 

See the Letter, and a full examination of its authenticity, by E. Robinson, in the Bibl. Repos* 
n. p. 367ss. 

3. Editions. — Best ; H. Verheyk. Leyd. 1793. 8.— C.H. Tzschucke. Lpz. 1796. 8. this pro- 
nounced by Dibdin better than the reprint, Lpz. 1804. — Best school editions, F. W. Grosse-. 
Halle, 1813. 8. — F. Hermann. Liib. 1818. 8.— F. ScMnberger, Vien. 1816. 8. — E. T. Hohler. 

Vien. 1819. 8 The Princeps, by G. Laver pr. (as is supposed) Rom. 1471. fol. giving the 

work as found in the Historia miscella above named. The metaphrase of Pceanius, by J. F. 

S Kaltwasser. Goth. 1780. 8. 

4. Translations. — German. — Ph. L. Haus. Frankf. 1821. 8. French. ibbe Leteau. Par. 

1717. 12. English. — J. Clarke, (with orig. Lat.) York, 1722. 8.— J. Sterling. Lond. 1726. 8. 

— ./. Thomas. Lond. 1760. 8. 

5. There is an epitome of Roman History (Breviarium rerum gestarum populi RomaniJ which 
was written by Seztus Rufus Festus, of whom little is known. The work is said to have been 

drawn up by direction of the emperor Valens. It is contained in Verheyk^s ed. of Eutropiu9 

above cited." Separately, C. Mvnnich. Han. 1815. 8. From the same Rufus, we have under 

the title De regionibus Roma;, a sketch of the chief buildings and monuments of Rome. 

§ 541. Ammianus Marcellinus, a Greek born at Antioch, lived in the sanle 
century. He wrote a Roman history, in 31 books, from Nerva to Valens; 
the first 13 books are lost. The work may be regarded as a continuation of 
Tacitus and Suetonius. It derives its merit not from the style, which is af- 
fected and often rough and inaccurate, but from its various matter ; it is in- 
terspersed with numerous digressions and observations, which render it in- 
structive and entertaining. 

1. Ammianus devoted his early years to study ; then engaged in military 
service, in which he passed many years and acquired reputation under Julian 
and his successors; he finally returned to Rome, and there composed his his- 
tory. — There is no proof that he was a Christian, although he relates events' 
connected with the Christian religion with impartiality. 

D. G. Moller, Diss, de Am. Marc. Alt. 1685. 4.— CI. Chifflct, De Am. Marcel, vita &c. Lovan. 
1627. also in the ed. of Erfurdt below cited. —For a specimen of his manner of speaking of 
Christianity, cf. bk. xxi. c. 16 ; xxii. 11. 

2. Although so many books of the Rerum Gestarum of Marcellinus are lost, 
yet the 18 books extant are the most valuable part. The whole work includ- 
ed a period of above 280 years, from the accession of Nerva, A. D. 91, to the 
death of Valens, A. D. 378 ; the lost books brought the history down to A. 
D. 352 ; the remaining books are a sort of memoirs of his own times. Gib- 
bon freely acknowledges his great obligations to this author. 

Schdll, in. 165.— Bdhr, 473. — Ch. G. Heyne, Censura ingenii et histor. Ammiani Marcellini. 
Gott. 1802. also in his Opusc. Academ. vol. vi. — Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxvL 
vol. in. p. 55. ed. N. Y. 1822. 

3. Editions. — Best ; ./. A. Wa<nier, compiled by C. F. A. Erfurdt. Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 8 & fol. 
— A. W. Ernesti. Lpz. 1773. 8. — Best among the earlier, J. Gronov. Leyd. 1693. fol. — The 
Princeps, by A Sabinus. Rom. 1474. fol. 

4. Translations. —German.— J. A. Wacrncr. Frankf. 1794. 3 vols. 8. — L. Tross, in the Col- 
lection of Tafel, Osiander, Sfc. French. — Mich, de Marollcs. Par. 1672. 12. English.— 

P. Holland. Lond. 1609. fol.— An interesting passage on the character of the Roman nobles is 
translated by Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxi. 

§ 542 1. There is extant a historical or biographical collection, under the 
title of Scriptores Historia Augusta*, or icriters of the imperial history. It con- 
sists of the lives of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carus, ascribed to 
six different authors, who belonged to the 3d and 4th centuries. These biog- 
raphies do not possess a high degree of merit ; yet they are of some import- 
ance to the careful student of history ; indeed they are our only source of in- 
formation in some particulars of the history of the emperors. 



WRITERS ON MEDICINE AND NATURAL SCIENCE. 383 

1 u . The first writer in the collection is stilus Spartianus, of the time of 
Diocletian. He is said to have written the lives of all the emperors from Ju- 
lius Caesar to his own day. We have under his name the lives of Hadrian, 
JElius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Caracalla, 
and Geta. He also is considered by some as the author of the biocrraphies 
ascribed to Gallicanus and Lampridius. His style has little merit ; his pieces 
are deficient in proper arrangement, and are personal memoirs of the emper- 
ors rather than histories of their reigns. 

2. Vulcatius Gallicanus , who also belonged to the age of Diocletian, is said to 
have designed a complete biography of the emperors. The manuscripts as- 
sign to him the life of Avidius Cassius, which some however ascribe to Spar- 
tianus. 

3 m. Julius Cavitolinus lived in the time of Diocletian and Constantine the 
Great. He is mentioned as the author of the lives of Antoninus Pius, Mar- 
cus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Pertinax, Albinus, Macrinus, the two Maximini, 
the three Gordiani, Maximus, and Balbinus. These are composed with little 
judgment. Some of them have been ascribed to Spartianus. 

4u. Trebellius Pollio was of the same period. He wrote the lives of the 
emperors from Philippus to Claudius. We have the following ; a fragment 
of the life of Valerian the elder, the life of Valerian the younger or the son, 
the lives of the two Gallieni, of the Triginta Tyranni, and of Claudius. His 
narratives are careless and diffuse. 

5. JSlius Lampridius is mentioned by Vopiscus as among his masters. He 
is considered by some to have been the same person with Spartianus, as if 
the name of the latter were iElius Lampridius Spartianus. To him are as- 
cribed the lives of Commodus, Diadumenus, Heliogabulus , and Alexander Se- 
verus. 

6u. Flavius Vopiscus, of Syracuse, lived in the time of Constantine. From 
him we have the lives of Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Firmus, Saturni- 
nus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus, JYumerianus, and Carinus. He excels the 
other writers of the collection in method, accuracy, and learning. 

7. Respecting these writers, see Schiill, in. 149.— B'dhr, 460. — Vossius, as cited $527. — Tirle- 
mont, Histoire des Empereurs. Par. 1697. — G. Mascovius, Orat. de usu. et prtestantia Hist. Au- 
gust, in jure civili. Harderov. 1731. 4. and in his Opusc. jurid. et phil. edited by Puttmann. 
Lpz. 1776. 8. — C. G. Heyne, Censura sex Scriptor. Hist. Aug. Gbtt. 1803. and in his Opusc. 
Jlcadem. vol. vi. — De Moulines, Mem. surles ecrivains de Christ. Aug. in the Mem. de VJlcad. 
de Berlin, an. 1750. — Dodwell, Praelectiones Academics. Oxf. 1692. 8. Besides the notice of the 
writers of the JTistoria Augusta in the first part (p. 32-151), this work contains essays on vari- 
ous topics suggested by particular passages. — D. G. Moller, Diss, de JEl. Spartiano. Alt. 1687. 
4. ; de Vulcat. Gallicano. Alt. 1689. 4. ; de Jul. Capitolino. Alt. 1639. 4. ; de JEL Lampridio. 
Alt. 1688. 4 ; de Flav. Vopisco. Alt. 1687. 4. 

8. Editions. — The Princeps. Milan, 1475. fol. cum notis var. Lugd. Bat. 1671. 2 vols. 8.— ■ 
J. P. Schmid. Lpz. 1774. 8. with pref. by Pvttmann. — Bipont. 1787. 2 vols. 8. 

9. Translations. — German. T. P. Ostertag. Frankf. 1787. 2 vols. 8. — L. Storch, in the 

Prenzlau Collection of Translations (1827ss). French. — G. de Moulines. Berl. 1783. 3 vols. 

6 : Par. 1816. 3 vols. 12. 



X. — Writers on Medicine and Natural Science. 

§ 543 r«. None of the sciences received less patronage among the Romans 
than that of Medicine. They were not wholly strangers to the theoretical 
knowledge auxiliary to it ; but the practical part, on the other hand, was in 
low estimation. Until ithe time of Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxix. 1), the practice of 
medicine was not an occupation of any of the more noble and cultivated Ro- 
mans, but was followed only by slaves, freedmen, or foreigners. 

§ 544. The early Romans supposed diseases to be healed only by special 
intervention of the gods ; hence their first physicians were the augurs and 
aruspices, and their remedies in all cases consisted very much in religious rites 
and magical chants. In epidemic maladies, it was customary to consult the 
Sibylline books ; and some ceremony or observance was prescribed for relief, 



384 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

It was thus that dramatic sports were first introduced to remove a plague (cf, 
§ 305). To alleviate a pestilence the Romans at another time erected a tern-' 
pie to Apollo Medicus (Liv. iv. 25J ; at another, Esculapius, in the form of a 
serpent, was solemnly escorted from Epidaurus to an island in the Tiber. 
Hence too divine honors were offered to deified diseases (cf. P. III. §93). 

§ 545. Eut the Romans could not fail to discover that processions, lustra- 
tions*, lectisternia, and supplicia (of. P. IV. §211,220), and other superstitious 
ceremonies were not the natural remedies for diseases, which continued to in- 
crease in number and malignity with the progress of luxury. They were 
willing to receive medical prescriptions from the Greeks, from whom they 
had borrowed in almost every thing else ; and Greek slaves became physi- 
cians to the mistress of the world. Eminent citizens sometimes kept a slave 
in the sole capacity of family physician. The custom of -thus employing 
slaves no doubt tended to foster the notion, that the medical art was ignoble ; 
but the use of Grecian remedies and methods undermined the superstitious 
reliance on charms and rites, and contributed to encourage a proper study of 
the science. — It is also supposed, that the study was encouraged by a trans- 
lation into Latin of the medical treatises found in the library which was col- 
lected by Mithridates (cf. § 452, P. I. § 126) ; this translation was made, un- 
der the patronage of Pompey,by his freedman Lenaeus (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxv. 
2, 3). 

t546. The first freeborn Greek, who practiced medicine at Rome, is said 
ave been Archagathus, who came to Rome B. C. 219. He received from 
the senate the gift of citizenship, and was furnished with a medical or apoth- 
ecary's shop (medecina) . His severe method of practice, however, became 
unpopular ; and it has been asserted that he was stoned to death. After the 
conquest of Greece and the fall of Corinth B. C. 146, Greek physicians seem 
to have flocked to Rome in greater numbers. Asclepiades, from Prusa in 
Bithynia, B. C. 110, gained great celebrity in the art (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxvL 
3) > and seems to have had many disciples (cf § 263). 

The question has been started, whether the Greek physicians were ban- 
ished from Rome along with the philosophers (§ 449), and learned writers 
have contended on both sides. (See Middleton, Spon, &c. as cited § 552. 2.) 
Cato who was so hostile to the philosophers was no friend tothe physicians ; 
"if the Greeks," said he, according to Pliny (xxix. 1), " impart to us their 
learning, we are ruined ; especially if they send hither their physicians } 
they have sworn together to destroy all the barbarians by medicine." 

§ 547 a. Cato is considered as the first Roman who attempted to write on 
diseases and remedies ; he composed a work that might be called "a book of 
domestic medicine; but it exhibited no great knowledge of the subject. — The 
next who is mentioned as having written on the medical art in Latin was the 
freedman Antonius Musa. He was a celebrated physician in the time of Au- 
gustus, and gained illustrious rewards for curing that prince of a dangerous 
sickness. His genuine works are lost. 

The treatise of Cato was entitled Commentarius quo medetur filio, servis, familiaribus. Cf. Plu- 
tarch, Vit. Cat. — Plin. Hist. Nat. xxv. 2 ; xxix. 1. — There are two pieces extant, which have 
been ascribed to Musa ; namely, a treatise De herba betonica, and a metrical fragment De tuen- 
davaletudinc. — C. F. Crell, Ant. Musa, &c. Lpz. 1725. 4. — Flor. Caldanus, Ant. Musjb, frag- 
menta quse extant. Bassano, 1800. 8. — Cf. Jickerman, Prol. de Ant. Musa. Alt. 1786. 8. 

§ 547b. The next celebrated name in the list of Roman medical authors is 
Cornelius Celsus ($553), who is by many supposed to have flourished in the 
reign of Augustus, although little is certainly known respecting his history. 
Apuleius Celsus was a different person, a native of Centorbi in Sicily, who 
lived under Tiberius, and wrote on agriculture and on plants ; but his works 
are lost. 

In the commencement of the period extending from the death of Augustus 
to the time of the Antonines most of the practicing physicians at Rome were 
Greeks ; and until the time of Trajan they were chiefly of the Methodic 
School (cf. $264). Eudemus was one of them, mentioned as a disciple of 
Themison, and cited as author of observations on hydrophobia. Menecrates 
is named as another, who composed upwards of 150 treatises. Andromachus 
from Crete was physician to Nero, and is said to have been the first who was 
called archiater ; this title however does not appear to have been common un- 



WRITERS ON MEDICINE. 385 

til a later period. But it should be remarked, that under the first emperors 
the medical art was patronized much more than previously, and that the 
teachers in this branch were permitted to enjoy the same privileges and hon- 
ors as the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. One of the most distin- 
guished in this period, that wrote in Latin, was Scribonius Largus (§ 554), 
who accompanied Claudius in his expedition into England, A. D. 43. Vettius 
Valens is mentioned also as an author, but Tacitus {Jinn. xi. 31, 35) has con- 
signed his name to infamy for his connection with the wife of Claudius, the 
flagitious Messalina. Coelius Aurelianus probably belongs to the close of this 
period, being usually considered a contemporary of Galen (cf. § 273) ; he has 
left two works, both of which were drawn from Greek authors, especially 
from Soranus, a Greek physician who obtained great distinction at Rome (cf. 
§ 264), being a supporter of the Methodic School. — Perhaps Pliny the elder 
should be mentioned as a writer on medicine, since in his Natural History 
($470) he treats of the healing virtues especially of mineral substances. 

Coelius was a native of Sida or Sicca in Numidia. The two works extant are entitled, Tar- 
darum sive Chronicarum. passionum libri V.,and Celerum sive acutarum passionum libri III. Sev- 
eral other works, now lost, were written by him. Cf. Fabricius, Bib]. Lat. iii. 531-35. — His 
works are given in the collections of Stephanus and of IMler, cited $552. 3. Separately, M- 
meloveen, (e recens. J. C. Amman, M. D.) Amst. 1709. 4. Repr. 1755. 4. — There is a Latin 
treatise entitled Isagoge in artem medicam, supposed by some to be a translation by Coelius, 
from a work of Soranus ; by others considered the original work of some later Latin author; 
it is in the Coll. of Stephanus. 

§ 548. In the former part of the last period included in our notice (from 
the Antonines A. D. 160, to the destruction of Rome A. D. 476), lived Se- 
renus Sammonicus, eminent as a physician and a learned man, from whom we 
have a didactic poem on diseases and their remedies (§ 555). This was per- 
haps preceded by the Greek poem on medicine, called an epic, in 42 books, 
by Marcellus Sidetes (cf. $ 32), who probably lived somewhat earlier. We 
have also a sort of medical epistle from Vindicianus, who was physician to 
the emperor Valentinian, about A. D. 370. From his contemporary and dis- 
ciple, Theodorus Priscianus, we have two works pertaining chiefly to medi- 
cal subjects (§ 556). Sextus Placitus is named as a medical writer of the 4th 
century and author of a treatise on medicines derived from the animal king- 
dom. There is a compilation, in five books, De re medica, ascribed to Plinius 
Valerianus, who is commonly referred to the former part of the 4th century. 
Marcellus Empiricus, who was physician to Theodosius Magnus, left a book 
on medicines, addressed to his sons (cf. § 557). Finally we mention a treatise 
on the veterinary art, ascribed to Publius Vegetius (as already noticed, § 492. 
4) ; it is however considered to be merely a sort of translation from the Greek 
Hippiatrica ( f IimiarQiy.a, cf. § 268), made by some ignorant monk of the 12th 
century. 

The epistle ascribed to Vindicianus is prefixed to the treatise of Marcellus as usually pub- 
lished ,■ cf. $ 557. 2. See Bdhr, Rom. Lit. p. 210. — The treatise of Sextus Placitus Papyriensis, 
entitled De medicamcntis ex animalibus, is given by Stephanus, and Ackermann, as cited § 552. 3. 
— The compilation of Plinius Valerianus De re medica, or Medicina Pliniana, is drawn chiefly 
from Pliny and Galen and Dioscorides ; it is given by Stephanus as just cited ; also by Alb. To- 
rinus, Basil, 1528. fol. Cf. Scholl, Litt. Rom. in. 233. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. n. 247. 

§ 549. We have already remarked ($547b), that from the time of Augustus 
physicians were held in higher estimation at Rome than previously, and were 
flattered with honors. The physician of Nero, it is said, was styled archiater. 
"It has been a question," observes Scholl (Litt. Rom. in. 236), " whether this 
title designated the one who was the physician to the reigning prince (iarqbq 
rov un/orroc), or chief of the physicians of a. city or town (a^wv rdjv iutqcov). 
The two opinions may be reconciled, if we only suppose that both offices or 
characters were united in one and the same person. Each city, or each quar- 
ter of a city, had its special physician. Antoninus Pius fixed the number at 
ten for tbe large places, seven for the middling, and five for those of the third 
rank. These were called archiatri popular es ; they were nominated not by 
the governors of the provinces, but by the people of each place ; and they 
formed a body by themselves, termed ordo or collegium. All other physicians 
were subordinate to this body, which exercised over them a rigid inspection. 
After the time of Constantine the Great there were archiatri palatini, who 
ranked among the high officers of the imperial court ; and after the 5th cen- 
tury they were placed on a level with the duces or vicarvir (Cf. P. IV. <$ 309. ) 
33 



386 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 550. " The vast conquests of the Romans, and the expeditions, in whicB 
they penetrated to the most remote regions of the globe, afforded them oppor- 
tunities for studying nature and enriching the natural sciences by import 
tant discoveries. But the military spirit stifled the curiosity which would 
have paused in their career in order to examine the novel objects presented to 
their view. Rare animals brought to Rome by the conquerors furnished stu- 
dious men with means of making interesting observations, which were to 
some extent improved. But, after all; the Romans generally had little ardor 
for any such pursuits, and they accomplished little in any department of 
physical science." (SchOll.) 

§ 551. The principal writings, to which we can refer, that contain matter 
pertaining to this department, are those of Seneca and Pliny already noticed 
(cf. § 469, 470) under the head of philosophy. The former in his Qucestiones 
JYaturales (L. iii.) expresses his regret, that he had not paid more attention to 
subjects so interesting. Pliny must be acknowledged to have had a love for 
the study of nature, and the work left by him is of acknowledged value. 
These works present some facts worthy of our notice ^n this connection ; 
e. g. Seneca remarks, that small letters seen through a glass vessel filled with 
water appear magnified, and that a sort of wand made with several angles and 
presented to the sun in a certain manner will cause the colors of the rainbow 
to show themselves. 

Pliny observes ('Hist. Nat. ii. 97, 64), that the tides are caused by the influ- 
ence of the sun and moon, and that the sun is like a supreme moderator 
among the planets. He notices also (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 14) the properties as- 
cribed to the magnet (ferrum vivum, Mayvijrig Xi&og). — Frontinus in his trea- 
tise on aqueducts has occasion to exhibit theoretic views respecting the laws 
of fluids, and makes some just observations, but without scientific precision. 
Vitruvius in his Architecture, we may add, brings forward some of the prin- 
ciples of mechanics. Both these authors have been mentioned among the 
mathematical writers. Indeed we find but a single name to mention here, 
that has not found a place in some other department. There was a work by 
Julius Obsequens, entitled De Prodigiis or Prodigiorum liber, in which the 
writer described the extraordinary and wonderful phenomena of nature that 
had occurred at Rome. The part which is now extant relates to the two cen- 
turies immediately preceding the Christian era, and contains much that is 
drawn from the history of Livy. This performance, which closes our notice 
of the attainments of the Romans in physics, although written in a style con- 
sidered by some as not unworthy of the Augustan age, is but a collection of 
marvelous tales rather than a book of science. 

Of the person named Julius Obsequens and the time When he lived nothing is known with 
certainty ; some critics have assigned him to the 1st century, others to the 4th. — Cf. Vossius, 
de histor. Lat. iii. Perizonius, Animadversiones Histories, cap. viii. — = — Best editions ; sepa- 
rately, F. Oudendorp. Ludg. Bat. 1720. 8. Repr. (ed. J. Kapp.J Curiae, 1772. 8. — Given also in 
Hase's Val. Maximus, cited § 533. 3. 

§ 552. We give the following as references on the class of writers just 
noticed. 

1. Physical science among the Romans ; A. Libes, Histoire Philosophique des Progres de la 
Physique. Par. 1810. 4 vols. 8. (L. i. ch. vi.) — Scholl, Litt. Rom. u. 454. — Comte de Caylus, 
Sur les connaisances des anciens, in the Mem. Acad. laser, xxvu. 58. Mahudel Du lin incom- 
bustible &c. in the samework, iv. 634. — Ameilhon (the telescope not known to the ancients), 
in same work, xlii.496. Cf. P. I. $207. — Falconet, Sur ce que les Anciens ont cru de l'Aimant, 
in the same, vol. iv. p. 613. 

2. History of medicine among the Romans ; Good, Le Clerc, and Sprengel, as cited P. I. $23. 

— J. H. Schulze, Compend. Hist. Med. Halae, 1742. On the question as to the rank and 

treatment of physicians ; Gevers, De servil. condit. homin. artes Rom. colent. — <- .#. O. Rich- 
ter, Prisca Roma in medicos suos hand iniqua. Gbtt. 1764. 4. — Kulvn, De medecin. militar. 
apud Grsec. et Roman, conditione. Lpz. 1827. 4. — Cony. Middleton, De Med. apud vet. Rom. 
degentium conditione (published 1725), in his Miscellaneous loorks, Lond. 1752. 4 vols. 4. — 
J. Spon, (Diss, in) Recherches Curieuse a'Antiquite. Par. 1683. 4. — Schl'dger, Historia litis, 
de Med. ap. Vet. Rom. deg. conditione. Helms. 1749. 

3. Medical Collections. The earliest by Critander, Bas. 1528. fol. — The second by Aldus, 
Ven. 1547. fol. — Next, by H. Stephanas, Medicss Artis Principes. Par. 1567. 2 vols. fol. con- 
taining Greek and Latin. Cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 522. — dud, Rivinus, Vet. quorumd. 
Script, libri de materia medica. Lips. 1654. &. — Haller, Art. Med. princ. and Gruner, Bibl. d. 
alt. Aerzte, cited $269. — J. Ch. G. Acker ■mann. Parabilium medicamentorum Scriptores an- 
Riqui. Norimb. 1788. 8. 

§ 553. Aurelius or Jlulus Cornelius Celsus, a native of Rome or of Verona, 



PHYSICIANS. CELSUS. SCRIBONIUS. SAMMONICUS. 387 

lived in the beginning of the first century. He wrote a comprehensive work, 
entitled De Artibus, in 20 books; it was a sort of encyclopedia, treating of 
philosophy, rhetoric, rural oeconomy, the art of war, jurisprudence, and medi- 
cine. Of this we have only the eight books on medicine, which are not un- 
worthy of notice either in respect of their contents, or the style in which they 
are written : the last two books treat of surgery. 

1. There is not an agreement among the critics as to the name of Celsus, 
whether it was Aurelius or Jlulus ; nor as to his birth-place, whether Rome or 
Verona ; nor as to the time of his birth, whether under Augustus, or later. 
There is no doubt that he was a practical physician. 

See J. Rhodius, Vit. Celsi. Havn. 1672. — Morgagni, Epist. in A. C. Celsum. Hag. Com. 1724. 
4. given in the Bipont ed. below cited. — L. Biaiicom. Lett, sopre A. C. Celso. Rom. 1779. 8. — 
Mi G. Schilling. Qurest. de C. Celsi vita. Lpz. 1824. 8.—Fabricius Bibl. Lat. n. 36. 

2. The books of Celsus De Medicina are ranked among the most valuable 
remains of the ancient physicians ; he has been called the Latin Hippocrates, 
and the Cicero of the physicians. The preface contains a notice of the vari- 
ous schools of medicine before his time ; the first four books treat of internal 
diseases ; the next two of external diseases ; and of the two last, one treats of 
dislocations and fractures, the other of surgical operations. The author has 
drawn freely from Hippocrates. — There are Uco letters, which have been as- 
cribed to Celsus, but were probably written by Scribonius Largus. The trea- 
tise de Veterinaria, sometimes mentioned, is supposed to have been merely the 
section on that topic included under the head of agriculture in his general 
work. — There is extant a book de arte dicendi, which was once ascribed to 
Celsus, but is now referred to Julius Severianus, a writer in the fifth century. 

Le Clerc & Schulze, as cited $ 552. 1. — Chiappa, Intormo alle opere e alia conditione di A. C. 
Celso. Mil. 1819.— G. Matthice, Diss, de A. C. Celsi medicina. Gbtt. 1766. 4.—F. C. Oertel, Diss, 
de aqua? frigidas usu Celsiano. Monach. 1825. 4.— Respecting the book de arte dicendi, cf. Harles 
Brev. Not. Suppl. i. 522. 

3. Editions. — Best ; D.Ruhnken. Lugd. Bat.1785. 2 vols. 4. based on that of L.Targa (Pad. 
1769. 4), but more fall.— Bipontine. Argent. 1806. 2 vols. 8. Ex. recens Targcc (cum Lexico Celsi) 
Verona, 1810. 4.— E. Milligan. Loud. 1826. 8. after the text of Targa.— Cf. L. Choulant, Prodro- 
mus nov. edit. Celsi. Lpz. 1824. 4. — Of previous editions, some of the more noted ; J. A. van 

der Linden. Leyd. 1665. 12. Qlmcloveen. Amst. 1713. 8. — The Princeps, by Barthol. Fontio. 

Flor. 1478. fol. — The letters are given in the collection of Stephanies, cited § 552. 3. — The book 
on rhetoric is given in the collection of Pithaus cited $ 412. 

4. Translations. — German.— G.Ch.F.Fuchs. Jena",1799. 8. only the first book.— J". C. Jager. 
Frankf. 1789. 8. 7th & 8th books. French.— H. Ninnir. Par. 1753. 2 vols. 12. (revue par Le- 
page). Par. 1821. English.— J. Grieve. Lond. 1756. 8. — Collier (with Latin). Lond. 1829. 

2 vols. 8.— Underwood (with orig. Lat.) Lond. 1833. 2 vols. 8. — Lee (Lat. &. Angl.) Lond. 1836. 

3 vols. 12. 

§ 554. Scribonius Largus, a physician at Rome, lived in the first century, 
under Tiberius & Claudius. He is considered as the author of a treatise still 
extant, yet not very valuable, on the preparation of medicines. It has been 
conjectured that it was originally written in Greek, and translated into Latin 
at some later period. 

1. His full name was Scribonius Largus Designatianus. His treatise De 
compositionc medicavientorum is addressed to Caius Julius Callistus. In the 
introduction he alludes to medical pieces written by him in Latin (scripta 
Latina medicinalia) , which Callistus had presented to Claudius the emperor; 
language which would seem to imply that this or some other piece or pieces 
must have been in Greek. 

Le Clerc, cited $ 552. 1. — Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 322. — Bcrnhold, Prasf. to ed. below cited. — 
Bdhr, p. 696. 

2. Editions. — Best, J. M. Bemhold. Argent. (Strassb.) 1786. 8.— J. Rhodius. Pad. 1655. 4.— 
Contained also in Stephanus, as cited § 552. 3. It was first published, opera J. Ruellii. Par. 
1529. 8. along with two other pieces. Repr. Bas. 1529. 8. 

§ 555. Q. Serenus Sammonicus, who lived in the second and third centuries, 
was a man of much learning, and a favorite of the emperor Severus. He was 
put to death by order of Caracalla, on suspicion that he was on the side of Geta. 
We have from him a poem on diseases and their remedies ; it is probably not 
free from interpolations, and is not complete, being defective at the close. 

1. It has been doubted whether the poem was written by this distinguished 
physician, or by his son of the same name. The poem is in hexameter verse, 
and is entitled Carmen de morbis et remediis, or De medicina prmcepta ; it was 
much read and frequently copied in the middle ages. The materials are 
chiefly derived from Pliny and Dioscorides. 



388 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

There is also under the name of Serenus Sammonicus a poem entitled Carmen de tin<rendis 
capilhs. A fragment of another, entitled Res recondite, is given by Macrobius (Sat. iii. c.i5-17). 
— Keuchen, Proleg. to his ed. below cited. — Ackerman, Prasf. to his ed. below cited. — Bdhr 
p. 210, 780. — Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 701. 

2. Editions. -~ Best ; J. Ch. G. Ackcrmann. Lpz. 1786. 8. — Keuchen. Amst. 1662. 1706. 8 

Contained also in Burmann's Poet. Lat. Min.— Often in editions of Celsus.— The poem de tin<r. 
capilhs, by Bdhmer, Programmata i— iv. Viteb. 1798—1800. 4. ° 

§ 556. Theodorus Priscianus, of whose life we have no account, flourished 
in the latter part of the fourth century. He appears to have been a physician 
of some eminence, bearing the title Arcliiater. We have from him a trea- 
tise on dietetics, and a larger work, in 4 books, chiefly on medicine. The style 
is rough and corrupt. 

1. The treatise is entitled Diceta, or De rebus salubribus. The other work is 
entitled Euporiston, or Phcenomenon Euporistos ; it seems to be a sort of Com- 
pend, made in Latin from a work written by him in Greek ; hence the Greek 
title, which however is rather the appropriate title of the 1st book (de medicina 
facile par abili). The 4th book treats of topics belonging to physical science 
generally. The work has been erroneously ascribed to Q. Octavius Hordtia- 
nus. 

Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 538.— Harles, Brev. Not. p. 600. Suppl. ii. 244.— Bdhr, 698. 

2. Editions.— Euporiston ; the first by Hermannus Comes Nuenarius (Count of Nevenar). Ar- 

gent.1532. fol.— Better, by S. Oelenius. Bas.1532. 4 Also in Aldus, cited $552. 3 J. M. Bernhold. 

Ansb. 1791. 8. three vols, designed ; but only two prepared, and only the first printed : the work 
being interrupted by the editor's death.— Diceta, G. E. Schreiner. Hal. 1632. 8.— Also in Rivinus. 
cited § 552. 3. 

§ 557. Marcellus Empiricus, of Burdegala (Bordeaux), lived in the begin- 
ning of the fifth century, under the emperor Theodosius I. The work left by 
him, on Medicines, is a compilation from various Roman authors, made with- 
out careful selection or judgment. 

1. The work is entitled Medicamentorum liber. It is accompanied by an 
epistle addressed to his sons, in the title of which he is styled vir inluster e?c 
magno, officio Theodosii senioris. Respecting his work, he himself states that 
he had diligently read the earlier Roman medical writers, and had also learned 
from the lower classes of the people some simple remedies. He gives counte- 
nance to the superstitious belief in the efficacy of charms, and recommends to 
suspend from the neck a copy of certain Greek verses in order to relieve pains 
in the fauces. 

Fabricius, in. 527.— Bdhr, 210, 698.— Sprengel, as cited § 552. 1. 

2. Editions. — First published by Janus Cornarius. Bas. 1536. fol. — Given also in the Col- 
lect, of Stephanus, cited § 552. 3. 



XI. — Writers on Law and Jurisprudence. 

§ 558. The science of law was cultivated at Rome above all others. On 
no subject was so much written and published. Yet the existing remains are 
not proportionally numerous and extensive. In addition to all the common 
causes that have effected a loss of productions in other departments, we may 
perceive a special reason for the loss of the early works on the various topics 
included under the head of jurisprudence ; it is found in the fact, that con- 
densed collections were made in later times by public authority. These col- 
lections superceded the previous w T orks, which of course would cease to be 
transcribed and would soon be lost. 

§ 559. The works belonging to the department of jurisprudence were ex- 
ceedingly various as well as numerous. Some were dissertations on existing 
rights, or laws ; some were treatises on the particular objects of a law ; there 
were commentaries on the writings of earlier jurists; inquiries respecting the 
foundation of rights (institutiones) ; miscellaneous compends or manuals (en- 
chiridia) ; systems of general or abstract principles (dejinitioncs) ; collections 
or reports of law cases (responsa) ; or opinions generally admitted (sententice 
receptee) ; and in later times, regularly arranged compilations on the whole 
subject of jurisprudence (digesta). Among the writings still preserved, we 
find but few fragments belonging to the better periods of Roman literature ; 



LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE. 389 

they are chiefly productions from the time of Trajan and after him. But 
there is a degree of purity in the language and excellence in the style, which 
is the more remarkable because found in works of these later ages, and which 
can be explained only by considering that their authors had their attention 
constantly turned upon the writings of the earlier jurists. As a matter of 
course, however, they must contain many technical terms, with obsolete 
phrases, and some foreign words and expressions, especially Greecisms. 

§ 560. To enter upon a notice of the principles of the civil law, or a re- 
view of the actual laws, would be foreign from the object of our sketch, and 
belongs rather to the political than the literary history of Rome. Indeed the 
Roman jurisprudence forms of itself a theme, which has been found suffi- 
ciently ample for a separate history. All we propose here is to glance at some 
of the principal writers and works. 

§ 561. The earliest production to which we find any reference is the Jus 
Papirianum, a collection of laws {leges regies) and usages, which was made 
in the reign of Tarquin the Proud, by a lawyer named Papirius. — The next 
is the collection called the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which is said to have 
consisted partly of the pre-existing customs and regulations, and partly of 
principles and rules derived from Greece through an embassy which, it is 
said, was sent to examine the Grecian laws and institutions. The Decemvi- 
viri (cf. P. IV. $249) were charged with the business of forming this collec- 
tion, and the chief labor is ascribed to Hermodorus, B. C. 448. These tab]es 
are highly lauded by the ancient writers ; they are mentioned by Livy (iii. 
34) as the foundation of the whole Roman system of jurisprudence, and are 
said by Cicero (Be Or. i. 44) to be more valuable than the writings of all the 
philosophers. A few fragments of them are preserved. — We find next the 
Jiis Flavianum, which was a collection containing an account of the forms, 
rites, and days, (or certain formula, called legis actiones,) necessary to be re- 
garded in legal transactions ; a proper knowledge of these was confined to 
the patricians, it is said, until Flavius, a clerk of Appius Cladius Cascus, a 
descendant of Appius Claudius the Decemvir, published (B. C. 312) the col- 
lection, which bears his name, but which is said to have been composed by 
his master and stolen by the clerk. — The patricians devised a new set of 
forms and rules for the transaction of judicial business, which were expressed 
in writing only by certain signs (notee) ; but a statement and account of these 
forms also was published by Sextus iElius Psetus, about the year B. C. 200, 
in a collection afterwards termed Jus JElianum. 

Respecting the collections above named see the Hist, of Rom. Jurisprudence, by Bach, or oth- 
ers, cited $ 571. — Of those who have attempted to collect and arrange the fragments of the 
Twelve Tables, the most eminent are J. Gothofrcdus (Godfrey J, Fragm. xii. Tabularum. Heid. 
161G. — J. JV. Funk. Rinteln, 1744. 4. — M. Ji. Bouchaud, Commentaire sur la loi des XII. ta- 
bles. Par. 2d ed. 1803.2 vols. 4.— And Dirkscn, Versuch. z. Kritik und Ausle'g. d. Quellen desR. 
R. ; a recent work, cf. Bdhr, p. 340. — The origin of these laws has been a matter of much 
dispute ; some denying and others affirming a Grecian origin; cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of 
Rom. Emp. ch. xliv. — Niebuhr, Hist. Rom. ii. p. 226. ed. Phil. 1835. — B.Bonamy, sur l'orig. 

des XII. tab. in the Mem. de VAcad. des laser, xn. 27 Seb. Cumpi, Novum Examen loci Livl- 

ani de Leg. Rom. Athenas miss. &c. Viln. 1821. — Lelievre, Comment, de legib. XII. Tab. Lo- 
vanii, 1827. — Campi defends and Lelievre opposes the opinion that the laws were derived 
from Greece by means of the embassy. — The principal ancient authorities are Dionys. Hal. 
Rom. Ant. x. 57. — LiA iii. 31. — Lydus, de magist. i. 31. 

§ 562. The mention of the work of JElius has brought us within the second 
period according to our adopted division, that between the 1st Punic war, B. C. 
240, and the civil war of Marius ending B. C. 87. There were celebrated law- 
yers or jurisconsults in this period, of whom some of the principal have been 
already named among the orators (§ 392ss). Cato the elder and his son Porcius 
Cato Licinianus were both eminent jurists ; and their memory was preserved 
by a work on the civil law subsequently known by the title Catoniana regula. 
— Three authors of this period are sometimes named as the founders of the 
science of civil law; M. Junius Brutus, who left seven books de jure civili 
(Cic. de Or. ii. 55) ; Manias Manilius, consul B. C. £47, who composed seve- 
ral works, one of which was afterwards styled Manilii Monumenta ; and Pu- 
blius Mucius Scsevola, author of a work De jure civili, in 10 books. The 
Mucian family was celebrated for its hereditary knowledge of jurisprudence • 
" the kindred appellation of Mucius Scajvola," says Gibbon, " was illustrated 
by three sages of the law." The father and the son of the one just men- 
33* 



390 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

tioned, both bearing the name of Quintus Mucins Scsevola, were illustrious 
civilians ; there was indeed another named Quintus, usually surnamed the 
Augur, who was a distinguished lawyer ; from whom Quintus the son of Pu- 
blius is usually discriminated by the surname of Pontifez. The latter wrote 
several works ; one of them, entitled Definitiones (Jjqol), is said to be the old- 
est, of which any part is included in the Digests of Justinian. 

See Bach, and others, as cited § 571. — E. L. Hamier, De regula Catoniana. Heidelb. 1820. 8. 
— 6. d'Arnaud, Vita; Scasvolarum. Traject. ad Rhen. 1767. 8. 

§ 563. The next period is a brilliant one in the history of Roman jurispru- 
dence. One of the most eminent writers was Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a dis- 
ciple of Scaavola and friend of Cicero ; and author, it is said, of above a hun- 
dred books on the science of law. Cicero should perhaps be named here, as 
some of his works, especially his Laics and Republic (cf. § 468) illustrate the 
subject before us. "He declined the reputation of a professed lawyer; but 
the jurisprudence of his country was adorned by his incomparable genius, 
which converts into gold every object that it touches." Of the many other 
writers in this department, before the death of Augustus, we can mention on- 
ly the following ; Alfenus Varus, author of a collection called Digesta, in 40 
books ; C. Trebatius Testa, author of several works, — among them, one by 
the title De religionibus ; A. Cascellius, of whose writings the treatise styled 
Biber benedictorum is particularly noticed; Q. JElius Tubero, author of a work 
entitled De officio judicis, and of others; Q. Antistius Labeo, who composed 
a great number of works, among which are mentioned one entitled Libri VIII. 
Usttiavwv, and another entitled Posteriorum Libri xl. ; C. Atejus Capito, 
cited as author of a work called Conjectanea, and another De jure Pontijicio ; 
and iElius Gallus, of whose treatise on the signification of terms ■pertaining 
to the civil law, some fragments are still extant. 

See the works cited §571. — E. Otto, De vita, Studiis etc. J. Snlpicii Rufi. Traj. ad Rhen. 
1737. 8. — J\T.H. Grundling, C. Trebatus Testa, ab inj. vet. etc. liberatus. HaJle, 1710. 4. — 
J. F. Eckard, C. Treb. Testa Vindicatus. Isenac. 1792. 4. — E. G. Lavemann, Diss. De A. Cas- 
cellio. Lugd. Bat. 1823. 8. — P. H. S. Fader, De Q,. MWo Tuberone ej usque fragmentis. Lugd. 
Bat. 1824. 8. — C. Van Eck, De vita, moribus eit. M. Antist. Labeonis et. C. Atej. Capitonis. 
Franecq. 1692. 8. — C. G. Heimbach, Fragm. ^Elii Galli De Verborum, que ad jus civ. pertinent. 
Lpz. 1823. 8. 

§ 564. In the period which follows, from the death of Augustus to the time 
of the Antonines, the historian who traces the progress of Roman law and 
politics, finds many changes. The civilians and legal writers continued to be 
numerous. Masurius Sabinus, who was honored with peculiar privileges by 
Tiberius, wrote a treatise De jure civili, which was of such importance as to 
be the subject of many volumes of comments by subsequent civilians. It was 
after him that one of the two opposing schools of jurists derived the name of 
Sabinians ; while the other received that of Proculians, from Sempronius Pro- 
culus, who composed notes on Labeo, and a work styled Epistola ; the Procu- 
lians advocated an adherence to the ancient systems and principles of juris- 
prudence ; the Sabinians were more in favor of innovations which augmented 
the imperial authority. The following additional names are selected from the 
list of writers falling within the period now in view; M. Cocceius Nerva, 
author of a treatise De usucapionibus ; C. Cassius Longinus, author of a work 
on civil rights, of which the sixteenth book is cited in the Pandects; Pegasus, 
whose name is preserved by the law denominated Senatusconsultum Pegasia- 
num ; P. Juventius Celsus, author of various works, particularly a collection 
called Digesta, in 39 books ; Neratius Priscus, among whose writings was one 
entitled Regtdce, in 15 books ; Javolenus Priscus, whose writings are said to 
have exerted an influence not inconsiderable on subsequent times ; L. Volu- 
sius Msecianus, who instructed the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus in 
civil law, and is mentioned as author of a treatise entitled Libri X. Fidei 
Commissorum . 

Cf. references given §571#— D. O. Moller, Diss, de Masur. Sabino. Alt. 1693. 4. — P. JV*. 
Arntzen, Diss, de Mas. Sabino. Traj. ad. Rh. 1768. 4. — J. A. Aliasver, Diss, de M. Cou. Ner- 
va. Brem. 1748. 4. — J. Steenwinkel, Diss, de C. Cassio Longino. Lugd. Bat. 1778. 8. — H. T. 
Paa-enstecher, Jus Pegasianum. Lemg. 1741. 4. — Heineccius, Pr. de Juventio Celso. Francol. 
ad = V. 1727. 4. — J. C. Stiekel, Diss, de Neratio Prisco. Lpz. 1788. 4. — G. A. Jenischen, Diss. 
de Prisco Javoleno. Lpz. 1734. 4. — J. Wimderlich, Coram, de L. Vol. Mceciano. Harab. 1749". 4. 

Respecting the two sects, cf. G. Mascov, Diss, de Sectis Sabiniorum et Proculianorum. 

Alt. 1724. 4. Lpz. 1828. — Gibbon, Decl. and Fall of Rom. Empire, ch. xliv. — Fabricius y BibL 
Lat. hi. p. 489. 



JURISPRUDENCE. 391 

§ 565. There are three other names which should be mentioned, belonging- 
to this period, and particularly to the reign of Hadrian; namely, Salvius Ju- 
lianus, Sextus Pomponius, and Gaius or Caius. Salvius Julianus was em- 
ployed by Hadrian to reduce to a settled and permanent form the principles 
and method by which the Praetor should conduct all his judicial proceedings; 
the work or system of rules thus produced was called the perpetual edict (edic- 
tuni perpctuum). — Sextus Pomponius, who lived later than Julian, composed 
numerous and voluminous works ; a history of jurisprudence, Be origine juris 
libri II, is preserved in the Pandects. — Gaius, sometimes with the appellation 
Titus, was also the author of numerous treatises ; the principal was the work 
entitled Institutes (Libri Institutionuvi quatuor), which was designed to com- 
municate to the student of civil law its essential principles, and which served 
as the model for the Institutes of Justinian. This work was discovered in the 
year 1816, in a Codex rescriptus or palimpsest manuscript belonging to the li- 
brary at Verona. 

See works cited § bll.—Heineccius, Pr. de Salv. Juliano. Hal.1733. 4.— A. G. S. Francke, De 
edicto Pnet. urb. pnesertim perpetuo. Kil. 1830. 4. — The History (de orig. juris) of S. Pompo- 
nius was published by C. A. Rupert. Jen. 1661. 12. The work of Gaius, previously to the dis- 
cover}' of the palimpsest above mentioned, was known chiefly by a lifeless abstract or Epitome 
in what was called the Breviary of Alaric, king of the Visigoths (Breviarium Alarici). — The 
best edition of the Epitome, by A. C. G. Haubold. Lpz. 1792. 8. — Of the original work, drawn 
from the palimpsest, J. F. L. G'oschen. Berl.1825. 8.— Cf. H.Dittmar, De nomine, state et scrip- 
tis Gaii. Lpz. 1820. 4. — Bulletin des sciences Historiques , vol. vn. 

§ 566. In the remaining period of our sketch there were numerous civilians. 
As a class or professional body they seem to have enjoyed high consideration 
until the close of the reign of Alexander Severus, A. D. 235. But from that 
time until the reign of Constantine, who was proclaimed A. D. 306, but not 
established as sole emperor until A. D. 323, the jurisconsults were in 
much less estimation, and the business of the lawyer was practiced by persons 
not suitably educated for the work. " The noble art which had once been 
preserved as the sacred inheritance of the patricians, was fallen into the hands 
of freedmen and plebeians, who, with cunning rather than skill, exercised a 
sordid and pernicious trade. Careless of fame and of justice, they are de- 
scribed, for the most part, as ignorant and rapacious guides, who conducted 
their clients through a maze of expense, of delay, and of disappointment ; from 
whence, after a tedious series of years, they were at length dismissed, when 
their patience and fortune were almost exhausted." 

When Constantine formed his new arrangements for the government of the 
empire, the credit of the profession was revived. The school of Berytus (cf. 
P. I. § 128. 5), w^hich had existed it is supposed from the time of Alexander 
Severus, now flourished with new vigor, and furnished the fourth century 
with distinguished civilians. Under the system of Constantine, the civil 
magistrates were wholly or chiefly taken from the class of lawyers ; and sub- 
sequently, even dow T n to the time of Justinian, the youth of the empire were 
stimulated to pursue the study of the law by the hope of being rewarded ulti- 
mately by honorable and lucrative offices. The regular course of study occu- 
pied five years. The degree of encouragement afforded by the prospect of 
honor and profit may be inferred from the fact, that " the court of the Praeto- 
rian prefect of the east would alone furnish employment for one hundred and 
fifty advocates, sixty-four of whom were distinguished by peculiar privileges, 
and two annually chosen, with a salary of sixty pounds of gold, to defend the 
causes of the treasury." (Gibbon.) 

§ 567. Of the writers after the Antonines and before the death of Alexan- 
der Severus (i. e. between A. D. 180 & 235), the most eminent were iEmilius 
Papinianus, Domitius Ulpianus, and Julius Paulus. Papinian was appointed 
by Maximus Severus to the office of Magister libellorum, in which capacity it 
was his duty to reduce and arrange the answers (rescripta) of the emperor to 
the petitions addressed to him. He was put to death by Caracalla. Among 
his works are mentioned particularly two, entitled Qucestiones, in 37 books, 
and Rcsponsa, in 19 books. Ulpian was recalled from exile and raised to the 
office of Praetorian prefect by Alexander Severus; but having incurred the 
displeasure of the soldiers, he was by them slain in spite of the efforts of the 
erhperor and the people to save him. His Commentaries on Demosthenes, writ- 
ten in Greek (cf. § 106), are still extant. The titles of above thirty other works 



392 HISTORY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. 

are recorded, among which we notice a Digest, Digesta, in forty-eight books, 
which is said to have been the basis of the Digest of Justinian ; of all these 
productions nothing is now extant excepting twenty-nine chapters (tituli) of 
a work entitled Regulce Juris. Paulus was also made Praetorian prefect (prce' 
fectus prcetorio) under Alexander Severus, and put to death by the soldiers, 
A. D. 230. The catalogue of his works exceeds that of Ulpian's, and he was 
termed the most prolific of the jurists {no7.vyqa(f(!orarog juris consultorum). 
We have, as preserved in the Breviary of Alaric, a sort of abstract of one of 
his works, entitled Sententice Receptee. To the three names here given, per- 
haps we ought to add those of Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, iElius Mar- 
cianus, and Herennius Modestinus; the latter wa^ a scholar of Ulpian, and 
characterized by the humaneness of his principles. 

Cf. § 571. — E. Otto, de Papiniani vita, scriptis etc. Lugd. Bat. 1718. Brera. 1743. 8. 

F. A. Schilling, Diss. Critica de Ulpiani Fragm. Vratisl. 1824. 8. — There have been several 
editions of Ulpian's Tituli; the Princess. Par. 1549. 8.— One of the best, O. Hugo. Gott.1788. 
Repr. Berl. 1824. 8.—E. Bocking. Bon. 1836. 12. with other fragments. — There is a Fragment 
(de manumissionibus) ascribed to Ulpian, preserved by a grammarian named Dositherus, first 
published in Pithmus, as cited § 571 ; cf. Schilling, Diss. Crit. de Fragm. jur. Rom. Dosither. 
Lpz. 1819. 8. — On the question respecting Ulpian's regard towards Christians, see P.de Toul- 

lieu, Or. de Ulpiano, an Christianis infenso. Gron.1724. 4. Of Paulus, the Princeps edition 

was by A. Bouchardus. Par. 1525. 4. The best is by O. Hugo, Julii Pauli Sentent. Recept. ad 

filium libri V. Berl. 1795. 8. J. H. Blwmbach, Ep. de Q.. Septimio Florente, Presb. et Juris- 

cons. &c. Lpz. 1735. 4.— O. CElrichs, Diss, de vita, studiis etc. JE\. Marciani. Traj. ad Rhen. 

1754. 4. The chief monument of Herennius is the work entitled Excusationes, written in 

Greek, IIsqI svQtjiiariy.wv (Heurematicdn) ; published, by H. Brcncmann, De Heurematicis 
etc. Lugd. Bat. 1706. 8. 

§ 568. In the time of Constantine two jurists are particularly noticed as 
authors, Gregorianus and Hermogenianus. The former made a collection of 
the imperial constitutions (constitutiones principales, cf. P. IV. $265) extending 
back to the time of Hadrian. The latter prepared a supplement to it. These 
works, under the names of Codex Gregorianus and Codex Hermogenianus, 
were soon recognized as standard authorities in the courts of justice. Some 
portions of them are preserved in the Breviary of Alaric. — Some other jurists 
in the time of Constantine and his immediate successors are recorded ; but the 
next work specially worthy of mention here is the collection termed Codex 
Theodosianus, which was reduced by the order of Theodosius the second and 
promulgated in the Eastern empire A. D. 433. This Code the same year was 
introduced to the Western empire under Valentinian the Third. It consisted 
of sixteen books, of which the first five related to private rights, and the re- 
mainder to public rights, and ecclesiastical affairs ; it contained, however, 
only the imperial constitutions from the time of Constantine. Of the first five 
books we have only an abridgment contained in the Breviary of Alaric. The 
Theodosian Code retained its authority in the Western Empire until the final 
overthrow of the Roman government, A. D. 476. And after this, Roman law 
still held sway, although modified by the institutions of the conquerors ; the 
Code of Theodoric, and the Breviary of Marie, both justify this remark. 

Cf. §571.— Ch. F. Pohl, Diss, de codd. Gregor. et Hermogen. Lpz. 1777. 4. Of the Theo- 
dosian Code there have been several editions ; the first by J. Tilius. Par. 1550. 8. — J. D. Rit- 
ter. Lpz. 1736. fol. containing also some additional constitutions by Theodosius and succeeding 
emperors, under the title of Novella. — Fragments before unpublished collected by TV. F. Clos- 
sius. Tub. 1824. 8. and by A. Pcyron. August. Taur. 1824. 4. — The first five books, by C. F. 
Ch.Wenk. Lpz. 1825. 8.— Cf. J. A. Wolf, De Latinitate ecclesiast. in Cod. Theodos. Lpz.1774. 4- 

The Code of Theodoric, Edictum Theodorici, was issued by him, A. D. 500, after his 

establishment in Italy as king of the Ostrogoths; it consists of fifty chapters, drawn chiefly 
from the writings of Paulus. — It is given in Cancianus, Legg. antiq. Barbar. Ven. 1781. C£ 

G. F. Rhon, Commentat. ad Edict. Theodorici. Hal. 1816. 4. The Breviary of Alaric, 

Breviarium legum Romanarum, is sometimes called the Breviary of Anianus, whose name is at- 
tached to it not as having collected it, but as certifying its authority. It was made by order of 
Alaric, king of the Visigoths, residing at Toulouse, A. D. 506 ; and is a compilation from the 
three Roman codes above named, and the writings of Gains, Paulus, and Papinian. — First pub- 
lished by P. Pithmus. Par. 1579. fol.— The best edition, Madrid, 1815. fol. Cf. Turk, Ueber das 
Westgoth. Gesetzbuch. Rost. 1829. 8. 

§ 569. In the Eastern Empire the Theodosian code retained full authority 
until the time of Justinian. Notwithstanding all the efforts of preceding em- 
perors and jurists to reduce the Roman jurisprudence to a satisfactory form 
and system, the vast variety of laws, decisions, and constitutions, involved the 
subject in great confusion and perplexity. Justinian undertook the task of 



JURISPRUDENCE. 393 

reducing the whole to order, and emplo} T ed for the purpose the most eminent 
lawyers of the age, with the celebrated Tribonian at their head. 

The first performance was a collection and reduction of the imperial consti- 
tutions from the time of Hadrian downward, which was promulgated, as the 
Codex Justinianus, A. D. 529, when all preceding codes were abrogated. But 
this first edition was abolished A. D. 534, when a second edition, with some 
corrections and additions, was promulgated ; which was called Codex repeti- 
tcc lectionis. The Code was thus corrected and completed by Tribonian and 
four other lawyers ; nine had aided in the first preparation. — The next labor 
was a collection and reduction of the writings of the jurisconsults of preced- 
ing ages, especially those who had lived under the emperors, and whose 
works are said to have amounted to two thousand volumes. For executing 
this task Tribonian was allowed ten years with sixteen associates ; it was ac- 
complished in three years, and was published A. D. 533, under the title of 
Pandects or Digests. The former title referred to their completeness as com- 
prehending the whole of Roman jurisprudence (jcav and dix&otiou), and the 
latter to their methodical arrangement (digesta). — At the same time was 
published, by the emperor's orders, a work on the elements or first principles 
of Roman law, entitled Institutes (Institutiones), prepared by Tribonian and 
two others, Theophilus and Dorotheus. — There is another collection, con- 
sisting of imperial constitutions and edicts, which were promulgated after 
A. D. 535 ; and which are included under the title of Novels (Noveiloe sc. con- 
stitutions ) . They were chiefly written in Greek (called vsixqul diaruzsig), 
but were first known to the moderns by a Latin translation. — The four works 
here described, viz. the Code, the Novels, the Institutes, and the Pandects or 
Digests, constituted what is now called the Body of Roman Law, Corpus Ju- 
ris Romani Civilis. 

Cf. references <$ 571. —J. P. de Ludeicig, Vita Justin, atque Triboniani. Halle, 1731. 4. — K. 
Wittc, Leges restitutEB des Jiistinianeischen Codex. Bresl. 1830. 8.— Dodwell, Cur nulli legantur 
in Codice principes Legumratores, nee ulli in Pandectis Jurisconsulti, antiquiores quam Hadri- 
ano, in his Prwlect. Acad. Oxf. 1692. 8. — H. Brencmann, Historia Pandectarum. Traj. ad Rhen. 

1722. 4. Respecting the Florentine Ms. of the Pandects, see P. I. § 143. — F. A. Biener, 

Gesch. der Novellen Justinians. Bed. 1824. On the system followed in the Institutes, see 

Th. L. Mazeroll, De Ord. Instit. Gbtt. 1815. 4. 

Best editions-of the Corpus Juris.— Dionys. Golhofredus (Godefroi, Godfrey). Lugdun. 1827, 
6 vols. fol. with glossary. — G. C. Gebauer & G. A. Spangenberg. Gott. 1797. 2 vols. 4. with 
notes, without glossary. T. L. G. Beck. Lpz. 1825. 8. without "glossary or notes. On edi- 
tions, see E. Spangenberg, Einleit. in d. Just. Recthsb. Hannov. 1817. 8. Late edition of 

the Institutes, by C. Bucher. Erlang. 1826. 8. — There is a Greek Paraphrase of the Institutes 
by a Theopilus, supposed to be the person associated with Tribonian ; the best edition is that 
of TV. O. Reiz. Hag. Comit. (La Haye, Hague), 1751. 2 vols. 4. — An English translation, by 
Dr. Harris. Lond. 1814. 8. — A labored and learned analysis of the Institutes is given by Gib- 
bon, Decl. and Fall, of Rom. Emp. ch. xliv. 

§ 570. The system of jurisprudence established by Justinian remained in 
force in the Eastern empire until its destruction and the capture of Constan- 
tinople A. D. 1453. The countries which formed the Western empire had, 
previously to the time of Justinian, fallen into the hands of the barbarians ; 
and although for a short time he recovered from them Italy and other portions 
through the military talents of Belisarius, yet his system of laws did not ob- 
tain much sway in the west. But in the former part of the 12th century, Ir- 
nerius, a German lawyer who had studied at Constantinople, opened a school 
at Bologna, and thus revived and propagated in the west a knowledge of the 
Roman Civil Law. Students flocked to his school from all parts, and by them 
the Roman jurisprudence, as embodied in the system of Justinian, was trans- 
mitted to most of the countries of Europe, and acquired a degree of authority 
in the courts of justice, which " seems to promise," (as has been justly re- 
marked.) " the fulfillment of the famous prediction of the ancient Romans 
concerning the eternity of their empire." 

§ 571 . We add here some references on the general subject. 

J. A. Bach, Historia Jurisp. Rom. fas ed. by A. C. Stockmavn) Lpz. 1807. 8. — S. Zimmern, 
Geschichte des Rom. Privatrechts. Heidelb. 1826. 8.— C. A. Haubold, Institute Juris Rom. his- 
tor. dogm. Lineament (ed. C. E. Otto). Lpz. 1826. 8. — G. Panciroli, De Claris leg. intrepret. 
Ven.1634. Lpz. 1721. A.— W.Grotius, Vitae Jurisconsultorum, quorum in Pandect. e.\t. nomina. 
Lugd. Bat. 1690. 4. — I. Bcrtrard, Biot vouiztov. Tolos. 1617. 4. — G. Majansius, Comment. 
ad xxx Jurisc. omnia fragmenta. Genev. 1764. 4. — Schulting, Jurisprudent Ante-Jnstinianea. 
Lpz. 1737. 4. containing works of several of tlie jurisconsults. Cf. Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. in. 508. 
— A. de Buchholz, Juris Civ. Ante-Justinianei Vatic. Fragra. ab A. Mai edita. Kbnigsb. 1628. 8. 



394 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

— E. Spangenberg, Antiquitatis Rom. Monumenta legalia extra libros Jur. Rom. sparsa, qua? irs 

aere, lapide, aliave materia etc. supersunt. Berl. 1830. 8. Pithmus, collatio Legum Mosaica- 

rum et Romanorum. Par. 1573. 4. The Collatio is the work of an unknown author of the fourth 
century ; it is given lalso in Schultuig, as above cited ; likewise in the Critici Sacri (8th vol.) 

-L,ona. ibt>u. 9 vols. rol. G. Panciroli, Notitia dignitatum omnium tam civilium quam milita- 

rmm in partibus Onentis et Occidentis. Ven. 1593. Genev. 1623. fol. This Notitia is a con- 
densed summary or table presenting a view of the organization of the government both civil 
and military in the Eastern and Western empires; it is a systematic nomenclature of all the 
omces with their respective rank ; and is of course of some value in studying the system of 
Koman jurisprudence. It contains also a topographical notice of Rome and of Constantinople. 
it was drawn up, it is believed, about A. D. 450 ; the author is unknown. — It is given, with 

explanations, m SchSU's Hist. Lit. Rom. vol. in. Also in Gravius, as cited P. IV. $ 197 

bee, also on Rom. Jurisp. Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch.xliv.- Scholl, Lit. Rom. i. 
477 510 478 ' UU 265SS ' "~ ' B " Ar ' GCSCh ' R ' 6m ' Ut " P " 738_77 °- — Fabricws, Bibl. Lat. in. 



Christian Writings in the Latin Language. 

§ 572. It would be useful and interesting, if there were room for it, to take 
here a glance at the works of the early Christian authors who wrote in the 
Latin language. The names of some have been introduced already on ac- 
count of their literary performances. A number, besides Ausonius (§ 385), 
Sedulius (§388), and Prudentius (§ 387), might be mentioned as poets*' Cy- 
prian, Commodian, Tertullian, Lactantius (cf. §506), Juvencus, Victorinus, 
Hilanus, Ambrosius, Gregorius, Columbanus, &c. Others are known as his- 
torical writers; Hieronymus or Jerome, Prosper, Cassiodorus, Marcellinus, 
Rufinus, Isidorus (cf. §434), Beda, Gennadius, Jornandes, Gildas, Bonifacius, 
&c. Many might deserve notice on account of writings of a Biblical, relig- 
ious, or miscellaneous character, commentaries, apologies, or epistles ; Sido- 
nius (cf. §445), Boethius (cf. §474), Minucius Felix, Arnobiua, Augustine, 
Pelagius, &c. — It has been remarked, that the influence of the pagan schools 
of philosophy is less manifest in the writings of the Latin than in those of 
the Greek Fathers. The style of the Latin Fathers is marked by Hellen- 
isms and Orientalisms. Many of them had occasion to address people less 
civilized and cultivated than those of the East. 

Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. i v. p. 1-130. — Bilhr, Supplement &c. as cited § 299. 8. — Clarke, 
Murdoch, &.c. as cited § 293. — A. Fabricius, Biblioth. media; et infimae setatis. Hamb. 1734. 
6 vols. 8. — D. Schramm, Analysis operum ss. Patrum et script. Ecclesiasticorum. Aug. Vind. 
1780. 18 vols. 8.—C. T. Schonemann, Biblioth. hist. lit. Patrum Latinorum. Lips. 1792. 2 vols. 8. 



Appendix to the Greek and Roman Literature. 

§ 573. It will be very proper to append in this place a slight notice of some 
of the principal editions of the Classics inregular sets, or in uniform sizes. 

1. The Editiones Principes are a set or collection, consisting of the first edition ever printed 
of each author, at whatever press issued, or by whatever editor. They are of course not uni- 
form in appearance. 

2. The Jlldine Classics include those issued from the presses of Aldus Pius Manutius and his 
son and grandson, Paulus Manutius and Aldus Manutius. Aldus the elder was born at Bassano 
in Italy, and early acquired the Latin and Greek languages, and in connection with two friends 
formed the plan of printing the works of the ancients. His establishment was at Venice, where 
the operations of his press were continued between twenty and thirty years, and his efforts 
were greatly patronized by the learned. He died 1516. The Aldine editions are still consid- 
ered as great ornaments to a classical library. They are marked by the vignette or rebus of a 
dolphin nibbling an anchor. 

See Renouard Annales de l'Imprimerie des Aides, ou Histoire des trois Manuces et de leur3 
editions, et Supplement. Par. 1803-12. 3 vols. 8. 

3. The editions printed by the family of Stephens enjoyed great celebrity. The labors of 
Henry, the founder of the family, commenced at Paris in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Their establishment was continued in that city about half a century and then removed 
to Geneva, where the reputation of the name was sustained more than half a century longer. 
The glory of the house was shared by five successive generations. The most distinguished 
were Robert and Henry, the 2d and 3d in the succession, the latter particularly in the depart- 
ment of Greek, a 

M. Mattaire, Stephanorum Historia s vitas ipsorum ac libros complectens. Lond. 1709. 8, 



APPENDIX. COLLECTIONS OF CLASSICAL AUTHORS. 39& 

4. By the Variorum Classics is usually designated a series of Latin Authors published in the 
Seventeenth century, with notes of various scholars (cum notis variorum J ; commenced by C- 
'Schrevel, 1651. They were printed at Leyden (Lug. Bat.) chiefly in the octavo form. Some of* 
*.he series were printed several times, at different places, and of different sizes. The set in 
•quarto comprises about 160 vols, and in octavo 426 vols. 

5. The Elzevir editions are those published by the celebrated printers of that name, in the 
•seventeenth century, at Leyden and Amsterdam. There were five brothers all of distinguished 

celebrity in the art. The editions designated by their name are in the duodecimo form, and are 
celebrated for typographical neatness and accuracy. They are much sought after by amateurs 
in bibliography, and bring very high prices. 
See Essai Bibliographiques sur les Editions Elzevirs. Par. 1829. 8. 

6. The Delphin Classics consist of the Latin authors prepared, in the latter part of the seven- 
teenth century, for the use of the Dauphin or heir of the crown of France (in usum Delphini). 
The plan originated with B. P. Huct (Lond. Quart. Rev. iv. Ill), who, with Bossuet, was ap- 
pointed by Louis XIV as a preceptor to the Dauphin. Besides critical observations on particu- 
lar w T ords and passages, these editions were furnished with a sort of running note or ordo, to 
exhibit in easier Latin the author's sense. — A complete set was sold at the Roxburghe sale in 
1812 for above £500. — The set in quarto is usually bound in 65 vols. 

7. The Bipontine editions are those published by a Typographic society originally established 
at Deux-Ponts (called in German Zicey-Bruckcn, in Latin Bipontium), in the last century. The 
first work in the series was printed in 1779. The society continued their labors without inter- 
ruption until about 1795, when the French troops took possession of the place, and their presses 
and magazines were seized and conveyed to Metz. The company determined to continue their 
Impressions in Strasburg (Argentoratum) ; and finding this a more favorable location, at length, 
in 1798, fixed their establishment here, and from that time prosecuted their work with renewed 
activity. The Bipontine editions have scarcely any annotations ; but the text is carefully 

'corrected, and to each author is prefixed a Notitia Literaria, giving an account of his life and 
works, of the previous editions of such as had been published, and the translations of them 
into living languages. The volumes of both the Latin and Greek authors are in the octavo form. 
A catalogue and description of the editions issued previously to 1811 is attached to No. V. of 
the Classical Journal. Cf. Klugling, Suppl. iii. to Hades, p. 11, as cited $299. 8. 

8. In the year 1818 was commenced, by A. J. Valpy as printer and editor, a collection of the 
Latin Classics, incorporating both the Delphin and the Variorum editions, and giving the vari- 
ous readings, and also the Literaria JVotitia from the Bipont editions continued to the present 
time. The execution has been in a high degree satisfactory. The collection, as issued, formed 
141 vols. 8. j but was subsequently divided into 159 vols, the Small Paper and 185 vols, the 
Large Paper. It was conducted under the patronage of the Prince Regent of England, and was 
sometimes called The Regent's Edition. — It should be observed that there was another edition 
of the Latin authors previously commenced, in 18mo, under the name of ' The Regent's Edi- 
tion,' which is not to be confounded with the one here noticed. This consists of 54 vols, ed- 
ited by Dr. Carey, and beautifully printed. Cf. Class. Jour. xvii. 213. 

9. A very good collection of the Latin Classics is that of Lemaire, recently published in Paris, 
styled Bibliotheca Classica Latina, ou Collection des auteurs Classiques Latins, avec des Commen- 
taires anciens et nouveaux, des Index Complets, le Portrait de chaque Auteur, des Cartes Geo- 
graphiques etc. Par. Nicolas-Eloi Lemaire, Professeur de Poesie Latinc a la Faculte des Let- 
tres, Academie de Paris. It consists of 142 volumes in octavo. 

10. Some years since a collection of the Latin authors, entitled Scriptores Romani, was com- 
menced in Boston. The works of Cicero and Tacitus were published (23 vols. 12), and then 
the work was suspended, we believe, for want of satisfactory patronage. 

11. The cheapest collection of Latin and Greek Classics, and one which can easily be pro- 
cured, is that of Tauchnitz (printer) of Leipsic. His Corpus Poctarum Gracorum has been cited 
already (§47t. 2). Both this and his Corpus Auctor. Pros. Grcecorum have been stereotyped, and 
also his collection of Latin Authors, in a very small duodecimo form. They contain only the text; 
but this is considered as very accurate, and the edition is much esteemed. 

12. Valpy' 's School Classics are only a series of such authors or portions of authors as are more 
commonly used in Schools and Seminaries. They are accompanied with English notes and 
Questions for Examination, are prepared by various editors, and published in a uniform size. 
The design includes both Greek and Latin authors ; and the work, yet in progress, appears to 
be well received in England. 

13. In 1824, a collection of Greek and Latin authors was commenced at Leipzig by Teubner 
printer, under the care of I. Beklcer as editor. It is in 12mo, with excellent type ; the text is 
considered as pure ; with a preface to each author, and notes at the foot of the page. The 
work is still in progress ; and is sold in London as Black &. Armstrong's collection. 

14. The collection of Greek Classics by Jacobs & Rost, has already been mentioned, § 7. 1. 

§ 574. There are also Collections of Translations of the classical authors, 
some of which it may be acceptable to the student to find mentioned here, 
although our limits will not allow a notice of the individual works comprised 
in them. 

1. Three collections of German translations are recent. — That under the care of E. F. C. 

Oertel was commenced at Munich, 1822, in 12mo ; including Greek and Latin authors. The 

Premlau collection was commenced in 1827, published by Ragozy, in 16mo ; including Greek 
and Latin authors. Many of the translations are from good classical scholars ; they are all 

accompanied with notes for general readers. The collection edited by Tafel, Osiander, and 

Schwab, published by Metzler, at Stuttgart, was commenced in 1827, in 16mo. This includes 
both Latin and Greek authors ; the translations are all new ; many of them very good ; the 
translations of the poets are metrical. — These collections are still in progress. 

2. A collection of English translations is in a course of republication at New York, in 12nic, 
by the Messrs. Harpers, and is denominated the Classical Library. 



HISTORY OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 

§ 575. It would be useful to present here a glance at the history of classi- 
cal studies from the revival of letters to the present time. But the limits of 
the work forbid it. 

We can merely give some references. — For the period of the revival especially, in Italy and 
France ; Tiraboschi, Stor. dell. Letterat. Ital. — Muratori, Antiq. Ital. — Guinguene, Hist. Lit- 
ter, d'ltalie. — Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo de Medici. — Same, Life of Leo X.—Mill, Travels of 

Theodore Ducas. — The work entitled Histoire Literaire de la France fby the Benedictines). 

Warton, Diss, on the Introd. of Learning into England, in his History of Eng. Poetry. Hee- 

ren, as cited P. I. §53. These volumes contain the history of classical studies in the middle 
ages ; introductory to a History of these studies since the revival of letters, designed by him. 

— J.G.Eichhorn's Litterargeschichte. Gbtt. 1812. 3 vols. 8. (In § 368-377 of his work, he 
treats of the history of classical studies in Italy, France, Germany, Netherlands, and Eng- 
land ; making two periods, the first from A. D. 1450 to 1650, the second from A. D. 1650 to the 
time of his writing. — Cf. /. O. Huschke, De progressu humanitatis studiorum in Germania. 
Rostoch, 1811. 4. Hallam, as cited P. I. $ 85. 1. — The Appendix to Danlop ; cf. P. I. § 142. 

— F. Sclitill, (as cited §7. 9,) vol. vn. p. 35'lss. treats of the introduction of Greek learning 
into France, Germany, and Hungary, and of the influence of the art of printing on its pro- 
gress. — See also references, P. I. $29. — Cf. likewise B. Sears, on Learned Schools, in the 
Christian Review. Bost. 1838. No. for September. 

But a more full and exact history of modern classical learning than yet exists is a disidera- 
tum. A great portion of the materials is to be drawn from the biography of individual scholars. 
Here we can merely repeat the names of some of the most eminent of those who have contrib- 
uted to the advancement of classical learning. — (a) Italian: Poggio (born 1380 — died 1459) ; 
Politian (b.1454— d.1494) ; G. Merula (1420—1494) ; Aldus Manutius (1447—1516. cf. <$ 573. 2) ; 
Landini (1424— 1504) ; Ph. Beroaldus (1453— 1505) ; P. Victorius (1498— 1585) ; Robortellus 
(1516—1567); F. Ursinus (d.1600) ; C. Sigonius, Facciolatus, Lamius, Muratori, Corsinus, 

Spalletti, Rossi, Vulpius. (b) French — Turnebus (1512— 1565) ; Lambinus (1526— 

1572) ; the Stephenses, cf. § 573. 3 ; Muretus (1526— 1585) ; Budaeus ; Casaubon (1559—1614) ; 
J. Scaliger (1540—1609) ; CI. Salmasius (1588—1653) ; Rigaltius, Morellus, Longolius, Pi- 
thoeus, Passeratius, T. Faber, Dacier ; Bouhier (d.1746) ; Capperonius, Brotier, Valesius, 
Harduin, Sallier, Cotelerius, Montfaucon, Villebrune, Larcher, Ballu, Barthelemy, 

Burigny , Auger, De Brosses, Vau villiers, Villoison, &c. (c) In Netherlands .— ' 

Erasmus (1467— 1536) ; Douza (1545— 1604) ; J. Lipsius (1547— 1606) ; H.Junius, H. Gro- 
tius, J. Meursius, D. Heinsius, N. Heinsius, C. Schrevel, A. Popma, G. Vossius, J. 
Vossius, P. Scriver, J. F. Gronov, A. Gronov, Feith, P. Burmann, Graevius, Draken- 
borch, Oudendorp, Broukhusius, Schulting, Havercamp, Le Clerc, Wesseling, Hem- 
sterhuis, Valcken'ar, Lennep, Hoogeveen, Ruhnken, Wittenbach, &c -^lnUer- 
m a n y .— Melancthon ; Camerarius (1500- 1571) * Acidailus (1567—1595) ; Gruter (1560— 
1627); F. Sylburg, H. Wolf, J. Christoph. Wolf, J. Christian. Wolf, C. Barth, M. Ne- 
ander, E. Schmid, Kiister, Carpzof, Heusinger, Fabricius, Gessner, Ernesti ; Werns- 
dorf (1723— 1793) ; Heyne,' Reiske, Brunck, Schweigh'auser, Moms; Schneider (b. 1751); 
Beck (b.1757) ; Schutz (b.1747) ; Heeren, Manso, Jacobs; Hades (b. 1738) ; Wolf (of 
Halle, b.1757); Doling (b.1759) ; Gbrentz (b.1765) ; Eichsfadt (b.1771) ; Hermann (b.1772); 
Oberlin, Kapp, Ast, A. Bbckh, F. H. Bothe, Ph. Buttmann, G. F. Creuzer, Gierig, 

A. Matthias, F. Passow, Sch'afer, Wagner, Wieland, Weiske, Wetzel, &c. (e) Among 

the English.— I. Vossius, Grabe, Hudson, Bentley, Clarke, T. Hearne, Cuningham, 
Gibson, Baxter, Hare, Wasse, Pearce, Davis, Creech, Johnson, Middleton, Mark- 
land, Potter, Gataker, Barnes, Taylor, Stanley, Gale, Wells, Winterton, Robinson, 
Wallis, Musgrave, Hutchinson, T. Morell, Dawes, Mattaire, Warton, Toup, Bur- 
gess, Dalzell, Parr, Blomfield, Valpy, &c Cf. Harles, Brev. Not. (as cited $ 299. 

8.) p. 45ss. and Klugling, Suppl. 111. p. 13ss. and also Harles, Introd. (as cited $ 7. 9.) vol. i. 
p. 71ss. — We mention two works, recommended by Prof. Sears ; Fridemann's Vitae Duum- 
virorum T. Hemsterhusii et D. Ruhnkenii. — S. F. Hoffmann's Lebenbilder beriihmten Hu- 
manisten. Commenced, Lpz. 1837. vol. i. 8. 

We cannot forbear to congratulate the student in view of the progress 
which classical learning is making in our country. After having been almost 
banished (cf. Miller, as cited P. I. § 29. 3), it has been greatly revived during 
the last thirty years. The names of Buckminster, Pickering, Stuart, Popkin, 
Kingsley, Everett, Robinson, Anthon, and others, are now too familiarly 
known to need our remarking upon what their example, writings, or instruc- 
tions have accomplished in effecting the change. The very just conviction, 
that classical learning will always be a handmaid to evangelical religion, has 
awakened greater ardor in the pursuit. And while such eminent classical 
scholars as Stuart, Robinson, Sears, Stowe, Alexander (the son), Howe, &c. 
are connected with our Theological Seminaries, we may apprehend no relapse 
of the interest. Theological Seminaries are named especially, because (aside 
from the fact that a majority of the teachers in the principal Colleges are 
drawn from them) the influence of clergymen in our country bears so directly 
upon the subject of education. Let these seminaries send forth to the church- 
es a succession of ministers who feel that classical learning is of little value, 
and no efforts of individual genius can, in the present state of things among 
us, create a high or general interest in its pursuit. 



PART III 



MYTHOLOGY 



OP THE 



GREEKS AND ROMANS 



34 



PLATE X 




GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writ- 
ing had come into general use, tradition was the only mode of pre- 
serving and spreading the knowledge of remarkable events. Many 
circumstances contributed to give to early traditions a fabulous 
character. The love of the marvelous, a natural tendency of the 
mind to employ symbolical and allegorical images to express ideas 
for which no definite words have been appropriated, and a disposi- 
tion to eulogize and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all con- 
spired to load history and fact with a mass of fiction, so that it be- 
came impossible for later inquirers to distinguish accurately between 
the true and false. 

§ 2. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authen- 
tic history by the name of myihi (uvQoi), and they termed their con- 
tents or the matter of them, as well as the knowledge or study of 
them, mythology (uvdo?.o y ia). Mythology, however, was not with 
them, as in modern times, a distinct branch of study. The term is 
now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge which consid- 
ers the notions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their 
actions, names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical represen- 
tations. It is often employed also in a wider sense, including the 
religious fables of all ages and nations, and thus is made synonymous 
with the history of fable. 

§ 3. It is important to distinguish the point of view in which these 
mythological narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from that 
in which we are to regard them. To the former they were closely 
connected with their national history and their religious faith, were 
indeed parts of them ; to us they are only monuments and evidences 
of the state of culture of the human mind, if we view them philo- 
sophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of 
men guided by sense and imagination, affected much by external ap- 
pearances, and mistaking physical effects for independent or volun- 
tary powers. But they afford much valuable and even necessary aid 
in understanding the Greek and Roman authors, especially the poets, 
and in judging of ancient opinions, usages, and art. 

§ 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many 
centuries, were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various 
changes in respect to their general dress, aim, and application. 
Originally they consisted in part of actual occurences, in part of 



400 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

arbitrary fiction, springing from fear, reverence, gratitude, patriotism, 
credulity and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cunning, and am- 
bition. They were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin but 
more frequently were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers 
and otherwise. By the poets they were woven into epic song ; by 
early philosophers they were clothed in mystery and allegory ; and by 
the later interpreted in divers conflicting ways ; while artists found 
in them an ample range of subjects for the chisel and the pencil. 

§ 5. Some of the modern writers on Greek and Roman mythology 
have merely stated the fables as reported among the ancients. Oth- 
ers have, in addition, sought to trace them to their origin, either by 
making conjectures of allegorical, historical, and physical meanings 
in the stories, or deducing them from the events of early ages re- 
corded in the Bible. But as these traditions arose in various ways, 
and often accidently, there will of course be error in every system, 
which attempts to refer them all to one common source and purpose. 

§ 5 u. The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid in 
the idea, which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the first ages, 
conversant only with objects of sense ; viz. that every thing in nature was 
endued with an appropriate activity and spontaneity like that in man. In con- 
sequence of this idea, wherever an unusual appearance or agency was ob- 
served, it was ascribed to a distinct being or existence operating directly or 
immediately. This creation of personal existences out of natural phenomena, 
this personification of physical objects and events, was, in all probability, one 
of the most prolific sources of fable and of idolatry ; for which the stars and 
the elements seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. 

Many of the pagan stories are ingeniously solved by referring their origin to symbolical or. 
allegorical descriptions of physical principles and changes. Cf. P. I. $4.1. — On the rise of 
idolatry, we refer to Faber, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. Lond. 1816. 3 vols. 4. Cf. also Shuck- 
ford. Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. v. — Banier, cited $12. 2.(a). 

The following remarks, on the sources of fable, are from the Traitc des Etudes of Rollin. 
They were translated by Mr. Wellington H. Tyler, who has consented to their insertion here. 

1. " One source of Fable is the perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred 
History; and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of 
Noah, perfectly instructed by him in religious matters, preserved for consid- 
erable time the worship of the true God in all its purity. But when, after 
the fruitless attempt to build the tower of Babel, the members of this family 
were separated and scattered over different countries, diversity of language 
and abode was soon followed by a change of worship. Truth, which had 
been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, subject 
to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed by the use of 
writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured by an infinite number 
of fables, the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the 
more ancient had enveloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great 
events has been preserved among all nations ; not, indeed, without some mix- 
ture of fiction, but yet with traces of truth, marked and easy to be recog- 
nized ; a certain proof that these nations had a common origin. Hence the 
notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, all powerful, the Rul- 
er and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of external 
worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and gen- 
eral assent to certain great facts ; the creation of man by an immediate exer- 
tion of Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as 
the golden age, in which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of 
his brow or cultivated by painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abun- 
dance ; the fall of the same man, the source of all his woe, followed by a del- 
uge of crime, which brought on one of water ; the human race saved by an 
ark, which rested upon a mountain ; and afterwards the propagation of the 
human race from one man and his three sons. — But the detail of particular 
actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was soon altered 



INTRODUCTION. 401 

by the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the family 
of Noah itself. The historical fact that he was the father of three sons, and 
that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts 
of the earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose three sons, if we 
may believe the poets, shared between them the empire of the world." 

On several of the points above suggested by Eollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking 
coincidences with facts in sacred history. These are pointed out by several writers ; we men- 
tion particularly Grotius De veritate Eel. Christ. (L. i. c. 17.) — Faber, Horas Mosaicse. — Col- 
lycr, Lectures on Scripture Facts. 2d ed. Lond. 1809. — StillingjleeV s Origines Sacrse. — Cf. 
Maurice, History of Hindostan. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. (bk. i.) 

2. " A second source of Fable was furnished by the ministry of angels in 
human affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, his 
intelligence and his immortality ; and he was farther desirous of associating 
them with his providence in the government of the world, as well in the 
departments of nature and the elements, as in reference to the conduct of 
men. The Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed with their glittering 
swords, ravage all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an innumerable 
multitude of people, and entirely exterminate the army of an impious prince. 
Mention is made of an angel, the prince and protector of the Persian empire ; 
of another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, 
prince of the people of God (Dan. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of an- 
gels is as ancient as the world, as we learn from the Cherubim stationed at 
the gate of the terrestrial paradise to guard its entrance. — Noah and the oth- 
er patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this truth, which to them had an in- 
tense interest; and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct their families on a 
subject of such importance ; but these by degrees losing the more pure and 
spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the 
agents, through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence 
it is that men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits 
of the earth, others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so 
of all the rest ; of gods whose power and agency were confined to certain 
countries and nations, and who were themselves under the dominion of the 
supreme God. 

3. " A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in 
the minds of all people ; this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, 
that Providence presides over all human events great and small, and that each, 
without exception, experiences his attention and care. But men, frightened 
by the immense detail to which the Divine Being must condescend, have felt 
bound to relieve him by giving to each of a number of deities some particu- 
lar, appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria dispertientes officia nu- 
minum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve too many concerns 
upon a single deity ; the soil was entrusted to one, the mountains to another, 
the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augustin (de Civitate 
Dei, iv. 8) recounts a dozen different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of 
grain, of which each, according to his office, takes a special care at different 
times, from the first moment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the 
grain is perfectly ripened. — Besides the crowd of deities destined to perform 
the inconsiderable duties of such affairs, there were others which were re- 
garded as of a higher grade, because supposed to take a more nible part in 
the government of the world." 

The number of gods admitted in the Greek mythology was immense, if we may take Hesi- 
od's testimony for authority. He says there are 30,000 gods on earth, guardians of men. 

4. " A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which 
ever strives to authorize its crimes and passions. The more important and 
renowed of these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and 
defamed by attributing to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the 
most detestible, murders, adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human 
heart has been ready to multiply, distort, and pervert the fictions of mytholo- 
gy, for the purpose of palliating and excusing practices the most vicious and 
frightful by the example of the gods themselves. There is no conduct so dis- 
graceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by the w T orship 
which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the mother of 
the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian 

34* 



402 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

would have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as 
the most virtuous man in the republic, to go and receive her statue, would 
have been much grieved that his own mother should have been made a god- 
dess to take the place and honors of Cybele. 

5. " I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from which Fable 
takes its rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as 
a fifth source, we may refer to a natural sentiment of admiration or grati* 
tude, which leads men to associate the idea of something like divinity with 
all that which particularly attracts their attention, that which is nearly relat- 
ed to them, or which seems to procure for them some advantage. Such are 
the sun, the moon and the stars ; such are parents in the view of their child- 
ren, and children in that of their parents; persons who have either invented 
or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinguished 
themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared 
the land of robbers, enemies to public repose ; in short, such are all who, by 
some virtue or by some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common 
level of mankind. It will be readily perceived without further notice that his- 
tory, profane as well as sacred, has given rise to all those demigods and heroes 
whom Fable has located in the heavens, by associating, with the person and 
under the name of a single individual, actions widely separated in respect to 
time, place, and person." — Cf. P. II. § 222. 4. 

§ 6. The advantages of an acquaintance with mythology are 
many. One of the most important, aside from its aid in reference 
to ancient philosophy, religion, and history, is the better understand- 
ing it enables one to obtain of the Greek and Roman writers and of 
the works of their artists, [It is obviously necessary to the cultivation 
of classical learning, which is of such acknowledged importance in 
modern education. 

On the benefits of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract from 
Rollin, as cited under the last section. 

1. "It apprizes us how much we are indebted to Jesus Christ the Savior, 
who has rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the 
wonderful light of the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character 
of men? Even the wisest and most upright men, those celebrated philoso- 
phers, those great politicians, those renowned legislators of Greece, those 
grave senators of Rome ? In a word, what were all the nations of the world, 
the most polished and the most enlightened ? Fable informs us. They were 
the blind worshipers of some demon, and bowed the knee before gods of gold, 
silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues, deaf and 
mute. They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. They 
did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuous 
Juno, a Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason 
to hold the first rank among the gods. — See what our fathers were, and what 
we ourselves should have been, had not the light of the Gospel dissipated our 
darkness. Each story in Fable, every circumstance in the life of the gods 
Ought at orrce to fill us with confusion, admiration, and gratitude. 

2. " Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to 
us the absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of Paganism, it may inspire us 
with new respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanc- 
tity of its morals. Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishop 
(Theophilus of Alexandria), to render idolatry odious in the minds of the faith- 
ful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the eyes of the public, all which 
was found in the interior of a temple that had been demolished ; bones of men, 
limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other vestiges of the sacrileg- 
ious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the effect 
which the study of Fable must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; 
and this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the de- 
fenders of the Christian religion. The great work of St. Augustin, entitled 
'The City of God,' which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at 
the same time a proof of what I now advance, and a perfect model of the 
manner in which profane studies ought to be sanctified." 



INTRODUCTION. 403 

We would here refer to a very able and interesting treatise On the nature and moral influence 
of Heathenism among the Greeks and Romans, in Bibl. Repository, vol. n., translated from Thol- 
uck by Prof. Emerson of Andover. — " Whosoever," says Tholuck, " stands on a lofty moun- 
tain should look not merely at the gold which the morning sun pours on the grass and flowers 
at his feet, but he should sometimes also look behind him into the deep valley where the shad- 
ows still rest, that he may the more sensibly feel that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it is also 
salutary for the disciples of Christ, at times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a glance 
over the dark stage of where men play their part in lonely gloom, without a Savior, without a 
God ! " Respecting Theophilus, see Murdoch's Mosheim, i. 392. 

3. " Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the 
understanding of authors either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading 
which a person is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not 
of poets merely, whose natural language is Fable ; it is often employed also 
by orators, and it furnishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations and 
with strains the most sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among ma- 
ny others, is that drawn from the story of Medea, in the speech of Cicero 
(Pro. Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the subject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 

4. " There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illus- 
trated by a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. 
These are so many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often 
the only key to their interpretation." It should be added, that mytholo- 
gy, at the same time, itself receives new light from the study of such remaing 
ox imitations of ancient art, so that these two branches of classical pursuits 
reciprocally aid each other. 

§ 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern 
countries, and having derived her religious notions particularly from 
Egyptians and Phoenicians, the origin of most of the Greek deities 
is to be sought in the religious history of those countries and na- 
tions. But many changes took place, and this original derivation 
was greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, who wished 
to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit of their whole relig- 
ious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter 
the names of the primitive gods. 

Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many 
points of resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India. 

See Karl Ritter, Die Vorhalle Europseischer Voelkergeschichten vor Herodotus um den Kau- 
kasus und an den Gestaden des Pontus. Berlin, 1820. 8. Cf. Kennedy, as cited § 12. 2. (b). Also 

Moore and Maurice, as there cited. Also the Works of Sir Win. Jones, cited §25. 4, On the 

influence of the Phoenicians &c. on the early culture of the Greeks, cf. P. I. §40-42; P. II. 
$12. 

§ 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence 
of its Grecian descent, being in scarcely any part of it a native 
growth, but borrowed chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet 
the Romans likewise changed, not only in many cases the names of 
the Gods, but also the fictions of their story, and the rites of their 
worship. They also derived some notions and usages from the Etru- 
rians. (Cf. P. I. § 109.) All the religious conceptions and institu- 
tions of the Romans were closely interwoven with their civil policy, 
and on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their 
system of auspices, auguries, and various omens- We find therefore 
in Roman mythology much which the Greek had not, and much 
which was borrowed from it, but altered and as it were moulded 
anew. 

$ 9. Thus the general division or classification of the gods was 
not the same with both nations. The Greeks made a three-fold di- 
vision into Superior gods, Inferior gods, and Demigods or heroes ; 
the Romans a twofold, into gods Superior and Inferior (Dii majo- 
rum et minorum gentium). Their first class the Romans distinguish- 



404 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, 

ed as Consentes and Selecti ; the second, which included demigods 

or heroes, as Indigetes and Semones. The deities were also 

classed according to their supposed residence. They are sometimes 
arranged according to their descent in the fabulous genealogies. 

When classed according to residence, they are called celestial, terrestrial? 
•marine, and infernal. — A genealogical table according to Hesiod's Theogony 
is appended to Cooke's Hesiod. (Cf. P. II. § 51. 4.) 

In the Roman classification the Consentes, so called because they were sup- 
posed to form the great council (consentientes) of heaven, consisted of ticelve^ 
6 males and 6 females ; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan; 
Juno, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Vesta. These were the great celestial 
gods. The Selecti were nearly equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight, 
Saturn, Pluto or Orcus, Bacchus, Janus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna, 
These were called Dii majorum gentium, and all the rest Dii minorum gen- 
tium, in allusion to the division of the senators (patres). 

The Indigetes, called also Adscriptitii, were heroes ranked among the gods 
on account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pol- 
lux, and Quirinus or Romulus. The Semones included those deities that pre- 
sided over particular objects ; as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of 
flowers, &c. Besides these there was, among the Dii minorum gentium, a 
numerous class of miscellanei, including the virtues and vices and other ob- 
jects, personified ; and also a number called dii peregrini, foreign gods intro- 
duced at Rome from abroad, or at least tolerated, although perhaps worshiped 
chiefly by foreigners residing in the city. 

The Consentes in the Roman division corresponded to the class which the 
Greeks, when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the Celestial 
and Olympian, inovQaviot, 6?.vutcioi; which were also called 6t /.isyalot &t6i, 
and 6i SoiStxa $*bi. The Athenians had an altar consecrated to these colleo- 
ively, (iwuog xS>v Sdidsxa. 

§ 10. But the differences in the systems of the two nations need 
not essentially affect a scientific treatment of the subject of their 
mythology. For the principal deities of each were common to both, 
and it will contribute to brevity and comprehensiveness to include 
them all in one system of classification, pointing out what may be 
peculiar in each case as it occurs. It is therefore proposed to con- 
sider the gods of the Greek and Roman mythology in four classes ; 
viz. (1) Superior Gods, (2) Inferior Gods, (3) Mythical Beings , 
whose history is intimately connected with that of the gods, and 
(4) Heroes. 

In the first class will be noticed the twelve Consentes, or great celestial gods? 
and four others, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto, and Bacchus. — In the second will be 
mentioned Uranus or Ccelus, Sol, Luna, Aurora, Nox, Iris, iEolus, Pan, La- 
tona, Themis, JEsculapius, Plutus, and Fama. Here belong also numerous 
deities of the Romans which were not common to them and the Greeks. — The 
third class comprehends the Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, 
Muses, Graces, Fates, Furies, Genii, Lares, Satyrs, and the like. — Under the 
last fall the names of Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, and various others, whose 
achievements led to their deification. 

§ 11. It may be proper to remark here, that the ideas entertained 
by the Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were 
exceedingly imperfect. A being possessing powers of body and mind 
superior to those of man, especially superior might, mainly answered 
to their notions of a god. The superiority which they ascribed to 
their deities consisted chiefly in freedom from bodily decay, a sort of 
immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful celerity, to appear 
and disappear at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form, and to ex- 



INTRODUCTION. 405 

ert an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In these 
respects, however, their power was limited, according to the general 
opinion, being controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of 
things, termed fate or destiny, 

" The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form as themselves, 
but of far greater beauty, strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much 
larger size than men ; for in those times great size was esteemed a perfection both in man and 
woman, and consequently was supposed to be an attribute of their divinities, to whom they 
ascribed all perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the 
gods. They were not capable of death, but they might be wounded or otherwise injured. 
They could make themselves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms 
of men or of animals as it suited their fancy. Like men they stood in daily need of food and 
sleep. The meat of the gods was called Ambrosia, their drink Nectar. The gods when they 
came among men often partook of their food and hospitality. 

"Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes ; namely, gods and goddesses. They 
married and had children, just like mortals. Often a god became enamored of a mortal wo- 
man, or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth, and these love-tales 
form a large portion of Grecian mythology. 

" To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to 
their deities all human passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, 
gratitude, and all the benevolent affections ; on the other hand, they were frequently envious, 
jealous, and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention 
from mankind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, 
splendid processions, and rich gifts ; and they severely punished insult or neglect. 

" The abode of the gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such as Homer 
and Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate 
of clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unfolded its valves to permit the passage 
of the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may 
term it, was regulated on the same principle as a Grecian city of the heroic ages. The inhab- 
itants, who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their 
separate dwellings ; but all, when summoned, repaired to the palace of Jupiter, whither 
also came, when called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the un- 
der world. It was also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods 
feasted each day on ambrosia and nectar ; which last precious beverage was handed round by 
the lovely goddess Hebe (Youth), — maid-servants being the usual attendants at meals in the 
houses of the Grecian princes in early times. Here they conversed of the affairs of heaven 
and earth ; and as they quaffed their nectar, Apollo the god of music delighted them with 
the tones of his lyre, to which the Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, 
the gods retired to sleep in their respective dwellings. 

" The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day in their chariots drawn by celes- 
tial steeds through the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." (Keightley, p. 14-17.) 

§ 12 1. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes 
specified, we will, in accordance with our general plan in other parts 
of this work, present some references to the sources of information 
on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and then giving 
the titles to more modern works. 

1 u. Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch 
upon, mythological subjects ; although these are not by any means treated in 
the same manner in the different kinds of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and 
didactic. We have properly mythic poetry in the Theogony of Hesiod and the 
Cassandra of Lycophron (P. II. § 51, 67), the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and in 
two poems of Claudian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. 
II. § 334). — Many historian have introduced into their narratives mytholog- 
ical traditions, without presenting them, however, as fully entitled to cre- 
dence, while they have also recorded much that appertained to the worship 
of the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodotus, Diod- 
orus, Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny may be mentioned particularly. — 
There were also ancient writers who made mythology their theme, or treated 
the subject more at length ; as, among the Greeks, Apollo dor us, Conon, He- 
phcestion, Parthenius, Antoninus Liberates, Palcephatus, Heraclides, Phurnutus 
(P. II. § 221ss) ; among the Romans, Hyginus and Fulgentius (P. II. §384ss). 
Notices on this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writ- 
ers of the church and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 

2 m. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject 
more at large, others more compendiously; some present the subjects in an 
alphabetical order ; there are also works accompanied with plates and draw- 
ings for illustration. 



406 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



(a) The following are some of the works 
which go into more full details. — Lit. Greg. 
Gyraldi, Historian Deor. Gentil. Syntagma- 
ta xvn. Bas. 1548. fol. Also in his Opp. Omn. 
(ed. J. Jensius). Lugd. Bat. 1606. fol. — Vine. 
Cartari, le imagini degli dei degli aotichi. 
Lion. 1581. 4. Also in Latin, Lugd. 1581. 4. oft. 
repr. — JVatalis Comitis Mythologiae s. Explica- 
tions Fabularum libri X. Gen. 1651. Q.— Gerh. 
I. Vossius, De theologia Gentili et physiologia 
Christiana, s. de origine et progressu idolatriae 
libri IX. Amst. 1668. fol.— Ant. Barrier, La my- 
thologie et les fables expliquees par l'histoire. 
Par. 1738-40. 8 vols. 12. In German with addi- 
tions by J. A. Schlegel Sf J. M. Schrbckh. Lpz. 
1755-65. 5 vols. 8. In English, Banier, Mythol- 
ogy of the Ancients. Lond. 1739. 4 vols. 8. — 
Mayo,System of Mythology. Philad.1815. 4 vols. 
8. — F. Creuzer's Symbolik und Mythologie der 
Alten Volker, besonders der Griechen. Lpz. 
1819-21. 4Bde. 8. 3d improved ed. commenced 
1836. — Same (abridged) by G. H. Moser. Lpz. 
1822. 8. — Ch. A. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, sive de 
Theologies mysticas Graecorum causis. Regi- 
montii (Kbnigsburg), 1829. 2 vols. 8. opposing 
some of the views of Creuzer : it has been 
highly commended.**-./. H. Voss, Antisymbolik. 
Stuttg. 1824. 8. — G. Hermann, De Mythologia 
Graecorum antiquissima. 1817. — G. Hermann $ 
F. Creuzer, Briefe iiber Homer und Hesiodus. 
Heidelb.1818. 8.— G. Hermann, Briefe iiber das 
Wesen und die Behandlung der Mythologie. 
Lpz. 1819. 8. — J. A. Kanne's Mythologie der 
Griechen. Lpz. 1805. 8. — By same, erste Urkun- 
den der Geschichte, oder allgemein Mythologie. 
Baireuth, 1808. 2 Bde. 8. — By same, Pantheon 
der altesten Naturphilosophie aller Volker. 
Tub. 1811. 8. — J. L. Hug's Untersuchungen 
uber d. Mythos d. beriihmtern Volker d. alt. 
Welte, vorziiglich d. Griech. Frevb. 1812. 4. 
—Buttmann, Mythologus. Berl. 182o. 2 vols. 8. 
— S. A. L. Richtcr's Phantasien des Alterthnms, 
oder Samml. myth. Sagen der Hellene), RS- 
mer &c. Lpz. 1708-20. 5 Bde. 8.— We may add 
J. Bryant's New System of Mythology. Lond. 
1807. 6 vols. 8. — Dupuis, Origine de tous les 
Cultes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8.—R. P. Knight, In- 
quiry into the symbolical Language of Ancient 
Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of the 
ClassicalJournal. — Court de Gebelin,l>e Monde 
Primitif. Par. 1774. 1787. 9 vols. 4. explaining 
fables, traditions, symbols, and language. — 
Guigniaut, Religions de l'Antiquite. Par.1825 
-30. 4 vols. 8.— Constant, De la Religion. Par. 
1826-31. 5 vols. 8. 

(b) More compendious treatises, or manuals. 

— C. T. Damm, Mythologie der Griechen und 
Rbmer (ed. Levezow). Berl. 1820. 8. with plates. 

— M. G. Hermann, Handbuch der Mythologie 
aus Homer und Hesiod. Berl.1787-95. 3 vols. 8. 

— By same, Mythologie der Griechen, f iir die 
obern Klassen &c. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8 — K.Ph. 
Moritz, Gb'tterlehre, oder mythol. Dichtungen 
der Alten. Berl. 1819. 8. with plates. Also 
transl. by C. F. Jdger. N. York. 1830. 12. with 
plates. Same work in English, Mythological 
Fictions of Greeks and Romans. 12mo. — Fr. 
Rambach, Abriss einer Mythologie fiir Kunstler. 
Berl. 1796. 2 vols. 8. — C. A. Bottiger's Grund- 
risse zu Vorlesungen iiber die Mythologie. 
Dresd. 1808. 8. — By same, Amalthea oder Mu- 
seum d. Kunstmythologie und bildl. Alter- 
thumskunde. Leipz. 1821.— F. Fiedler, Mytho- 
logie der Griechen und italischen Volker. Hal. 
1823. — Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon ; contain- 
ing the Mythological systems of the Greeks & 
Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. with plates. 



— Valpifs Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1832. 
18. very brief. — C. K. Dillaway, Roman Anti- 
quities and Ancient Mythology. Bost. 1831.12. 
Keightley's Mythology. Lond. 1832. 

(c) Dictionaries of Mythology B. HedericR, 

Mythologisches Lexicon (ed. /. J. Schwabe). 
Lpz. 1770. 8.— P. F. A. Mtsch, Neues mythol. 
Wbrterbuch (ed. F. G. Klopfer). Lpz. 1821. 
2 vols. 8.— K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. Wbrterbuch 
fur Schuler. Berl.1817. 8.—/. G. Gruber, Wbr- 
terbuch der altklassischen Mythologie und Re- 
ligion. Weim. 1810. 3 vols. 8 P. C. Chompre, 

Dictionnaire abrege de la fable. Par. 1818. 12. 
— Fr. Noel, Dictionnaire de la fable, ou Mytho- 
logie grecque, latine, egyptienne, celtique, per- 
sanne, indienne, chinoise, &c. Par.1823. 2 vols. 
8. — Wm.Holwell, A Mythological Dictionary &c= 
(Extracted from J. Bryant's New System or An- 
alysis of Ancient Mythology.) Lond. 1793. 8. 
—Bell, New Pantheon. Lond.1790. 2 vols. 4. 

(d) The following works contain plates il- 
lustrating the subjects of mythology, accompa- 
nied with explanations. — Bernard de Montfau- 
con, L'Antiquite expliquee et representee en 
figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5 fol. Supplem. 
Par. 1724. 5 vols. fol. Translated into English 
by David Humphreys. Lond. 1721. 5 vols. foL 
with Supplement, 2 vols. fol. — Joach. von Sand- 
rart, Iconologia deorum. Niirnb. 1680. fol. — 
Spence's Polymetis, or an inquiry concerning 
the agreement between the works of the Ro- 
man poets and the remains of the ancient art- 
ists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol.— A. Hirt, Bil- 
derbuch fiir Mythologie, Archaeologie und. 

Kunst. Berl. 1805-16. 2 vols. 4. 1. L. Millin, 

Galerie mythologique, ou Recueil des monu- 
mens pour servir a l'etude de la mythologie, 
de l'histoire de l'art &c. Par. 1811. 2 vols. 8. 
containing correct pictures of about 800 ancient 
monuments.— .#. H. Petiscus, Der Olymp, odes 
Mythologie der iEgypter, Griechen und Rbmeiu 
Berl. 1837. 8. 6th ed. 

(e) The impressions on ancient gems are of 
much service in illustrating my thology,to which 
part of the subject belong the following works : 
A. C. Klausing, Versuch einer mythologischeii 
Daktyliothek fur Schuler. Lpz. 1781. 8. (with 
120 neat impressions of engraved gems.) — 71 
F. Roth's my thologische Daktyliothek. Niirnb. 
1805 (with 90 impressed models of engraved 
stones). — Also Lippert's Daktyliothek (P. I. 
§ 210). One thousand of his impressions helong 
to mythology. — The gems, of which Wedgwood 
8f Bentley have given imitations, pertain many 
of them to mythology, as also those of Tassw 
(P. I. $210). 

(f) Here we may name likewise some works 
on the Mythology of other nations besides the 
Greeks & Romans. — Moore's Hindoo Pantheon- 

— Rhode, Ueber die religiose Bildung der Hin- 
dus. Lpz.1827. 2 vols. 8 Kennedy, Researches- 

into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and 
Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Researches. — 
Maurice, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vols? 
8.— Ward's View of the History, Literature, 8c 
Religion of the Hindoos. — Hager, Pantheon 
Chinois (or Parallel between the religious wor- 
ship of the Greeks and the Chinese.) Par.1810, 
4. Cf. Class. Journ. i. 178. — J. C. Prichard, 
Analysis of Egyptian Mythology. Lond. 1819„ 
8. — Nyerup, Wbrterbuch der Scandinavian 
Mythologie. Copenh. 1816. 12. — J. M. Kemble y 
Saxon Mythology. Cf. Bibl. Repos. xi. 247. — 
For some remarks On the resemblance of the 
mythology of the Middle Ages to the Classical., 
cf. Editor's Preface to Warton's Hist. Eng. Po- 
etry, vol. i. p. 25 ss. ed. Lond, 1824. 



SUPERIOR GOBS. SATURN. 407 



/. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. 

§ 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated 
Superior Gods, are the following : Saturn, Kq6vo$, Xqovog, Saturnus ; 
Janus; Rhea or Cybele, c p4a, Psia, KvpHyi Jupiter, zevg ; Ju- 
no, a HQa; Neptune, noasidsv, Neptunus ; Pluto, m<nkw'; Apollo, 
^AnoUwv] Diana, "Aqrsfus; Minerva, SaUag ; Mars/'^>/?; Ve- 

NUS, 3 A(pqo8iTtj; V VJ.C AN, c 'H(paiarog, Vulcanus ; MERCURY, e Equijg, 

Mercurius ; Bacchus, Jiqwoos ; Ceres, Jrj/nijrtjq ; Vesta, c Eoria. 

§ 14. (1) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, 
called Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. He was 
said to be the son of Uranos and Titcea, i. e. the heavens and the earth, 
and to have possessed the first government of the universe. His wife 
was Rhea, who was his sister. Saturn and his five brethren were 
called Titans, probably from their mother ; Rhea and her five sisters 
likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the government of the uni- 
verse by his superiority over his father and brothers; yet pledged 
himself to rear no male children; accordingly he is represented as 
devouring his sons as soon as born. 

§ 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, 
escaped, through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him 
stones to devour instead of the children aj their birth. Jupiter aided 
Saturn in recovering his throne, after he had been driven from it by 
his brothers the Titans and bound in Tartarus. But soon he made 
war himself upon Saturn, and seized the government. According to 
Roman fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called Satumia), 
and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. 
Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets as- 
signed to the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. 
Probably an idea of the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just 
newly created, is the basis of this story. 

Hes. Op. et Di. vs. 199.— Virg. Mn. viii. 319. — Ov. Metam. i. 89-112. 

§ 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signify- 
ing time (xqovog), he has been considered as designed to personify 
time, and the first cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, 
as well as the story of his devouring his children, seems to have some 
reference to the idea of time, as satiated only by the destruction of 
what it has produced. 

1?/. This name, however, may have been given from the idea of fertility or 
productiveness, as he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. 
The word Saturnus is derived from Satur, signifying full, satiated, and also 

fertile. Saturn is termed Sator, Vitisator, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or 

scythe), Sterculinus or Stercutius (having taught the fertilizing uses of manure), 
Canus and Leucanthes (?.£vxav6i l g). 

2. Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. 
See Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. i. § 5. — " Saturn was not unknown to the 
ancient Germans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Seatur ; 
who is described as standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the 
other a vessel of water filled with fruits and flowers." Holw ell's Diet, cited 
§ 12. 2 (c). 

§ 17. It was once customary to offer to Saturn human sacrifices, 
particularly among the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic in- 



PLATE.I1. 




SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RHEA OR CYBELE. 409 

habitants of Italy. His principal temples among the Greeks were at 
Olympia, and atDrepanum in Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome 
served also the purpose of a treasury, in memorial, perhaps, of the 
general security and the community of goods in the Saturnian or 

golden age. The chief festival of this deity was the Saturnalia 

of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (miwQia) of the Thessa- 
lians, devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality. 

Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe 
or sickle in one hand, and often in the other a serpent with its tail in 
its mouth in the form of a circle, both emblems of time. There are, 
however, but few ancient monuments of this deity. 

Also thus described : " a decrepid old man with a long beard and hoary head ; 
his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk ; 
his nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right 
hand holds a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour." 
See Plate X. fig. 1. 

The custom of sacrificing children to Saturn seems to identify him with Moloch, the Phoeni- 
cian idol, to whom the apostate Israelites sacrificed their offspring. Cf. Diod.Sic. xx.14. Jahn, 

Bibl. Arch. § 211. The Sun-god of the South-Americans was worshiped with the same cruel 

rites. — Southeifs Madoc, Motes. Morin, and Freret, Des victimes humaines, Mem. Acad. 

ftiscr. vols. i. & xvm. Origin of human sacrifices. Class. Journ. xiv. 352. xvu.104. 

§ 18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Romans. 
They represent him as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning over the 
earliest and so-called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of 
Saturn. It was to Janus that Saturn fled, and under them was the 
golden age, a period of uninterrupted peace. To Janus, therefore, 
Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which was always open in 
time of war, and was closed with much solemnity, whenever there 
was general peace in the Roman empire ; a thing which happened 
but three times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. 
P. V. § 60). From this deity the month of January was named, and 
the first day of the month was sacred to him. 

He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple 
face ; hence the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also 
called Patulcius, Ckisius, Consivius, Custos, and Claviger. 

See Plate XI. fig. 8. — It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos 

is represented with four heads. See Plate XIa. Janus is also represented 

with a key in one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, 
supposed by some to refer to the 12 months of the year. His statue erected by 
Numa is said to have had its fingers so composed as to signify 365, the num- 
ber of days in a year. He was considered as the inventor of locks, doors, 

and gates, which are thence called januce. He was termed Father, and some- 
times God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus, and obla- 
tions were made to him, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original 
name was Djanus or Dianus, which some have derived from dies, day. He is 
called the Sun and was the Sun-god or God of the Year, of the original inhab- 
itants of Italy. The story of his friendly reception of Saturn is by some ex- 
plained as referring to the agreement between the old inhabitants of Latium 
and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two gods in common. — Janus was 
not received among the gods of the Greeks. 

§ 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife and 
sister of Saturn, was Rhea or Ops. Yet the history and worship of 
Cybele were afterwards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, 
that both were considered the same person, and although Rhea was 
said to be the daughter of Earth, were each taken for Gaia or Tellus. 
35 



410 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

and often called Vesta, and the great mother of gods. The origin of 
Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, and hence the 
confusion in the accounts which are given of her. 

Cybele, properly speaking, lived later ; and was, according to tra- 
dition, a daughter of Mseon a king of Phrygia and Lydia ; or accord- 
ing to others, in an allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. 
Her invention of various musical instruments, and her love for Atys^ 
a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered her frantic, are the most 
prominent circumstances of her history. 

Ovid, Fast. 4. 223. — Catullus, de At. et Ber. Besides the names above 

mentioned, she was called Mater Dyndymena, Berecynthia and Idaea, Pes- 
sinuntia, and Bona Dea. 

§ 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as in- 
habited and fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was 
represented. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced 
in pregnancy, with a turreted mural crown on her head. Often she 
was borne in a chariot drawn by lions ; sometimes she rested upon a 
lion. 

See Plate X. fig. 2. — She was also formed with many breasts, with a key of 
keys in her hand, sometimes a scepter, and frequently with two lions under 
her arms. 

A figure in silver, with some parts plated with gold, and the whole elegantly finished, rep- 
resenting Cybele, was found at Macon (ancient Matisco) on the Saone, in 1764. It was pub- 
lished by Count Caylus, vol. vn. pi. 71. — Q.nthori's Lempriere. — Barrier, sur les statues de Cybele, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 241. — Cf. P. I. $157. 

§21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but spread 
thence through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was exceed- 
ingly tumultuous, as her priests (called Corybantes or Galli, and the 
chief one Archigallus) went about with clamorous music and singing, 
acting like madmen and filling the air with the mingled noise of 
shrieks, howlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and spears. — — The re- 
moval of her image from Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of 
her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The festival 
called Megalesia (from iisyair], the great mother) was maintained in 
her honor. 

Liv. Hist. 29. 10,11,14. Vol. Max. 8.15. The place called Pessinus was 

said to have derived its name from JIsoslv, to fall, because it was the spot upon 
which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled Ancile and Palladium 
sent down from Jupiter. 

At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar; the 
magistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and stran- 
gers usually assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess 
through the streets of the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated in 

a similar manner, and attended with many indecencies. There appears to 

be a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pracriti, the goddess of nature 
among the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions, and her fes- 
tival is attended with the beating of drurn^. — Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. 

§ 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the 
gods was called by the Greeks Zevs, by the Romans Jupiter. It 
would seem, that by this god was originally represented nature in 
general ; afterwards, the superior atmosphere ; and finally the su- 
preme existence. Many tales of the early history of Crete were in- 
corporated among the traditions respecting him. — He was a son of 
Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his father of his 
kingdom, and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune re- 



SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. 411 

ceived the sea, Pluto the infernal world, and himself the earth and 
heavens. The Giants, sons of the earth, disputed the possession of 
his kingdom with him, and attempted to scale Olympus, but he de- 
feated them with thunderbolts forged by the Cyclops. Enraged 

by the wickedness and deep corruption of men, he destroyed the 
whole race by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and Pyrrha alone 
escaped. The supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years 
B.C. 

Ovid, Metam. i. 151, 260. — Claudian's Gigantomachia. — Cf. P. II. § 386. 

§ 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a 
mountain of Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant 
serenity of its summit, represented as a suitable place for the abode 
of the gods. (Cf. §11.) — His first wife was Metis, whom he de- 
stroyed, because it was foretold him, that she would bear a child 
that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the goddess 
Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, Themis, 
he begat the Hotcb and the Parcce. — The third and most celebrated 
was Juno, by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan. — Tradition, par- 
ticularly the tales respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors 
of Jupiter ; e. g. with Europa (1), Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alc- 
mena, Semele (2), and Io (3). Apollo, Mercury, Hercules, Perseus, 
Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods were called 
the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter, 
however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity 
and rank, and not intended to imply literal relationship. 

(1) Ovid, Metam. ii. 836.— (2) lb. iii. 265. — (3) lb. i. 588. 

§ 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numer- 
ous temples were erected to his honor. The largest and the most 
celebrated in Greece was that in Olympia in Elis, remarkable for its 
own magnificence, and for its colossal statue of Jupiter wrought by 
Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its vicinity every fifth 
year. His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was renowed, and 
considered the most ancient in Greece. — In Rome the Capitol was 
specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city many temples. 

Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a 
thunderbolt in his right hand, and in his left a long sceptre resem- 
bling a spear. The eagle, sacred to him, appears standing near, or, 
as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended wings. As 
Jupiter Ammon, he was represented with the horns of a ram. 

The eagle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. He is also spoken of as 
wearing " golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various flow- 
ers and figures of animals." — In the statue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig. 3) he is 
presented as " sitting upon his throne, his left hand holding a sceptre, his 
right extending victory to the Olympian conquerors, his head crowned with 
olive, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts, and flowers. The four 
corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by a sphinx 
tearing in pieces a Theban youth." (Flaxman's Lect. p. 87, as cited P. I. 
§ 191 . — Cf. Quatr. de Quincy, cited P. I. § 160.) 

§ 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles derived 
from circumstances of his history, or the places of his worship. 

1m. The Greeks termed him Zsvg, and applied to him various epithets, as 
the Id&an (o *Iduiog), Olympic (' 07.viiTcir.bg), DodoncEan (Jwdwvaiog), thunder- 



412 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

er (xsQavviog), deliverer (s?.sv$eQiog), hospitable (tiviog), punisker of the per- 
jured (oQy.iog), &c. The Romans styled him Optimus Maximus, Capitolinus, 
Stator, Diespiter, Feretrius, &c. As the avenger of crime, he was called also 
Vejovis or Vedius ; yet some consider these as names of another distinct di- 
vinity ; and others take them for names of Pluto. 

2. Among- the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following ; from 
his sending rain, ou§qiog, venog, vs(paZiiye(j£Ti]g, oQOivsy^g ; from his darting 
thunder, ceOTEQOTZtjr^g, fiQovraiog, TsQTvtxtQavvog ; from his protection of sup- 
pliants, lyJoiog, ly.srtoiog. The Romans also called him sometimes Inventor, 
Elicius, Latialis, Sponsor, Victor, Fluvialis. — His Latin name Jupiter is from 
Zev IIutsq, Z being changed into J. From Ztvg (in Doric Sdsvg and iEolic 
Jsvg) came also probably the Latin Deus. The word is by some supposed to 
be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source of 
life from law. — In Libya a temple was consecrated to him under the name 
of Amnion. Cf. P. IV. § 71. 

3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning 
of the various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from 
many different personages and probably eastern deities were associated with 
his name, in the descent of mythological traditions from one generation to 
another. When the different tales are united, they form a very incongruous 
mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic ornament, and philosophical al- 
legory. 

4. Sir William Jones, with much ingenuity and learning, has attempted to show that the 
Greeks and Romans embodied in their Jupiter the special attributes which the Hindoos ascribe 
distinctively to the three divinities of their famous triad, named Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. 
In essential attributes, Brahma is said to be the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the 
destroyer and re-producer. Each of these offices is ascribed to Jupiter in the classical fables, 
according to Sir William. — The Hindoo deities are given in our Plate XIa, as usually seen 
in Bengal : Brahma with four faces and four hands, holding a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a 
Veda or Hindoo sacred book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hands, 
in one of which is a sort of ring or discus, which is said to send out flames of fire when twirl- 
ed on his finger, and in the others a shell used for a trumpet, a sort of club, and a lotus ; Siva, 
having a trident in one hand and a rope in another for binding offenders, with serpents for his 
ear-rings, and a string of human heads for his necklace. He has a third eye in his forehead. 

It is worthy of notice, that the Hindoo fables represent Vishnu as assuming different 

forms by successive incarnations, in the exercise of his attributes as preserver! Ten incarna- 
tions, or Avatars, are specially designated. These are represented by the ten engravings in 
our plate XI&. " All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets ; 
with rays encircling their heads ; jewels in their ears ; two necklaces, one straight and one 
pendent on their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of many-colored flowers, or collars of 
pearls, hanging down below their waists ; loose mantles of golden tissue or dyed silk, embroi- 
dered on their hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder ; with bracelets on one 
arm and on each wrist ; they are naked to the waists, and uniformly with dark azure flesh ; 
but their skirts are bright yellow, the color of the curious pericarpium in the centre of the 
water-lily ; they are sometimes drawn with that flower in one hand ; a radiated elliptical ring, 
used as a missile weapon, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinum, in a third ; 
and a mace or battle-axe, in a fourth." Nine of these incarnations the Hindoo tales describe 
as having already occurred. The tenth is to take place at some future period, when Vishnu 
will descend from heaven on a white winged horse, and will introduce on earth a golden age 
of virtue and peace. — It should be remarked in this connection, that Crishna is celebrated in 
Hindoo mythology as an incarnate deity. According to Sir Wm. Jones, he is considered as- 
distinct from all the Avatars j these had only a portion of the divinity ; " while Crishna was 
the person of Vishnu himself in human form." In the Hindoo pictures, Crishna sometimes ap- 
pears among the Avatars ; he is " more splendidly decorated than any of them, and wears a 
rich garland of sylvan flowers as low as his ankles, which are adorned with strings of pearl." 

See Sir Wm. Jones, on the eods of Greece, Italy, and India, in his Works and Life by Lord 

Teignmouth, Lond. 1807. 13 vols. 8. (vol. m. p. 318.) — Cf. Monthly Papers of the A. B. Comm. 
for For. Miss. Nos. n. and vu. May and Oct. 1832, — Ward, as cited § 13. 

§ 26. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of Sat- 
urn and Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods and men, 
was called by the Greeks "#««, and by the Romans Juno. Her birth- 
place was assigned by the Greeks to Argos, or the island Samos, 
and to other spots in Greece, although her story and her worship 
were rather of Phoenician origin. The chief peculiarities of her 
character were love of power, and jealousy ; the latter passion was 
constantly inflamed and fed by Jupiter's infidelity. — In consequence 
of this jealousy she wrought several metamorphoses, as in the case 
of Calisto (1) and Galanthis (2). Hence also her wrath against 



SUPERIOR GODS. JUNO. NEPTUNE. 413 

lo (3) and Semele (4), and her ill will towards the Trojans because 
Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest with Pallas and 
Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of Jupiter, 
who once, according to Homer's representation (5), suspended her 
in the air by a golden chain. Ixion's love for her was punished bj 
Jupiter with everlasting torture, he being bound to a wheel constant- 
ly revolving. 

(1) Ovid, Metam. ii. 474. — (2) lb. ix. 306. — (3) lb. i. 568. — (4) lb. iii. 156. — (5) Iliad, xv. 
15, 18. 

§ 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her 
temples and festivals was very great. Her worship was especially 
cultivated in Argos, Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and Carthage, cities 
which committed themselves particularly to her protection. In Elis 
were games, every fifth year, sacred to her, called c EQala. This was 
the name also of her great festival celebrated at Argos and other 
places, which was likewise called ixarofiSoia, because it was customa- 
ry on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of 
the goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome called Junonia 
and Junonalia. From her, tutelary angels or guardians of fe- 
males were called among the Romans Junones. The Roman women 
took their oaths in her name, as the men did in the name of Jupiter. 
Both Greeks and Romans honored her as the protectress of mar- 
riage. Her daughters were Hebe, goddess of youth, and Ilithyia, 
who presided over births. Her messenger and servant was Iris, the 
goddess of the the rainbow. — The Romans dedicated to her the 
month of June, named (1) after her. — She is often described by the 
poets as the Queen of gods and men. 

(1) Ovid, Fast, vi. 26. Juno had a great variety of names ; as Argiva, 

Cingula, Egeria, Juga (Zvyia), Lucinia, or Lucina, Moneta, JYuptialis (raiir^ 
Ha), Opigena, Populonia, Sospita, Unzia, &c. 

Hebe was employed to hand round the nectar at the feasts of the gods. Her 
office of cup-bearer afterwards fell to Ganymedes. When Hercules was ad- 
mitted to Olympus, Hebe became his spouse. — In fig. 4, PL XII. she is rep- 
resented as pouring out the nectar, with the bird of Jove by her side. 

§ 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness 
and jealousy of Juno in their representations of her. Among the 
symbols of her attributes the most remarkable was the peacock, held 
as sacred to her, and found by her side in many figures. Sometimes 
her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She was frequently repre- 
sented, by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, often 
contain the Empresses exhibited as Junos. 

She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron; usually with a, 
scepter in her hand, and a veil on her head and a crown decked with flowers ; 
sometimes she has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices^ 
The peacock is sometimes at her feet. (See Plate XI. fig. 1.) Homer exhib- 
its her in a chariot adorned with gems, having wheels with brazen spokes,, 
and naves of silver, and horses with reins of gold. But generally she is rep- 
resented as drawn by peacocks in a golden chariot. 

The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the- 
meaning attached to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered? 
as typifying, or allegorically representing, the active productive power in na- 
ture, Juno is the passive. Their quarrels are then explained as physical al: 
legories. 

§ 29. (6) Neptune. The government of the waters of the earth 
35* 



414 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

was, in the division of authority already mentioned (§22), assigned 
to the brother of Jupiter, called iiooeidzv, or Neptune. The idea of 
a god ruling the waters arose from the surprise of the first observers 
of the power of that element ; even before Neptune, Oceanus, son 
of the heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, was honored 
as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the 
Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encom- 
passing the earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to 
Neptune. — The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of 
Nereus or Oceanus and Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid 
of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish with a place among the 
constellations. The principal sons of Neptune were Triton, Phor- 
cus, Proteus, and Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these mi- 
nor deities of the sea were the power of divination and ability to 
change their forms at pleasure. The daughters of Nereus and Do- 
ris were the so-called Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in number. They 
belonged to the train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 

§ 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are 
the assistance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans, 
the building of the walls and ramparts of Troy, the creation and 
taming of the horse, the raising of the island Delos out of the sea, 
and the destruction of Hippolytus by a monster from the deep. He 
was feared also as the author of earthquakes and deluges, which he 

caused or checked at pleasure by his trident. The following are 

some of his many names and epithets ; 'Aayuiioq, upholding the 
earth; ^siat^Q^v, earth-shaker; "imtsiog, Petrceus, Consus. 

1. Various etymologies have been given of the name IIoos-iSwv and Nep- 
tune ; The latter is by some derived from- JYubo, because the water covers or 
conceals the earth ; the former from novg and Sim, as Neptune binds the feet, 
that is, man cannot walk on the water. But such speculations cannot be relied 

on. The government and protection of ships was committed to him. He 

also presided over the horse, which was sacred to him, and over horse-races > 
at the festival of the Consualia all horses were allowed to rest from labor. 

2u. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from? 
Egypt, but Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the 
coasts, as presiding over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus, on the isthmus of 
Corinth, he had a celebrated temple, and also on the promontory of Tsenarus. 
Of his temples at Rome, the most noted was that in the ninth district (cf. P. 
V. § 54), containing a suite of pictures representing the Argonautic voyage. 
The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were horses and bulls. In honor 
of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the Romans the Nep- 
tunalia and the Consualia, which were afterwards from the place of celebra- 
tion called Ludi Cir censes.. 

§ 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with 
the dignity ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front 
calm and serene even in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the 
trident, or a long antique scepter, with three tines, with which he 
makes the earth tremble and throws the waters into commotion. He 
is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in a chariot 
by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants. 

See Plate X. fig. 5.— Cf. Virg. Mn. i. 124. Horn. 11. xiii. 20- Virg.Mn. i. 155, 
Stat. Achil. i. 60. Neptune is represented as standing upright in his sea- 
iChariot, which is a large shell ; he is arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea green, 
and is accompanied by his wife ; he is described with black hair and blue eyes.- 



PLATE XI a. 




416 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. — Fontenu, Le Culte 
des divinites des eaux, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. p. 27. 

§ 32. (7) Pluto. He was a second brother of Jupiter, and re- 
ceived, as his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions 
or the world of shades. Under this idea the ancients imagined the 
existence of regions situated down far below the earth, and they rep- 
resented certain distant and desert lands as serving for a path and 
entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respecting Acheron, 
Styx, Cocytus, and Phlegethon, as being rivers of Hell. These re- 
gions below the earth were considered as the residence of departed 
souls, where after death they received rewards or punishments ac- 
cording to their conduct upon earth. The place of reward was called 
Elysium ; that of punishment, Tartarus. 

1. The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks aSyg, Hades* 
It is important to bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New 
Testament, where this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered 
grave, and sometimes hell, properly signifies the world of departed spirits, and 
includes both the place of happiness and the place of misery. Cf. Luke xvi. 23* 

On the meaning and use of this terra, cf. M. Stuart, Exegetical Essays &c. Ando. 1830. 12* 

—Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv. p. 539 ss. — Campbell, Diss, in his Transl. of the Gospels. Or* 

the views of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, cf. Homer, Od. xi. — .3Es- 
chylus, in his Prometheus & Persa?. — Plato, in his Phaedo. — Cicero, De contemnenda morte, and 
Somnium Scipionis. — Virgil, iEn. vi. cf. Tibull. El. i. 3. vs. 57 ss. — Gibbon, on Virgil's ./En. vi, 
in his Miscellaneous Works. — Hcyne, Excursuses in his editions of Virgil &. Homer (cf. P. It, 
$ 50. 5. § 362. 4). — De Fourmont, L'Enfer Poetique, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. in. 5. — « 
Class. Journ. m. 276. xi. 318. 

2u. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction 
of Il£QO£q)6vTj, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and the queen of 
the lower world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circum- 
stances of this event are related fully and poetically by Claudian (1) and 
Ovid (2), and furnished the ancient artists with frequent subjects for their 
skill in device and representation (3). 

(1) De raptu Proseroinae L. iii. (2) Metam. v. 341. (3) See Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. L 
pi. 37-41. 

§ 33. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air 
menacing, terrible, and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit him 
upon a throne, with a bifurcated sceptre, or a key, in his hand. A 
rod is sometimes put into his hand instead of his sceptre. The de- 
vice which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring-vessel, 
instead of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed from the images 
of Serapis. 

1. He appears crowned with ebony ; sometimes with cypress leaves ; some- 
times with flowers of narcissus. He is also sometimes represented in the act 
of bearing off* Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. (See Plate X. 

fig. 3.) He is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer 

invisible ; like the magic ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cic. de Off. iii. 9.. 
Herod, i. 8). 

2u. His worship was universal; but it was attended with special solemni- 
ties in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia was 1 
also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated themselves to Pluto. The 
victims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his principal 
names were Zsvg, on'yiog, Soranus, Summanus, Februus. 

3. The Greeks named him IlXovrwv as some suppose from 7t?.ovrog, wealth, 
which comes from the bowels of the earth. The Romans gave him the name 
Dis, having the same sense. He is also called "Adyg, Orcus, Jupiter inf emus t 
&c. — His chief festival was in February, when the Romans offered to him the 
sacrifices called Februa, whence the name of the month. His rites were per- 
formed by night or in the dark. The cypress was sacred to him, branches of 
which were carried at funerals. 



SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. APOLLO. 417 

§ 34. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower 
world, Minos, Rhadamanthus , and JEacus. These decided the con- 
dition of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos 
held the first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in 
Grecian history as real persons. At the entrance to the world of shades, 
in Pluto's vestibule, lay the dog Cerberus, a three-headed monster, 
that hindered the spirits from returning to the upper world. The 
most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were 
Ixion, Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the 
Aloides. 

1. Charon is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was 
to conduct the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Styx and Acheron to 
the realms of Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obolus, a small 
piece of money, it was customary to place a coin for that purpose under the 
tongue of the deceased before the funeral rites. Such as had not been honored 
with a funeral were compelled to wander on the shore a hundred years before 
they could be transported. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the 
Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial and sentence upon their deceased, 
before allowing them the honors of burial. For this trial all were carried across 
a lake in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon. 

Rollin, Anc. Hist. bk. i. ch. 2. sect. 2. — Cf. Class. Journ. vol. xxin. p. 7. — Bulletin des Sciences 
Historiques, vol. it. p. 352. 

2. There are numerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art 
which seem to refer to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be 
often symbolized by the figure of a pair of scales or balances, as if it were a 
weighing of the soul (xfv^ooaaia) ; to which there may be an allusion in the 
prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall of Belshazzar's 
dining-room (Dan. v. 27). 

In fig. B. of our Plate XV. is a representation of this kind ; in which we see 
the Egyptian balances, and a number of priests and allegorical or mythical 
personages ; the drawing is reduced from one given the great French work, 
&Egypte,&,c. cf. P. V. §177. — See Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'Histoire et Lit. 
Anc. vol. v. p. 84. sur la Psychostasie, ou pesee des ames, with plate. 

§35. (8) Apollo. The earliest and most natural form of idolatry 
was the worship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splen- 
dor, light, heat, and salutary influence upon all nature, were taken as 
the supernatural and independent powers of a deity. Hence the an- 
cient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary, which was wor- 
shiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Persians 
under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of 
JPhoebus (ipolpog) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, con- 
sidered their c, H?.iog and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the 
history of Apollo many circumstances not connected with his original 
character as the god of light. 

§ 36. According to both nations, Apollo was the son of Jupiter 
and Latona, born on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god 
of the sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. 
They ascribed to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and ar- 
row, which he proved in killing the serpent Py tho, the sons of Niobe, 
and the Cyclops. The last achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was 
banished from Olympus. During his exile Apollo abode as a shep- 
herd (1) with Admetus king of Thessaly. He also assisted Neptune 
in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the laborers with 
his lyre and songs. His musical contest (2) with Pan and Marsyas 
is referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable cir- 



418 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

cumstances in his history are his love for Daphne and her transforma- 
tion into a laurel-tree (3) ; that of Clytie for him and her metamor- 
phosis into a sun-flower (4) ; his friendship for Hyacinthus (5), who 
was killed by Apollo's inattention, but changed into the flower of that 
name ; and for Cyparissus, also accidentally slain and changed into a 
tree (6) ; the indiscreet request of his son Phaethon (7), to guide his 
father's chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt. 

Ov. Met. ii. 680. — (2) vi. 332. xi. 146. — (3) Met. i. 452. — (4) iv. 206, 256. — (5) x. 162. — 
(6) x. 106. — (7) i. 750. 

§ 37a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both 
Greeks and Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he 
gave oracles at Didyma, Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple 
at Delphi, and the oracle connected with it, was the most celebrated • 
next in fame was that in Argos, and the one at Rome on the Palatine 
hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a famous library. The Greeks 
celebrated in honor of Apollo the Pythian games, and the Romans 
those called ludi Apollinares and the ludi seculares. The laurel and 
olive, the wolf and hawk, the swan and grasshopper, the raven, crow, 
and cock, were sacred to Apollo. — The following names were applied 
to Apollo : Cynthius, Delius, Nomius, Patareus, Pythius (iivBtog), 
Smintheus, Thymbrceus. 

He had also the following names : Abliag, Ilcciav, 'ExtjfioZog, To$o<p6Qo$ t 
jL).i%iy.ay.og. 

§ 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, 
was the highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and 
an immortal youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant 
monuments with long hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand 
a bow and lyre, and a quiver on his shoulder, naked, or but lightly 
clad. The most celebrated monument (1) is the marble statue, called 
the Apollo Belvidere. 

See P. I. §186.4. Cf.Tibull. L. iii. Ele. 4. v. 27.— "Sometimes he is painted 
with a crow and a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a laurel-tree on one side 
and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet grasshoppers creeping." 
Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the Muses, cf. § 103. He also appears, 
with a radiant head, in his chariot drawn by four horses. See Plate XI. fig. 4. 
A statue of Apollo stood upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mari- 
ners, and was seen at a great distance at sea. 

The stories respecting Apollo resemble those in the mythology respecting Crishna, who ia 
sometimes painted in company with nine damsels, who are whimsically grouped into the form 
of an elephant, on which he sits and plays upon his flute. He is also frequently represented as 
the destroyer of the great serpent ; in some views he is held in the folds of the serpent, which 
is biting his foot ; in others, he holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands, and 
crushes its head beneath his foot.— Cf. Sir Wm. Jones, as cited § 25. A.— Asiatic Researches, vol. 
viii. — CalmeVs Diet. &c. vol. in. p. 529 of ed. Charlestown, 1813. 

§ 38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, and was born 
of Latona on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in 
Apollo the sun was deified and adored; so was the moon, luna^M^, 
in Diana, who was called by the Greeks "AQrsuig. She was also 
recognised as the goddess of hunting or the chase, of which she was 
passionately fond in her youth. She was likewise viewed sometimea 
as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the name of Hecate. As 
presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with arrows, 
and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the grant 
of her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chas- 
tity. Hence her displeasure at the transgression of one of her nymphs, 



SUPERIOR GODS. DIANA. 419 

Calisto (1), and her transformation of Actaeon into a stag (2). The 
only one, towards whom she was not indifferent, was the shepherd or 
hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph Chione (3) from jealousy 
of her beauty, and the daughters of Niobe (4) because Latona was 
-slighted by their mother. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 464. — (S) iii. 194. — (3) ix. 321, — (4) vi. 148-312. Cf. P. I. § 186. 2. 

§ 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, no- 
where had she a temple so splendid as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. I. §234. 3.) 
With this exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most cele- 
brated, especially through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her 
principal temple at Rome was that erected by Servius Tullius on 
Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festival of the ludi seculares were 
sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she was particularly 
honored under the name of Lucina, as presiding over births. In this 
view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Hiihyia (hlsiQvia), 
although this was the name (§ 27) of a distinct divinity. — Some of 
her other names were Plioehe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, 
Agrotera (ayqoTiQa), Trivia, from her statues being placed in cross- 
ways as she presided over streets, CJiitone { X irwvr{), and Triformis 
(rQiaoQipoc), from her three-fold character as goddess of the moon or 
month, the chase, and the lower world. 

Other names or epithets were applied to her : 2oj« la, y.vvrjybq, b^alcpoiToc, 
TQiodinc, toxsaiQix and ro^ocpoooc. — : — " Diana is called Triformis and Terge- 
mina. First, because though she is but one goddess, yet she has three differ- 
ent names as well as three different offices. In the heavens she is called Luna ; 
on the earth she is named Diana, and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proser- 
pina. In the heavens she enlightens everything by her rays; on the earth 
she keeps under all wild beasts by her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps 
all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her by her power and authority. — 
Secondly, because she has, as the poets say, three heads ; the head of a horse 
on the right side, of a dog on the left, and a human head in the midst ; whence 
some call her three-headed or three-faced. — Thirdly, according to some, be- 
cause the moon has three phases or shapes ; the new moon appears arched with 
a semi-circle of light ; the half-moon fills a semi-circle with light ; and the full 
moon fills a whole circle or orb with splendor." 

§ 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments 
of art, tall and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing cos- 
tume, her legs bare, her feet covered with buskins, with bow and ar- 
rows, either alone, or accompanied by her nymphs, often with a 
hound near her, often riding in a chariot drawn by two white stags. 
(See Plate X. fig. 7.) She is thus represented in a beautiful statue 
supposed to have come from the same hands as the Apollo Belvidere. 
As the goddess of night, or the moon, she is represented in long 
robes, with a large starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a 
crescent on her head. We have figures of the Ephesian Diana, in 
the Egyptian style, and in Greek imitation of it, in which she is ex- 
hibited with numerous breasts, and very similar to Isis, whereby the 
fruitfulness of nature seems to have been represented. 

" Sometimes she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a pan- 
ther in the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of differ- 
ent colors." The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to 
her goats, or a white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. The inhabitants of Taurica 
offered on her altar strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 



4&G GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

§ 41. flO) Minerva. Under the name of Minerva among the 
Romans and of HaiiUq and "AQtjva among the Greeks, ancient fiction 
personified and deified the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. 
She was a daughter of Jupiter, sprung from his head. She is said 
first to have revealed herself near the lake Tritonis in Libya, from 
which circumstance she was called Tritonia, according to some ; 
others derive this epithet, and the Greek TqiroyivEia, from the word 
tqitoj signifying head. 

The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts 
and sciences (1), which had a great influence on their civilization. 
She was regarded as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spin- 
ning, the use of the olive, and various instruments of war ; in short, 
of most works indicating superior intelligence or skill. Arachne's 
contest with her in working with the needle, and consequent despair 
and transformation are beautifully described by Ovid (2). 

(1) Ov. Fastor. iii. 815. — (2) Metam. vi. 5. 

§ 42. The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boast- 
id of receiving its name from her. The splendid temple at that place 
dedicated to her was called Parthenon, in reference to her virgin 
purity (Ttuq&evog). She had other temples, at Erythrge, Tegea, and 
Sunium, and several at Rome. Her principal festivals among the 
Greeks were the Panathen&a, the greater and the less, and among 
the Romans, the Quinquatria, on each of which, games and con- 
tests were held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found 
on her images and on the Athenian coins. 

The following' is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens : — 
When Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its 
name ; and it was resolved in the assembly of the gods, that whichsoever of 
the two deities found out the most useful creature to man, should give the 
name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse is- 
sued from the earth. Minerva caused an olive to spring up. The latter was 
pronounced the more useful thing, and Minerva therefore gave the city her 
own name, A&ijva. Dr. Clarke imagines that this story had its origin from the 
fact, that the plains of Greece were once covered or nearly so with water, 
which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and thus a 
cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants. 

Clarke's Travels in various countries &c. Part II. sect. ii. ch. 12.— Respecting the Parthenon, 
cf. P. I. § 234, 242. P. V. §107. On the remains of the temple of Sunium, cf. Am. Quart. Rev. 
Vol. vi. p. 234. 

§ 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a 
helmet, the ^Egis, or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's 
head, with a spear and often a shield or buckler in her hand. (See 
Plate XI. fig. 6.) Her helmet is generally ornamented with the fig- 
ure of the owl, but presents various forms. The collossal statue of 
Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were much cele- 
brated ; the former (1) on account of the perfection of its workman- 
ship, the latter (2) on account of the superstitious confidence placed 

in it by the Trojans, Greeks and Romans. Besides the names 

Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was often called naq&hog, 
'Eqyang, and ^Eqyavrj, iioiiaq\ she is also termed Musica, Pylotis, and 
very often Flavxamg or Cgesia. 

(1) See P. I. $160,161, 179. P. V. §107. — (2) The Palladium was a statue 
of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other, about three cu- 
bits high. It was said to have fallen from heaven into the citadel of Troy or 



SUPERIOR GODS. MINERVA. MARS. 421 

lllium before it was completely built, and that the oracle of Apollo being con- 
sulted upon this occurrence answered, that " the city should be safe so long 
as that image remained within it." When the Greeks beseiged Troy, it was 
therefore thought of the first consequence to obtain this image. Ulysses and 
Diomedes succeeded it getting it by stealth (Vir. iEn. ii. 162). It was said to 
have been afterwards recovered from Diomedes by iEneas, carried to Italy, 
and finally lodged in the temple of Vesta. 

Minerva is supposed to hare been originally an Egyptian deity, worshiped 
particularly at Sais, under the title of Neith or Netha. Various Etymologies 
of her name A&tjva have been given ; among them is the conjecture, which 
derives it from the name of the Egyptian deity just mentioned, by inverting 
the order of the letters, vtjGa ad)jv. 

§ 44. (11) Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupi- 
ter and Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding 
over rude and fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, 
while Minerva had the credit of inventing tactics and the proper 

military art. Notwithstanding the high idea which Homer gives 

of the strength and heroism of Mars, he represents him as taken 
prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diomedes ; it was, 
however by the help of Minerva (II. v. 383, 855). Besides these oc- 
currences, his amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune re- 
specting the son of the latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by 
Mars, constitute all that is remarkable in his history. 

§45. He was most worshiped in Thrace (1), where probably the 
whole conception of such a god originated. He had however tem- 
ples and priests in most of the Grecian cities. The Romans regard- 
ed him as the father of Romulus, and the founder and protector of 
their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated to 
him a large public place, the Campus Martins, and a peculiar order 
of priests (2), the Salii, who celebrated his festival with music and 
dancing in solemn processions. 

(1) " Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, 
and his worship was comparatively neglected. But among the Romans, few 
gods were more popular ; they even claimed him as the founder of their race. 
It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; he seems to have been de- 
rived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlike and barbarous tribe, rather than 
Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and probably 
was the same deity under another name." Tookes Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. 

(2) Liv. i. 20. Ov. Fast. iii. 259. It was a special business of these priests 
to guard the ancilia, or sacred shields. (Cf. P. I. § 114. 4. P. IV. § 215.) — 
Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse for his vigor, the wolf 
for his fierceness, the dog for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also 
offered to him on account of their greediness. 

§ 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly 
vigor, with a strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, 
rather than vehement or passionate. He commonly appears equipped 
in armor ; sometimes naked ; sometimes in the attitude of marching, 
as Mars Gradivus. He was called "Aq^q D Y tne Greeks ; his other 
names are Odrysius, Strymonius, Eny alius, Thurius, Quirinus, 
Ultor. 

He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, cov- 
ered with armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand. (See Plate XI. 
fig. 7.) Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, drives the chariot, bearing 
in her hand a flaming torch. Sometimes he is represented as attended with 
a horrid retinue, Clamor, Anger, Discord, Fear, Terror, and Fame. 

36 



422 GREEK. AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Bellona, called by the Greeks ^Evvco, is sometimes said to be the wife ; 
sometimes the sister, and sometimes the daughter of Mars. She had a temple 
at Rome, and before it was a pillar called Bellica, over which the herald 
threw a spear when war was proclaimed. 

§ 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, 
and the love awakened by it, was in eastern fiction expressed and 
personified in an imaginary goddess ; she # was called by the Romans 
Venus, and by the Greeks 'Acpoodirtj. According to the common 
story, she was born from the foam (acpQbg) of the sea ; in Homer 
she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. After her 
birth she came first to Cythera, and thence to Cyprus. — Many of 
the gods sought her ; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse. She, 
however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially, although with 
unrequited passion ; the early death of the latter she bitterly lament- 
ed (a). In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to 
Venus the prize of beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the inter- 
ests of the Trojans. 

(a) Ovid, Metam. x. 500, 717ss. — Bion, Idyl on the death of Adonis. Cf. P. II. § 69. 
The story respecting Adonis, the young favorite of Venus, is, that being 
engaged in hunting, of which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal 
wound from a wild boar. At this Venus was immoderately grieved, and Pro- 
serpina restored him to life on condition of his spending six months with 
Venus and six with herself. It has been explained thus : " Adonis, or 
Jldonai, was an oriental title of the sun signifying Lord ; the boar, supposed 
to have killed him, was the emblem of winter, during which the productive 
powers of nature being suspended, Venus was said to lament the loss of Ad- 
onis until he was restored again to life ; whence both the Syrian and Argive 
Women annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation ; " — Lu- 
cian (De Syria Dea) gives an account of the festival Adonia, held in honor of 
him at Byblus. Cf. P. IV. § 77. 2. 

§ 48. The most celebrated places of her worship were Golgi, Pa- 
phos, and Amathus, upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly 
consecrated to her ; Cythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily ; all situa- 
ted near the sea, and in delightful regions. In Rome she was hon- 
ored as the pretended mother of JEneas, the ancestor of the nation, 
although her worship was first formally introduced from Sicily, in 
the sixth century after the building of the city. The pigeon or dove, 
the myrtle, and the rose were especially sacred to the goddess of love. 

The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were 
goats and swine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey. Some have con- 
sidered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the tradition re- 
specting the universal deluge ; her rising from the sea being a type of the 
World emerging from the waves of the flood. — Bryant's Mythology. — Hoi- 
well's Myth. Diet. 

§ 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the de- 
scription and representation of Venus to embody the fullest and pur- 
est idea of female beauty. The most distinguished antique statue of 
her is the famous Medicean Venus at Florence (1). Various images 
and attributes (2) were given to her, under the different characters 
of Venus Uremia, Marina, Victrix, &c. She was likewise known 
under the names Erycina, Anadyomene (hvaSvouhti), Paphia, Idalia. 

(1) See P.I. $186. 5. —(2) Heyne, iiber die Vorstellungsarter der Venus, in his Antiquar. 
Aufs'dtze. Manso's Abhandl. iiber die Venus, in his Versuch. iiber mytholog. Oegenst'dnde. 

The names and epithets of Venus were exceedingly numerous ; as, Cypria, 
Hai>§t]uog, Cylherea } <Pc?.ouEidi' i g, Tslnaoiyauog, Verticordia 7 r EraiQ<x, Acidalia ? 



SUPERIOR GODS. VENUS. VULCAN. 423 

Libertina, Saligenita, Qalaoola, &c. — She is represented, on coins and in the 
descriptions of the poets, in various ways ; sometimes she is clothed with a 
purple mantle glittering with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle and 
roses, riding in a chariot made of ivory, finely carved, painted and gilded, and 
drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Sometimes she is attended with the 
Graces and several Cupids. (See Plate X. fig. 6.) At one time she appears 
like a young virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she 
holds the shell in her hand. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (cf. P. I. 
§ 222), she appears rising from the bosom of the waves and wringing her 
tresses on her shoulders. In some representations she has golden sandals on 
her feet, and holds before her a brilliant mirror. The Sicyoniaus exhibited 
her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the other. In Elis she was 
painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. She usually had a 
belt or girdle called Cestus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to be folded. 

§ 50. The son of this goddess, "Eqag, Amor, or Cupid, was her 
common companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to 
influence by his arrows. He is represented with a bow and arrowsfaj, 
often with a burning torch in his hand. He was very frequently ex- 
hibited on ancient works of art, and in a great variety of forms (b). 
Often several cupids appear in company. His attachment to Psyche 
is the chief incident in his story, and forms one of the most beauti- 
ful allegories (c) of antiquity. "Avxlqiag, Anteros, who is usually 
considered the god of mutual love, was originally the god that 
avenges despised love. He is sometimes represented as wrestling 
with Cupid. 

(a) See our Plate XI. fig. 9. — (1) Cf. Manso, as cited $ 49. — (c) Cf. P. II. $471. 2. 

Hymenagus was also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He pre- 
sided over marriage. He was represented as of fair complexion, crowned 
with the amaracus or sic eet marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the 
other a veil of flame color, indicating the blushes of a virgin. 

§ 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agen- 
cies of the elements, as well as the appearances of the heavenly lu- 
minaries, excited astonishment and were deified. Traces of the wor- 
ship of fire are found in the earliest times. The Egyptians had their 
god of fire, from whom the Greeks derived the worship of "Hcpaiaroc, 
called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. Fable styles him the 
son of Jupiter and Juno. On occount of his deformity his mother 
thrust him from Olympus ; or, according to another story, Jupiter 
hurled him out, because he attempted to help Juno when fastened by 
the golden chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his 
chief residence, and was, according to the later fictions (2), lamed 
by his fall. 

(1) Horn. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. — (2) Vol. Flac. Argon, ii. 87. 

§ 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that 
are connected with the smelting and working of metals by means of 
fire, which element was considered as subject to him. His helpers 
and servants in such works were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and 
Gaia, whose residence also was in Lemnos, and of whom there are 
commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Steropes, and Pyrakmon. 
These are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops of a later 
period. 

1. The epithet Cyclopian is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly 
walls, in which large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted to- 
gether. 

Cfi P. I, $ 231. 3 f — r- Freret, L'Histoire des Cyclops, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxni. 27. 



424 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

2u. Mount iEtna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Li- 
para, one of the iEolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — Works requiring 
peculiar art and extraordinary strength, especially when metals were em- 
ployed as materials, were called bv the poets Vulcan's masterpieces. Among 
these were the palaces of Phoebus (1), of Mars (2), and Venus (3) : the golden 
chain of Juno (4), the thunderbolts of Jupiter (5), the crown of Ariadne (6), 
the arms of Achilles (7) and of ./Eneas (8), &c. 

(1) Ov. Metam. ii. 1. — (2) Stat. Theb. vii. 38. — (3) Claud. Epithal. Honor, et Mar. v. 58. 
— (4) Pausan. Att. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17. — (5) Ov. Metam. i. 258. — (6) Ov. Fast. iii. 513.— 
(7) Horn. II. xviii. 468.— (8) Virg. Mn. viii. 407. 

3. Vulcan is said to have formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman ; she was called 
Pandora, because each of the gods gave her some present, or accomplishment. Cf. Hes. Works 
and Days, v. 94. 

§ 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife 
Charis, or Aglaia; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva 
had rejected him. Harrnonia was his daughter, or the daughter of 
Mars and Venus. The Giants Cacus and Caeculus were called his 
sons. — He was worshiped particularly in Lemnos, and the Vulca-. 
nian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon iEtna. At Rome 
the Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 

JCaiy.sta. Sonne of his names are the following ; Lemnius, Mulct- 

ber, Cyllopodes ( xvUoTtoS^g), Amphigyeis (auyiyviitig). 

A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice to him. 

Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain 

mentioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 22). — Hohoell, Myth. Diet. 

§ 54. Vulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, 
with hammer and pincers in his hands ; sitting more frequently than 
standing (a). His lameness is not indicated in any existing monu- 
ments, although it was in many ancient statues (b). 

(a) See Plate X. fig. 4. — (b) Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 30. — « That by Vulcan 
is understood fire, the name itself discovers, if we believe Verro, who says 
that the word Vulcanus is derived from the force and violence of fire (Vulca- 
nius, quasi Volicanus, quod ignis per aerem volitat, vel a vi ac violentia ignis); 
and therefore he is painted with a blue hat, a symbol of the celestial or ele- 
mentary fire." (Tooke.) "Vulcan was represented covered with sweat, 

blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast was hairy 
and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some represented him lame and 
deformed, holding a hammer in the air ready to strike ; while with the other 
hand he turns with pincers a thunderbolt on his anvil. He appears on some 
monuments with a long beard, disheveled hair, half naked, and a small round 
cap on his head, with hammer and pincers in his hand." (Lemp.) 

§ 55. (14) Mercury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this 
god from the Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismegistus is so celebrated 
in their early history. According to the Greek and Roman fables, 
'TiQiajg, Mercurius or Mercury, was the son of Jupiter and Maia. 
Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter in the cave Cyllene 
in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by him among 
the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their 
mother Pleione. 

The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dex- 
terity, which he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in 
the most praiseworthy manner. This appears from the tricks related 
of him and from the circumstance, that he was considered as the 
god not only of mercature, but also of theft ; although the latter in 
early times was not viewed so much as a crime 3 as an evidence of 



SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 425 

power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus guarded 
by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul- 
can, &c. 

1 u. By his flute the guardian of Io, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was 
lulled to sleep. (Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means of his success in 
his feats was his eloquence ; this art was ascribed to him in a high degree. 
He invented also the lyre, attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and 
presented it to Apollo. In return Apollo gave him the celebrated wand (ca- 
duceus), the origin of which is variously stated; its efficacy was potent in 
calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury carried this rod as the 
messenger of the gods, and employed it to awaken dreams, and to conduct 
the shades of the dead to the lower world ; for he was called to offices and 
labors in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus. 

2. " The caduceus was a rod with wings at one end and entwined by two 
serpents, in the form of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more 
than a rod adorned with green leaves, and with a skilfully tied knot as the 
symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed by the poets 
into serpents and wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have 
been given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two 
serpents, and the wings are the symbol of diligence ; both necessary in the 
pursuit of business and commerce, which Mercury patronized." 

On the mythological character of Mercury, Class. Journal, xvi. 224. — Bottiger's Amalthea. 
i. 104. 

§ 56. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding 
his wand, almost always in motion, either flying or rapidly marching, 
wearing a winged hat (Petasus), and winged sandals (talaria). 
(See Plate XI. fig. 2.) Sometimes he holds a purse in his hand, as 
the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in refer- 
ence to his invention of the lyre. The monuments called Hermse 
(P. I. § 164) were originally statues of Mercury. They had their 
origin when art was in a very imperfect state, but were afterwards 
retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men. 

The worship of Mercury was very common among Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. 
At Rome there was a particular festival (festum Mercatorum) held 
for the expiation of merchants, in honor of Mercury. The cock 
was sacred to him, and appears sometimes as an attribute in the im- 
ages of Mercury. His more common epithets are Cyllenius, Atlan- 
tiades, Ales, Agorgeus (ayoqaiog), Caducifer. 

Other common epithets are ' AQyaKfovrtjg, Siuxroiq, and odtjybg; he is also 
termed du/.iog crafty, xsodwoc, as presiding over wealth, rQixi(pa?.og, because 
his statues were placed where three ways met. — At his festival above named, 
held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow or a calf, 
and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with 
water, prayed to him to forgive all their artful measures or falsehoods in pur- 
suit of gain. 

§ 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans worshiped the 
inventor and god of wine, under the name of Bacchus, Bux^og, the 
former also called him Jiowaog. In the fictions of both, he was the 
son of Jupiter and Semele, a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to 
her request, Jupiter appeared to her in his full majesty and divinity, 
the fiery splendor of which caused her death (Ovid, Met. iii. 260). 
Jupiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet born, and carried him. 
in his own thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, ac- 
cording to some etymologists, the poets called him diOvqaupos, as hav 
36* 



426 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

ing been twice born ; a name which was afterwards given to the 
irregular hymns sung at his festivals. 

§ 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and re- 
lated a multitude of achievements as performed by him. Especially 
was he celebrated for his advancement of morals, legislation, and 
commerce ; for the culture of the vine and the rearing of bees ; and 
for his military expeditions and success, particularly in India. He 
was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle-worker, except in 
Scythia. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story re- 
specting Midas, king of Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse 
and preceptor Silenus, and received as a compensation the fatal at- 
tribute of turning into gold (1) every thing he touched. — Some of 
the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian 
sailors into dolphins (2) ; his residence upon the island Naxos, where 
he found Ariadne, forsaken by Theseus, and espoused her, but like- 
wise forsook her, and after her death placed her crown among the 
stars (3) ; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele 
back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone. 

(1) Ovid, Metam. xi. 85. — (2) Met. iii. 650. — (3) Fast. iii. 459. 

§ 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early in the East, 
probably in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced 
in the Grecian or Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who 
refused to participate in it, were punished with death, and the daugh- 
ters of Minyas and Orchomenos for the same reason were changed 
into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cithaeron, Naxos, and Alea in Ar- 
cadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of Bacchus. The 
most eminent of his festivals were the Trieterica and the Dionysia, 
in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These cele- 
brations at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were final- 
ly on that account abolished in Rome by the senate, in the year of 
the city 568. — The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sa- 
cred to him. Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because 
they are particularly injurious to the vine. 

The Oscophoria, Elpilania, Jlpaturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as 
festivals of this god. 

On the Dionysia, cf. P. IV. § 77. 3. — On the worship of B., Frcret, Le Culte de Bacchus, 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxm. p. 242. — G.F.Creuzer, Dionysus, s. comment. Acad, de Rerum Bac- 
chic, originibus et causis. Heidelb.1809. 4.—Rolle, Recherches sur le Culte de Bacchus. Paris, 
3 vols. 8. 

§ 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more 
dignified than those with which the later artists were accustomed to 
degrade him. By the poets and artists of antiquity he was exhibited 
as a handsome agreeable boy, just on the border of youth, with a form 
more resembling a female, than that of Mercury or Apollo. (See PI. 
X. fig. 8.) Of no other god have we a greater number or variety of 
representations, in statues, bas-reliefs, and gems (I), than of Bacchus 
with his train, Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. — He 
is called Lyseus, Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus, Thryambus, 
Thyrsiger (2), Liber, Ignigenia, and Bimater. 

(1) See Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 142-167. — (2) Ov. Metam. iv. 11. 

Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with 
swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, 
having in his hand a thyrsus, an iron-headed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine 



SUPERIOR GODS. BACCHUS. CERES. 427 

leaves. Sometimes he appears an infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of 
grapes with a horn. Sometimes he is on the shoulders of Pan, or in the arms 
of Silenus. Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn by tigers, leopards, or pan- 
thers, surrounded by his retinue of Satyrs and Bacchse, and followed by old 
Silenus on an ass. 

Pliny fHist. Nat. L. xxxvi. c. 5) mentions an image of Silenus, in the mar- 
ble quarry of Paros, said to be the work of nature. There is now in the same 
quarry a curious bas-relief, of which the image of Silenus forms a part. Dr. 
Clarke supposes this image to have been a lusus natures, and the other pieces 
now in the bas-relief to have been added to it by sculpture. " It represents a 
festival of Silenus. The demigod is figured in the upper part of it as a corpu- 
lent drunkard, with ass's ears, accompanied by laughing satyrs, and dancing 
girls. A female figure is represented sitting with a fox sleeping in her lap, 
A warrior is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XVIL 
fig. n and o]. There are twenty-nine figures ; and below is this inscription : 
A JAMAS OJPYSHS NTM&AIS." 

The worship and story of Bacchus is of eastern origin ; in several points they resemble those 
of the Egyptian Osiris. There is also thought to be a striking resemblance between Bacchus 

and the Schiva of India (cf. Rhode, as cited § 13). Sir Wm. Jones (as cited § 25. 4) considers 

Bacchus and the Hindoo Rama to be the same. " The first poet of the Hindoos" says he, 
c< was the great Valmic, and his Ramayan is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity 
of action, magnificence of imagery, and elegance of style, far surpasses the learned and elabo- 
rate work of JXonnus entitled Dionysiaca (cf. P. II. § 76 ), half of which, or twenty-four books, 
I perused with great eagerness when I was very young, and should have traveled to the con- 
clusion of it, if other pursuits had not engaged me. I shall never have leisure to compare the 
Dionysiacks with the Ramayan, but am confident that an accurate comparison of the two poems 

would prove Dionysos & Rama to have been the same person." It may be remarked that the 

abominations of the Dionysiac festivals are to this day practiced at the temple of Juggernaut in 

Hindostan. Cf. Constant, De la Religion, vol. n. — Voss, Antisymbolik. — Asiatic Researches, 

vol. VIII. 

§ 61. (16) Ceres. However useful the planting of the vine might 
be, agriculture in general was much more so, and formed one of the 
earliest and most common pursuits of men. The observation of its 
importance and of the productiveness of nature occasioned the con- 
ception of a particular divinity, to whom its discovery and improve- 
ment were ascribed. The usual name for this divinity was jyptfrqQ 
among the Greeks, and Ceres with the Romans. She was considered 
as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a daugh- 
ter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situ- 
ated in a fertile region of Sicily. 

In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, 
and to instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. To her is as- 
cribed also the establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. 
Afterwards she imparted her favors to other lands, and the people of 
Attica particularly boasted of her protection, and her instruction in 
agriculture and the use of the plough. She associated Triptolemus 
with her as a companion in her travels, and sent him over the earth-, 
to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him to the rank of a god. 

See Homer, Hymn to Ceres. — Ovid, Fast. iv. 507-562. Metam, v. 642-661. 

§ 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by 
Pluto has been already mentioned (<§ 32). Ceres sought for her with 
a burning torch everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge 
of agriculture and good morals. She at length discovered that Pluto 
had borne her to his realms, supplicated Jupiter for her deliverance, 
and received a favorable answer, on condition that Proserpine had 
tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she had just tasted of the 
pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and liberty to return 
to this world only for half the year (1). 



428 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, 

To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circum- 
stances ; her changing herself into a horse and into one of the furies, 
to escape the pursuit of Neptune ; her transformation of Lyncus into 
a lynx on account of his perfidy (2) ; and her punishment of Erysich- 
thon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him with 
insatiable hunger (3), so that he devoured at last his own limbs. 

Ov. Met iv. 552.— Claudian, de Raptu Proseipinae. — (2) Ov. Met. v. 649. — (3) lb. viii. 738, 
~-Callim. Hymn, in Cer. v. 26.— See Emesti's Excursus, in his ed. of Call, ('cited P. II. <S 70. 2) 
vol. i. p. 262. 

§ 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the 
BeouoipoQia, which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially 
in Athens, in honor of her as having taught the use of laws. Still 
more celebrated, however, were the Eleusinian Mysteries, which were 
likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were of two sorts, the greater and 
the less, the latter held annually, the former only every fifth year. Be- 
sides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with several festivals 
before and after harvests, e. g. the nqo^ooia, and the r i;i«, the 
Cerealia and the Ambarvalia. 

Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, 
and the burning of a fox (vulpium combustio). "A fox was burnt to death at 
her sacred rites, with torches tied round it; because a fox wrapt round with 
stubble and hay set on fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn 
of the people of Carseoli, a town of the iEqui, as the foxes of Samson did the 
standing corn of the Philistines." 

Cf. Ovid, Fast. iv. 681. — Judges, xv. 4. — Classical Journal, vi. 325. 

The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the mysteries 
were celebrated, were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He 
found also a fragment of a colossal statue of the goddess among the moldering 
vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With great exertions that traveler 
procured the removal cf the statue, in order to its being transported to Eng- 
land. 

See Clarke's Travels, Part n. sect. 2. ch. 18.— Lond, Quart. Rev. xvn. 202. On the Eleu- 
sinian Mysteries, see P. IV. § 77. 4. P. I. § 41. — Warburton, in his Divine Legation of Moses.— - 
J. Meursii, Eleusinia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. 4. — Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. et crit. sur les Mys- 
teres. (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8. — Ouwaroff, Essai sur les mysteres d'Eleusis. 
St. Petersb. 1815. 8. — Bougainville, in the Mem. Acad. Iuscr. xxi. 83. — Class. Journ. xm. 399. 
xiv. 165. xv. 117. — On the Thesmophoria, see Dutheil, as cited P. II. $ 65. 3. On the Am- 
barvalia, cf. P. IV. § 219. 

§ 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are 
ears of corn, and the poppy, her usual ornament. She is often ex- 
hibited with a torch in her hand, to signify her search after Proser- 
pine. — Ceres bore several names and epithets, as Jt^, 0£ouo(p6oog, Zira>, 
and Eleusinia. 

In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady with a garland 
on her head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and a clus- 
ter of poppies and ears of corn in the other. (See Plate XI. fig. 5.) She also 
appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox, carrying a basket 
and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn by winged 
dragons. Her associate Triptolemus also appears occupying her chariot (Ov. 
Met. v. 646). — The name JtjU7;T7]Q is by some derived from Sfj for yij and uyJTtjq, 
signifying mother-earth. — See Knight's Enquiry into the symbol. Lang. &c. 
Class. Journ. 

§65. (17) Vesta. The ideas conceived in the Greek and Roman 
fables respecting the earth as a person and goddess were exceeding- 
ingly numerous and various. Besides Gaia, Titaea or Tellus, who 
represented the earth taken in a general sense, they imagined Cybele 
to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated ; Ceres more particu- 
larly signified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of Vesta or c Earla 



INFERIOR GODS. 429 

was employed to represent the earth as warmed by internal heat. The 
latter goddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness, 
being supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called 
the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men 
the use of fire. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy (1), 
and granted to her the first oblations in all sacrifices. 

(1) Ov. Fast. iv. 249. She is sometimes termed Vesta the younger, to 

distinguish her from Cybele (§19), who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesta 
the younger is the same with Ignis or fire. 

§ 66. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to Vesta, 
and for this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front 
■of all houses. The same was done in the buildings termed nQvravtia, 
which were usually found in the Greek cities near their centre; that 
at Athens (P. V. § 115) was the most famous. More rarely were 
temples raised for her. In her temple at Rome the celebrated Palla^ 
dium was supposed to be kept. 

She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, bearing in her 
hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. (See Plate XL fig. 10.) It is, how- 
ever, more frequently a priestess of Vesta, that is thus represented. 

The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any 
image of the goddess. — Vesta is sometimes represented as holding in one hand 
a javelin, or a Palladium ; sometimes also with a drum in one hand and an 
image of victory in the other. 

§ 67. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those 
among the Romans under the name of Vestales, the vestal virgins, 
were much more celebrated, the mother of Romulus having belonged 
to the order, although their first regular institution is ascribed to Nu- 
ma. (Cf. P. IV. §218.) Their principal duty was to watch and keep 
alive the sacred Jire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. § 43). 
Their rigid seclusion was rewarded by various privileges, and a pe- 
culiar sacredness was attached to their persons. 

The extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sudden and terri- 
ble disasters, and if it ever happened, all business was at once interrupted un- 
til expiation had been made with great ceremony. Negligence on the 
part of the virgins was severely punished. The fire was every year re- 
newed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays 
of the sun. 

On Vesta and the Vestals ; Livy, i. 20.— Plutarch, Life of Numa. — Class.' Journ. xv. 123, 257* 
-xvi. 32. — Nadal, Histoire des Vestales, in the Mem. de VAcad. des laser, vol. iv. p. 161, 227. — 
Cf. P. IV. § 218. — Lipsius, de Vesta, in his Works. — Dupuy, La maniere dont les anciens 
rallumoient'le/ezt sacre &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxv. p. 395. 



II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods. 

§ 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated In- 
ferior gods, are Ccelus or > Ovqavbq", Sol or °H?.iog ; Luna or SsX/jvrj ; Aurora 
or 'Ha>g ; Nox or Nv% ; Iris, ~ iQig ; iEolus or Al'oXog ; Pan, Ttav ; Latona or 
A t,Tw ; Themis or 0>' t uig ; iEsculapius or * j£ar.?jpii&g ', Plutus or H/.ovrog ; 
Fortuna or Tv/vr t ; and Fama or <£>y"7 ; which were all common to the Greeks 
and Romans. But to this class are also to be referred several divinities, which 
were peculiar to the R,omans as distinguished from the Greeks; among which 
we may place the following : (1) a number of gods and goddesses of the rural 



430 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

species, as Terminus, Flora, and the like ; (2) a large number of such as were 
imagined to preside over particular pursuits and employments ; (3) some for- 
eign gods admitted by the Romans from countries conquered by them ; (4) the 
deified emperors. 

§ 69. (1) Ccelus. Although this god was considered as one of the 
most ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was 
attached to his worship either among the Greeks or Romans. His 
wife was the goddess of the earth, Titsea or Gaia ; their offspring 
were the Titans, the Cyclops, and the Centimani. Through fear that 
these sons would deprive him of his kingdom, he precipitated them 
all to Tartarus, whence they were liberated, however, by the aid of 
Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Fu- 
ries were called daughters of Uranus, or Ccelus. 

§ 70. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation 
in the history of early nations. According to the account of Diodo- 
rus (1), Uranus would seem to have been a king of the Atlantides, 
the founder of their civilization, and the author of many useful inven- 
tions. Among other things he was a diligent observer of the heav- 
enly bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many of their 
changes. Admiration of such knowledge might lead to his deification.. 
Perhaps it might occasion the use of his name ('Ovqavbg) to signify 
the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, appears to 
have been very ancient. 

(1) Diod. Sic. L. iii. c. 56. L. v. c. 44. — The Atlantides were a people of 
Africa, living near Mt. Atlas. — The Titans, called the sons of Uranus, are by 
some considered to refer merely to the constellations. Cf. § 97. 

§ 71. (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans worshiped Apollo 
as the god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named 
him Phoebus, yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distin- 
guished from Apollo especially in the earlier fables , under the literal 
name applied to designate the sun, viz. Sol or "HXiog. These words, 
therefore, were employed to express not only the actual body in the 
heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate and personal 
existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is called 
the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his 
sisters. 

§ 72. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of 
the first and most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that 
the Worship of this god was early introduced into Greece. Many 
temples were consecrated to Helius. The island Rhodes in particular 
was sacred to him, where was erected his celebrated colossal statue, 
one of the seven wonders of the world. Among the Romans his 
worship was organized with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who 
had been a priest of the same god in Syria, and afterwards erected a 
temple to his honor at Rome. 

Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile form, entirely 
clothed, having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the 
Horee, and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn 
by four horses, which bear distinct names. These and many other 
circumstances, pertaining to him, are also related of Phoebus or Apollo, 
when considered as the god of the sun. 

Cf. Ovid, Met. ii. Helius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the 



PLATE XI h. 




432 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, 

head of a young man crowned with rays. See Plate XII. fig. 1. — The seven 
wonders of" the world were, (1) the colossal statue of the Sun at Rhodes, 70 
cubits high, placed across the harbor so that a large vessel could sail between 
its legs ; (2) The Mausoleum, or sepulchre of Mausolus king of Caria, built 
of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful colums ; 
(3) The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias (Cf. P. I. § 179) ; (4) The 
temple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in height, with a splendid 
image of the goddess ; (5) The walls of Babylon built by Semiramis, 50 or 80 
feet wide and 60 miles in circuit (Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. iii. ch. 1.) ; (6) The 
pyramids of Egypt ; (7) The palace of Cyrus. 

On the Mausoleum, see Comte de Caylus, Tombeau de Mausole. Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvi. 321. 
—Sainte Croix, Tomb, de Maus. Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d^Hist. &c. ii. 506. 

§ 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, 
and was called SiXtivy by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent 
and story from Diana or "Aqnuiq, who was, however, taken as god- 
dess of the moon. To Luna was ascribed great influence in relation 
to the birth of men. Pandia was said to be a daughter of Luna and 
Jupiter or Saturn (a). In common with her brother Helius, Luna 
seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlantides. Both the 
Greeks and Romans consecrated appropriate temples to her, although 
the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more 
prevalent among them. She was represented like Diana in this char- 
acter, as a goddess riding in a chariot through the skies, with the stars 
as her attendants (6). 

(a) Cf. Homer, Hymn to Luna. — (b) She is represented on coins by the bust 
of a fair young woman with a crescent on her head. See Plate XII. fig. 3. 

§ 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was 
the goddess of the morning or day-dawn, styled by the Greeks 'E^g 
or c Huiqcc, by the Romans Aurora. By others she is said to have 
been the daughter of the giant Pallas, and therefore called Pallan- 
tias. Orion and Tithonus were her principal lovers, and Lucifer and 
Memnon her most distinguished sons. The latter is memorable for 
the honors paid to him in Egypt, and for his famous vocal statue at 
Thebes. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, 
although she seized and bore him away from his beloved Procris, 
whom, after his return to her, he had the misfortune to kill through 
an accident occasioned by her jealousy. The early death of a youth 
was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theft by Auro- 
ra ( r Htiiqag uQitay^). 

The statue of Memnon is supposed to be one of those existing at the pres- 
ent day among the ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medi- 
net Abou. A part of the body of it is said to be now in the British Museum. 
It is called by the Arabians Salamat, the statue which bids good morning, a 
name evidently originating in a belief of the ancient and common tradition ; 
which was, that this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it 
shone upon it. The statue is covered with inscriptions by persons declaring 
that they had heard its voice at the rising of the sun. — Mr. Wilkinson states, 
from experiment actually made by himself, that if a person in the top of this 
colossus, which is in a sitting posture, give it a blow with a hammer, it will 
cause a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of 
brass. 

See J. O. Wilkinson,, on the contrivance by which the statue of Memnon was made vocal ; 
in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, vol. n. Lond. 1834. — M. Letronne, In- 
scriptions Grecques et Latines du Colossus de Memnon &c, in Same Transactions, vol. in. 

Lond. 1837.— Amer. Quart. Review, No. ix. On the story of Cephalus, Ovid, Metam. vii. 

661,703. 



INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. NOX. IRIS. jEOLUS. 433 

§ 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and 
of the day, and was sometimes caBed by the literal name of the lat- 
ter among the Greeks, "Huioa. By the poets she is represented as a 
beautiful young woman, whose chariot was drawn by white or light 
red horses, and who opened the portals of the Sun with rosy fingers. 
Homer designates her by the epithet e PoSo8uxrviog. 

She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe {Kqoy.ontTc7.og), in 
a rose-colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was 
called the mother of the stars and of the winds. 

§ 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and 
placed among the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of 
this early origin she is called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of 
gods and men. Generally, however, she is an allegorical rather than 
a mythological personage, and in such a sense, sleep, death, dreams^ 
the furies, &c. are called her children. According to the descrip- 
tions of poets, and in some representations by art, she is exhibited 
as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil 
spangled with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in 
a chariot by two horses with a retinue of stars. A black cock was 
the offering commonly presented to her. 

A black sheep was also offered to her as mother of the furies. Pausanias de* 
scribes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and a black 
child in her left, representing sleep and death. She has also been described 
as a woman with her face veiled in black, crowned with poppies, and in a 
chariot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of our Plate XII., she holds a veil 
over her head, and three stars appear above it. 

§ 77. (6) Iris. By the name ~lqig was designated among the 
Greeks the rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her 
father was said to be Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the 
daughters of Oceanus, Her residence was near the throne of Juno, 
whose commands she bore as messenger to the rest of the gods and 
to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she was Jupiter's messenger, and 
was employed even by other deities. She had also sometimes in ref- 
erence to dying females an office, which was usually assigned to Pro- 
serpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolution (1). 
The rainbow was the path, by which she descended from Olympus, 
and returned thither. 

(1) Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704. She is represented with wings having the 

Various colors of the rainbow, and often appears sitting behind Juno as wait- 
ing to execute her commands. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not 
Unfrequently sent on errands of strife and discord ; whence some have thought 
her name derived from i'qig, strife. Others derive it from siqw, to speak or 
declare. 

§ 78. (7) Molus. Under the name of JEolus both Greeks and 
Romans worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was 
called the son of Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of 
Hippotes, an ancient lord of the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he re- 
ceived his authority over the winds, which had still earlier been 
formed into mythical persons, and were known by the names Zephy- 
rus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered the 
servants of iEolus. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island 
in the Mediterranean sea, and let them loose only to further his own 
37 



434 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

designs or those of others, in awakening storms, hurricanes and 
floods. He is usually described «by the poets as virtuous, upright, 
and friendly to strangers. 

Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1. — Virg. iEn. i. 52. The island where iEolus is 

said to have reigned was Strongyle (STyoyyvly)), so called on account of its 
round figure, the modern Stromboli. — See Heyne, Excurs. ad j£n. i. 51. — 
Cf. Pliny, N. H. iii. 8. — The name Molus is thought to come from alo).oq, 
changeable. 

§ 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, 
was Pan, whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god 
of shepherds and herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever per- 
tained to rural affairs. His worship was probably derived from the 
Egyptians. He was said to be the son of Mercury and Dryope ; but 
his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite residence was in 
the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to Syrinx, who 
was changed into a reed (1), he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
reeds, and called it. by her name. His pride in this invention led 
him into his unlucky contest with Apollo (2). He also invented a 
war-trumpet, whose sound was terrific to the foe ; a circumstance (3) 
which gave rise to the phrase, panic fear or terror (navixbv Sttua). 

(1) Ov. Metam. i. 682. — (2) lb. x. 146.— (3) Pausan. Phoc. c. 23. 

§ 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the 
form of a goat, and under the name of Mendes (1). In Greece, Ar- 
cadia was especially sacred to him, and here he is said to have given 
oracles on Mount Lycaeus. His festivals, called Avxaia by the Greeks, 
were introduced by Evander among the Romans, and by them called 
Lupercalia (2). Goats, honey, and milk were the usual offerings 
to Pan. 

His image (3) was generally human only in part, having common- 
ly the form of a satyr, with ears sharp pointed, and standing erect, 
with short horns, a flat nose, a body covered with hair or spotted, 
and the feet and legs of a goat. His Greek name niv, signifying the 
whole or all, had reference to the circumstance, that he was consid- 
ered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, it was 
derived from nUw (to feed), and referred to his patronage of shep- 
herds and their flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, 
Lupercus, Maenalius, and Lycaeus. 

(1) Herod, ii.46. — (2) Ov. Fast. ii. 31, 267. — (3) Sil. Ital. Pun. xiii. 326. 

In some representations of Pan his head was crowned with pine, which was 
sacred to him, and he bore in one hand a crooked staff, and in the other a pipe 
of reeds. See Plate XII. fig. 7. — "The figure of Pan is a rude symbol of 
the universe, and he appears to have been originally a personification of the 
Anima Mundi, or terrestrial soul, by which some ancient nations believed that 
the entire universe was directed." This god does not appear in the poems 
of Homer or Hesiod. 

§81. (9) Latona. She was called ii ; rw by the Greeks and held 
a distinguished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this ac- 
count was often ranked among the superior deities. She was daugh- 
ter of Coeus or Polus and Phcebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's 
love. The jealousy and anger of Juno was excited against her, and 
she adjured the goddess of earth to allow Latona no place to bring 
forth her offspring, Neptune, however, granted the island Delos for 



INFERIOR GODS. LATONA. THEMIS. jESCULAPIUS. 435 

the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to Lycia, 
where (1) she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by 
some peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. 
— Still more severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe (2), a 
daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion king of Thebes. Niobe 
slighted the divinity of Latona, and the latter engaged both her chil- 
dren, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her ; they, by their arrows, slew 
the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief was 
changed into stone. 

(1) Ov. Metam. vi. 335. — (2) Metam. xi. 321. Cf. $38. 

§ 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the isl- 
and Delos, at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete 
a festival was sacred to her, called 'EyJvaia. Latona is sometimes 
spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible that her name 
originated in this idea, derived from z'tjdm, to be concealed, as nature 
was buried in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun and 
Moon or Apollo and Diana. 

She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, 
so painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. 

§ 83. (10) Themis. The goddess of justice (Ohug) was one of the 
most celebrated of the Titanides, or daughters of Uranus and Titaea. 
To her is ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first in- 
troduction of sacrifices into Greece. She had by Jupiter three daugh- 
ters, Jiy.r], >Evvoula, and 'Etoi'jvt], which were commonly called the 
Hurce ("i^»ta), who are represented by the poets in various lights, 
but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division and distri- 
bution of time (§ 105). Astraea also was by some called a daughter 
of Themis. Astrcea was likewise a goddess of justice or rather of 
property, and, according to Ovid's account (Metam. i. 149), was the 
last of the divinities to quit the earth. She was placed among the 
constellations of the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently 
called Erigone, and represented with a stern countenance and hold- 
ing a pair of scales in one hand and a sword in the other. There 
was still another goddess, Nemesis, who was supposed to judge re- 
specting moral actions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighte- 
ousness. She was called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance 
that Adrastus first erected a temple to her, and also Rhamnusia from 
having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 

See Aul. Gell. Noct. Attic, xiv. 4. — Herder's Zerstreuten Bldttern, Samml. 2. p. 213. 

§ 84. (11) JEsculapius. In proportion as men in the early ages 
were ignorant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there 
was the greater admiration of those who were distinguished in the 
art of healing, and the greater readiness to deify them. Hence the 
deification of JSsculapius, who was viewed as the god of Medicine, 
and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis (1). Hy- 
geia, the goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two cele- 
brated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon 
and Podalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their 
death. vEsculapius was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the 
request of Pluto. His most celebrated grove and temple was at Epi- 
daurus (2), where he was worshiped under the form of a serpent. 



436 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this 
god, either free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, 
or prudence and foresight (3). 

(1) Ov. Metara. ii. 591. (2) lb. xv. 622.— The ruins of the temple at 

Epidaurus are still visible at the place now called Jcro, pronounced Yero, a 
corruption perhaps of c Isqov (sacra aides). There were at this ancient seat of 
the god of health medical springs and wells, which may yet be traced. 

Clarke's Travels, part n. sect. 2. ch. xv. — Freret, Culte rendu a iEsculapius, in the Mem. 
Acad. Inscr. xxi. 28. 

(3) See Plate XII. fig. 6. — The serpent was also attached by the Romans 
to their goddess of health, Salus. She was honored by them with a temple 
and festivals. One of the city-gates, being near her temple, was called Porta 
Salutaris. She was represented with a bowl in her right hand and a serpent 
in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and lifting his head up- 
on it. 

§ 85. (12) Plutus. The god of riches, m.ovrog, was probably of 
allegorical rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek is 
but the common term for wealth. His father, according to the fable, 
was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by Electra, and his mother was Ceres, 
who gave him birth in a beautiful region in Crete. Jupiter, as it was 
allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and his usual resi- 
dence was low beneath the earth. It is not known by what figure 
he was visibly represented. Pausanias barely remarks, that in the 
temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant 
in the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held 
him as an infant in her arms. — By some Plutus is considered as the 
same personage as Pluto, ruler of the world of spirits, and this may 
have been the case, 

u Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, 
because large estates come slowly. He is fearful and timorous, because rich 
men watch their treasures with a great deal of fear and care." 

§ 86. (13) Fortune. Of a like allegorical character was the god- 
dess of Fortune, Tvxnt Fortuna, to whom was ascribed the distribu- 
tion and the superintendence of prosperity and adversity in general. 
Among the Greeks she had temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna ; 
and in Italy, before the building of Rome, she was honored at An- 
tium, and especially at Prasneste (1). In the temple at Antium were 
two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as oracles, and gave 
answer by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. 
Similar divinations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her tem- 
ple was one of the richest and most celebrated. The Romans made 
her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets 
originating from different occasions ; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, 
Bona, Blanda, Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c. 

(1) Hor. L. i. Od. 35. " The goddess of Fortune is represented on an- 
cient monuments with a horn of plenty and sometimes two in. her hands. 
She is blindfolded, and generally holds a wheel in her hand as an emblem of 
her inconstancy. Sometimes she appears with wings, and treads upon the 
prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands." — See Plate XII. fig. 9. 

§ 87. (14) Fame. The goddess styled <£>,>??, or Fama, was also 
of allegorical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of 
Earth, who gave birth to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of 
her sons, the Giants, in order that she might divulge universally the 



INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 437 

scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the other gods. She had a place 
in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a temple at Athens. 
She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both good and 
bad. The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, al- 
ways flying about, accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, false- 
hood and credulity. 

Cf. Virg. Mn. iv. 173. — Ov. Metam. xii. 39. — Stat. Theb. iii. 426. 

§ 88. (15) Deities peculiar to the Romans, (a) T e r m i n u s. — 
In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of proper- 
ty and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, the 
Romans invented a god, who had it for his peculiar province to guard 
and protect them, called Terminus. His statue, in the form of those 
called Hermes (§ 56), was employed usually to mark the limits of 
fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular 
festival, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of Feb- 
ruary by the occupants and proprietors of contiguous lands (I). Up- 
on these occasions offerings were presented to the god on the boun- 
daries or separating lines. He had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. 

— Oftentimes the statues of other gods, particularly the rural, were 
placed in the form of Hermae, to mark the limits of landed property, 
and Jupiter himself was sometimes represented under the name of 
Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalis. 

The Romans ranked Priapus among the deities whose province 
was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was 
usually placed in gardens (2), which were considered as more partic- 
ularly his care. 

CI) Ov. Fast. ii. 639.— (2) Hor. L. i. Sat. 8. — Priapus is usually repre- 
sented with a human face and the ears of a goat ; he has a sickle or scythe to 
prune the trees and cut down the corn, and a club to keep off thieves ; his 
body terminates in a shapeless trunk. An ass was generally sacrificed to him. 

— Images of Priapus were sometimes worn as a sort of amulet (fascinum) to 
guard against evil charms, and hung upon the doors of houses and gardens. 
Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 4. Cf. P. IV. § 227. 2. The god whose special province 
it was to protect from the charm of the evil eye was named Fascinus. — Plin. 
Hist. Nat. xxiv. 4. 

§ 89. (b) Vertumnus. — Under this name an old Italian 
prince, who probably introduced the art of gardening, was honored 
after death as a god. The Romans considered him as specially pre- 
siding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Pomona, one of the 
Hamadryads (1), a goddess of gardens and fruits, whose love he 
gained at last after changing himself into many forms, from which 
circumstance his name (2) was derived. This goddess is represented 
on some monuments of ancient art, and is designated by a basket of 
fruit placed near or borne by her. 

(1) Cf. § 101. — (2) Ov. Metam. xiv. 623. — " Vertumnus is generally rep- 
resented as a young man, crowned with dowers, covered up to the waist, and 
holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left." 

§ 90. (c) Flora. — The Romans had also a particular goddess 
of blossoms and flowers, whom they worshiped under the name of 
Flora. She is said to have been the same as the Grecian nymph 
Chloris ; although others maintain, that she was originally but a Ro- 
man courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly 
37* " 



438 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

unknown to the Greeks, since Pliny speaks of a statue of her made 
by Praxiteles (I). She was represented as very youthful, and richly 
adorned with flowers. She had a festival and games at Rome, cele- 
brated (2) in the month of April, called Floralia; they presented 
scenes of unbounded licentiousness. 

(1) Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 5. — (2) Ov. Fast. v. 283. — The indecency of this 
festival was checked on one occasion by the presence of Cato, who chose 
however to retire rather than witness it (Valcr. Max. ii. 10). By some the 
festival is said to have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the 
name of Flora. — In our Plate XII. fig. 5, Flora is represented with a garland 
of flowers on her head, and a horn of plenty on her left arm. 

§ 91. (d) F e r o n i a. — Another goddess of fruits, nurseries, 
and groves, among the Romans, was Feronia. She had a very rich 
temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a grove specially sacred to 
her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves (P. IV. 
§ 324), who ordinarily received their liberty in her temple. It was 
pretended that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on 
burning coals. Her name was derived according to some from a 
town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte ; according to others, from 
the idea of her bringing relief (fero) to the slave ; or from that of 
her producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit. 

§ 92. (e) Pales. — Another goddess of the same class, was Pa- 
les {horn pabulum), to whom was assigned the care of pasturage and 
the feeding of flocks. In her honor a rural festival was held in the 
month of April, called Palilia or Parilia. 

1. Cf. Ov. Fast. iv. 721. On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed 

little heaps of straw in a particular order and at a certain distance ; then they 
danced and leaped over them ; then they purified the sheep and the rest of 
the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like. The de- 
sign was to appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and 
to prevent the diseases incident to cattle. Milk and wafers made of millet 
were offered to her, that she might render the pastures fruitful. Pales is rep- 
resented as an old lady, surrounded by shepherds. 

2u. There were also numerous other rural goddesses of inferior character 
recognized among the Romans ; as Bubona, having the care of oxen ; Seia or 
Segetia, having the care of seed planted in the earth; Hippona, presiding over 
horses ; Collina, goddess of hills, and the like. 

3. Among the minor rural goddesses, we find also, besides those above 
named, Vallonia, empress of the valleys ; Runcina, the goddess of weeding ; 
Volusia, with several other goddesses, who watch over the corn in its succes- 
sive steps to maturity (cf. § 5. 3) ; Mellona, the goddess who invented the art 
of making honey. There were also numerous male deities of the same class; 
as Occator, the god of harrowing ; Stercutius, the inventor of manuring ; and 
Pilumnus, the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread. 

§ 93. (f) Gods presiding over various Conditions 
or Pursuits of Life. — In the latter period of the Republic, 
and during the first ages of the Empire, the Roman system of divin- 
ities was greatly augmented. Almost every rank in life, every pro- 
fession and employment, had its tutelar god or gods, whose names thus 
became innumerable, but who never obtained a universal worship. 
For a knowledge of these, we are mainly indebted to the writings of 
the Christian Fathers, especially Augustinus, against polytheism. 
To this class belong, for example, Bellona, the goddess of war, cor- 
responding in some degree to 'Ewm among the Greeks (§ 46) ; Ju~ 



PLATE XII. 




440 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

turna, the goddess of succor ; Anculi and Anculce, deities presiding 
over servants; Vacuna, goddess of leisure ; Strenua, goddess of dil- 
igence ; Laverna, goddess of theft, &c. 

See Avgustin, de Civitate Dei, L. iv. Diseases were exalted into dei- 
ties. Febris, Fever, e. g. had her altars and temple, and was worshiped that 
she might not hurt ; and so of others of this species. Mephitis was goddess 
of noxious exhalations. Tac. Hist. iii. 33. 

A deity of much consideration at Rome was Victoria. The hall of the sen- 
ate was adorned by her altar, and a statue in which she appears as " a majes- 
tic female, standing on a globe, with flowing garments, expanded wings, and 
a crown of laurel in her out-stretched hand." See Plate XII. fig. 10. The 
senators were sworn on the altar of this goddess to observe the laws of the 
empire. A contest arose between the pagans and the Christians on this sub- 
ject, the latter finally effecting the removal of this altar of Victory. Cf. P. 
II. § 387. 1. 

§ 94. (g) Deified Emperors. — To the gods already men- 
tioned we may add those which were constituted by the apotheosis of 
the Emperors and their favorites. Thus a Caesar, an Augustus, a 
Claudius, an Antinous, and others were elevated to the rank of gods. 
Sometimes this was done in their life-time by the vilest adulation, but 
more frequently after death, in order to natter their descendants. 

It would probably be as proper to rank the deified emperors (cf. § 133) in 
the fourth class of our division. They should be mentioned in this place, 
however, as belonging strictly to the number of Roman divinities, in distinc- 
tion from Greek. 

§ 95. (h) Virtues and Vices. — Finally it is to be observed, 
that the poets were accustomed to give a personal representation to 
abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues and vices; and 
in this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, 
which were however sometimes mingled with the mythological, and 
were honored with temples, rites, and significant images and symbols. 
Such were Virtus, Honor, Fides, Pittas, Spes, Libert as, Pax, Con- 
cordia, Invidia, Fraus, and the like. 

1. Virtus was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a 
square stone. The temple of Honor stood close by that of Virtus, and was 

approached by it. The priests sacrificed to Honor with bare heads. — 

The temple of Fides, Good Faith, stood near the Capitol. The priests in sac- 
rificing to her covered their hands and heads with a white cloth. Her sym- 
bol was a white dog, or two hands joined and sometimes two virgins shaking 

hands. The temple of Spes, or Hope, was in the herb-market. Her 

image is said to have been placed on some of the coins. She is in the form 
of a woman standing; with her left hand holding lightly the skirts of her 
garments, and in her right a plate, with a sort of cup on it fashioned to the 
likeness of a flower, with this inscription, Spes P. R. See Plate XII. fig. 8. 

A temple to Pietas was dedicated in the place where that woman lived, 

who fed with the milk of her own breasts her mother in prison. Cf. Plin. N. 

H. vii. c. 36. Concordia had many altars. Her image held a bowl in 

the right hand, and a horn of plenty in the left. See Plate XII. fig. 11. Her 

symbol was two joined hands together and a pomegranate. In the later 

periods of Rome, Pax had a very magnificent temple in the Forum, finished by 
Vespasian. The goddess of peace or security is represented on a coin of An- 
toninus as a woman resting on a column with a spike of wheat in the left hand 
and a sceptre like the wand of Mercury in the right, held over a tripod. See 
Plate XII. fig. 12. 

2. To the vices also temples were dedicated. Fraus was represented 

with a human face and a serpent's body ; in the end of her tail was a scor- 
pion's sting. Invidia, is described as a meager skeleton, dwelling in a 

dark and gloomy cave, and feeding on snakes. Ov. Metam. ii. 761. 



INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 441 

It is important to remark, that although the particular personifications of 
virtues and vices above described refer to Roman Mythology, yet the Greeks 
also personified many of the virtues and vices in a similar way, and the im- 
aginary deities thus formed had altars erected to their honor in Athens and 
other cities. 

§ 96*. (i) Foreign Gods. — It is proper to notice here 
some Egyptian deities, whose worship was partially introduced at 
Rome. 

(1) Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to 
have ruled first over the Argives, and afterwards, leaving them, to have be- 
come an illustrious king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many 
said to be the same with the Io, daughter of Inachus, who was according to 
the fables changed by Jupiter into a cow. Osiris was at length slain by Ty- 
phon, and his corpse concealed in a chest and thrown into the Nile. Iris, af- 
ter much search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs found the body and placed 
it in a monument on an island near Memphis. The Egyptians paid divine 
honor to his memory, and chose the ox to represeut him, because as some say 
a large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was interred, or accord- 
ing to others, because Osiris had instructed them in agriculture. Osiris was 
generally represented with a cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns; 
he held a stick in his left hand, and in his right a whip with three thongs. 
Sometimes he appears with the head of a hawk. 

(2) Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. Io after her metamorphosis is said 
after wandering over the earth, to have come to the banks of the Nile, and 
there she was restored to the form of a woman. She reigned after her hus- 
band's murder, and was deified by the Egyptians. The cow was employed as 

her symbol. Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, 

with a vessel full of ears of corn. Her body sometimes appears enveloped in 
a sort of net. On some monuments she holds in her lap a child, her son Ho- 
rus ; who is also ranked among the deities of Egypt. 

The Egyptians had numerous festivals, which were connected with the fa- 
bles respecting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was 
termed the Isia; these lasted nine days, and were attended by such licentious- 
ness as to be at length prohibited by the senate. 

Some have considered Osiris and isis as representing the sun and the moon. Their story is 
by others viewed as corresponding to that of Venus and Adonis. (Cf. Knight's Enquiry &c.) — 
Some resemblances have been pointed out between Isis and Isa, a deity of the Hindoos, and 
Disa, a goddess worshiped among the northern tribes of Europe (cf. Tac. Germ. 9). — See Creu- 
zer's Symbolik. There is a curious piece of antiquity called the table of Isis, because sup- 
posed to represent her mysteries. It is given in Montfaucon's Anti. Exp), cited Q |2. 2 (d). — 
Cf. also Shuckford's Sac. and Prof. Hist. Conn. bk. viii. — Among the most remarkable ruins 
discovered at Pompeii, is a temple of Isis. The columns which surrounded it, are almost en- 
tirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of brick, and on the outside covered with 
a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square and was not covered but was surrounded by a 
covered gallery, which was supported by columns and served for a shelter in bad weather. 
" In this temple have been found all the instruments which appertain to the religious ceremo- 
nies, and even the skeletons of the priests who had been surprised and buried by the shower of 
cinders, in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Their vestments, the cinders and 
the coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which contained the lustral 
water, patera employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve the intestines of the vic- 
tims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis, when they offered sacrifices 
to her, the attributes of the divinity with which the temple was adorned, &c. are still shown. 
Many of these vases have the figure of an Ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ; and what renders 
them still more important, they were found exactly in the situation in which they were used, 
so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The walls of the temple were 
adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess ; there were figures of priests in 
the costume of their order: their vestments were of white linen, the heads of the officiating 
priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thine lace, through which the muscles might 
he distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. 

(3) Apis. This is the name of the ox, in which Osiris was supposed to re- 
side, rather than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain 
marks; his body was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his fore- 
head, and a white crescent or sort of half-moon on his right side ; on his back 
was the figure of an eagle ; under his tongue a sort of knot resembling a bee- 
tle (cantharus) ; and two sorts of hair upon his tail. This ox was permitted to 
live twenty-five years. His body was then embalmed, placed in a chest, or 
Soqbg, and buried with many solemnities. A season of mourning then followed, 



442 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to sight. — It is a curi- 
ous fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the second of 
the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high chamber 
in the interior of the pyramid a Soybg, which, on being carefully opened, pre- 
sented the bones of an ox. 

Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 201. — Banier, L'Orig. du culte que les Egyptiens rendoient aux 
animaux, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. in. 84. — Also Blanchard, Des animaux respectes en Egypte, 
in the Mem. fyc. ix. <H).—Prichard, as cited §12. 2 (f ). 

(4) Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some 
to be the same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapea, 
were erected to him at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates 
a marvelous tale of the removal of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the 
southern shore of the Pontus Euxinus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god 
existed, however, in Egypt at a much earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis 
were introduced at Rome under the emperors, but soon abolished on account 
of their licentiousness. — Some derive the name from 2oq'oc and ^Antg, as 
having signified at first merely the chest or box in which the body of Apis was 
deposited. 

It has been supposed by some, that the Egyptian Apis was a symbol of Joseph ; and that the 
various legends connected with the worship of this god, grew out of the history of that patri- 
arch. — Cf. Vossins, de Theologia Gentili. Amst. 1642. This notion is adopted by Dr. Clarke. 
See his Travels, P. II. sect. 2. ch. 5. 

(5) Anubis. This was another deity connected in fable with Osiris. He 
was said to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her "search 
after her husband. He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also 
called Hermanubis ; or, as others say, the latter is the name of another deity 
of a similar character. He appears to be represented in the monument ex- 
hibited in our Plate XV. fig. B. Cf. § 34. 2. — See Creuzer's Symbolik. 

(6) Harpocrates. He is supposed to be the same as Horus, son of Isis, 
and was worshiped as the god of Silence. He was much honored among the 
Romans, who placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usu- 
ally represented in the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which 
ended at the points as it were in two buds ; in his left hand he held a horn of 
plentjr, while a finger of his right hand was fixed upon his lips to command 
silence and secrecy. — In fig. 1, of our Plate V, he appears, on an Abraxas (cf. 

P. I. § 200. 2), as sitting on the lotus flower ; cf. P. I. $ 197. Porphyrtj, 

Cave of Nymphs (cf. P. II. §199. 2).— Class. Journ. in. 142. 



III. — Mythical Beings, whose history is intimately connected ivith that 

of the gods. 

§97. (1) Titans and Giants. The enterprises of the Titans are 
celebrated in the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have already 
been mentioned in the account of Saturn (§ 14), to whom they were 
brothers, being generally considered as sons of Uranus or Ccelus and 
Titsea. The oldest was called Titan, and from him, or their mother, 
they derived their common name. The prevalent tradition assigned 
to Uranus five sons besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Cceus, Japetus y 
Crius and Oceanus ; and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife 
of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thya, Phozbe, and Tethys, called 
Titanides. On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which 
however Saturn and Oceanus took no part, the Titans were hurled 
by their father down to Tartarus, whence they were set free by the 
aid of Saturn. With Saturn also they afterwards contested the throne, 
but unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in speaking of Vulcan 
(§ 52), may be considered as belonging to the Titans. 



MYTHICAL BEINGS. TITANS AND GIANTS. 443 

The number of the Titans is given variously ; Apollodorus mentions 13j 

Hyginus 6. The number of 45 is stated by some. The name of one of them, 

Japetus, is strikingly similar to Japhet mentioned in the Bible, whose descend- 
ants peopled Europe, and it is remarkable that in the Greek traditions, Japetus 
is called the father of mankind. Some have considered the Titans as the de- 
scendants of Gomer, son of Japhet. (Pezron's Antiquities). — They have also 
been supposed to be the Cushites or descendants of Cush, and the builders of 
the tower of Babel. {Bryant's Analysis of Anc. Mythology). — Others think 
them merely personifications of the elements ; and suppose their fabled war 
with their father Ccelus, or against Saturn, an allegorical representation of a 
war of the elements. 

Hesiod's Battle of the Titans is often named as a remarkable specimen of 
sublimity. It will be interesting to compare it with Homer's Battle of the Gods 
and Milton's Battle of the Angels. Cf. Horn. II. xx. 54 ss. Hes. Theog. 674 ss. 
Milt. Parad. Lost, vi. 

§98. The Giants were a distinct class, although their name (yiyac, 
from yfj and yivm) designates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, who gave 
them birth, after the defeat of the Titans by Jupiter, and out of ven- 
geance against him. The most famous of them were Enceladus^. 
Halcyoneus, Typhon, yEgcon, Ephialtes^ and Otus. Accordirfg to 
the common description, they had bodies of extraordinary size and 
strength, some of them with a hundred hands, and with dragon's feet, 
or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated undertaking was 
the storming of Olympus (1), the residence of Jupiter and the other 
gods. In order to scale this summit, they heaped mountain upon 
mountain, as (Eta, Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Jupiter smote them 
with his thunderbolts, precipitated some of them to Tartarus, and 
buried others beneath the mountains. Typhon or Typhoeus, for in- 
stance, he pressed down with the weight of ^Etna (2), under which, 
according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift himself up, 
and pours from his mouth torrents of flame. 

(1) Ov. Metam. i. 151. (2) Ov. Met. v. 346.— Claud. Gigantomach.— Find. Pyth. i. 31. — 

.Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vn. 98. sur la nature allegorique des centi 
manes &x. — Banier, sur Typhon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. in. p. 116. 

1. JEgeon oxBriateus was another giant,eminent in the contest,with fifty heads 
and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge rocks at a 
single throw ; but Jupiter bound him also under iEtna, with a hundred chains. 
— This story of the war between the Giants and Jupiter, is also explained by 
some as an allegorical representation of some great struggle in nature, which 
took place in early times. This contest is to be distinguished from that of the 
Titans, who, although often confounded with the Giants, were a distinct class. 

2. Orion is by some also placed among the giants as a son of Gaia or Terra; 
yet the more common fable ascribes his origin to the joint agency of Jupiter, 
Mercury, and Neptune ; according to which some derive his name from the 
Greek word ovqov (urina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, 
and after his death his name was given to a constellation. 

See Francaiur, as cited § 117 (f). — De Fourmont, Le fab. d'Orion, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr, 
x it. 16. attempting to show a connection of the fable with the story of Isaac the son of Abraham. 

3. ThePygmies of the ancients were fabulous beings,of very diminutive size, supposed by some 
to dwell in Egypt and Ethiopia ; by others, in Thrace and i?cythia; and by others in India. — 
Cf. Ov. Met. vi. 90. — Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 2. — Heyne, on Horn. II. iii. 6,-~-Heeren, Ideen vol. i. as 
cited P. I. § 171. — Malte~Brun, in the Annales des Voyages, vol. i. p. 3o5.^Banier, Les Pygmees, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 101. 

§99. (2) Tritons and Sirens. Triton has already been mentioned 
(§29) as a son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most fa- 
mous, the other various deities of the sea derived the name of Tritons. 
They were represented, like him, as half man and half fish, with the 
whole body covered with scales. They usually formed the retinue of 



444 GREEK AND ROiWAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Neptune, whose approach Triton himself announced by blowing his 
horn, which was a large conch or sea shell. 

Cf. Ov. Met. i. 333. — Virg. Mn. x. 209. — There were other minor divinities 
of the sea under Neptune ; but Triton seems to have had the pre-eminence, 
and under Neptune a sort of control among them. Phorcus, Proteus, and 
Glaucus have been already mentioned (§ 29). Nereus was ranked among them 
as a son of Oceanus, and the father of the Nereides. Ino and her son Palaemon 
or Melicertes, are also said to have been admitted by Neptune as gods of his 
retinue. Palaemon is thought to be the same with Portumnus, whom the Ro- 
mans worshiped as the guardian of harbors. 

§100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to be 
two in number, by others three, and even four. Homer mentions but 
two (1), and describes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and 
detaining with them every voyager, who was allured thither by their 
captivating music. They would have decoyed even Ulysses, on his 
return to Ithaca, but were not permitted. — By others they were de- 
scribed as daughters of the river-god Achelous, and companions of 
Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changed into birds (2), 
that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the 
Muses in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emu- 
lation. Others make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of 
the Tritons, with the faces of women and the bodies of flying fish. 
The artists generally represent them as virgins, either not at all dis- 
figured, or appearing partly as birds. 

(1) Horn. Od. xii.30. 166. — (2) Ov. Met. v. 552. Their fabled residence 

Was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily ; by others, on the 
islands or rocks called Sirennusae, not far from the promontory of Surrentum 
on the coast of Italy. — Various explanations of the fable of the Sirens have 
been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indul- 
gence in pleasure. 

§ 101. (3) Nymphs. The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed 
as holding a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to 
the duration of life ; not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast 
length of time. Oceanus was considered as their common father, 
although the descent of different nymphs is given differently. Their 
usual residence was in grottoes of water-caves, from which circum- 
stance they received their name, Nvu<pai. Their particular offices were 
different, and they were distinguished by various names according to 
the several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which they 
chiefly resided. 

lu. Thus there were the Oreades or nymphs of the mountains ; Naiades, Ne* 
reides (cf. §29J, and Potamides, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers ; Dry 
ades, and Haviadryades, nymphs of the woods ; JYapa>&, nymphs of the vales, &c. 
The Dryads were distinguished from the Hamadryads (aua dove) in this, that 
the latter were supposed to be attached to some particular tree, along with 
which they came into being, lived and died ; while the former had the care of 
the woods and trees in general. 

2. Places consecrated to these imaginary beings were called Nvuyata* Such 
was the celebrated spot in the vicinity of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and 
the fire which was seen to issue constantly from the ground (Plin. Nat. Hist, 
xxiv. 7). Such was the place and building at Rome which was called Nympha* 
um, adorned with stautes of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with 
fountains and water-falls. Festivals were held in honor of the nymphs, whose 
number has been stated as above 3000. 

They were generally represented as young and beautiful virgins, partially 
covered with a veil or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells^ 



MYTHICAL BEINGS. NYMPHS. MUSES. 445 

leaves, or grass, or having something as a symbol of their appropriate offices. 
The several gods are represented, more or less frequently, as attended by 
nymphs of some class or other ; especially Neptune, Diana, and Bacchus. 
Under the term of nymphs, were sometimes included the imaginary spirits that 
guided the heavenly spheres and constellations and dispensed the influences 
of the stars ; the nymphs being distributed by some mythologists into three 
classes, those of the sky, the land, and the sea. 
Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xvii. 192. See Fontenu, as cited § 31. 

§ 102. (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having in 
their fictions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; 
but assigned to particular branches of knowledge and art their ap- 
propriate tutelary spirits or guardian divinities, whom they called 
Muses, Movaai, and considered as the daughters of Jupiter and Mne- 
mosyne. They were nine in number, according to the common ac- 
count, with Greek names, as follows : KZeim (Illustrious), KaUionv 
{Fair-voice), MslTroidvr] (Singing), Ga).sia(Gay), 3 E$aru (Loving), 
*EvTiony] (Well-pleasing), Teot/^ooij (Dance-loving), Holviivia (Song- 
full), and 'Ovoavla (Celestial). 

They were frequently called by common names, derived from places sacred 
to them, or from other circumstances, as Pierides from Pieria, Aonides, Heli- 
coniades, Parnassides, Hippocrenides, Castalides, &c. 

§ 103. In order to represent the Muses as excelling in their seve- 
ral arts, especially in music and song, the poets imagined various 
contests held by them ; as for example, with the Sirens, and the 
daughters of Pierus (1), in which the Muses always gained the prize. 
They were described as remaining virgins, and as being under the 
instruction and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was Mt. 
Helicon, where was the fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. Parnassus 
where was the fountain Castalia ; the former in Boeotia ; the latter 
near Delphi (2) in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierus in Thessaly 
were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also conse- 
crated to them among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their 
honor were instituted in several parts of Greece (3), especially among 
the Thespians. The Macedonians observed a festival for Jupiter and 
the Muses, which was continued nine days. 

(1) Ov. Met. v. 300. — (2) See View of Delphi and Parnassus forming the Frontispiece to this 
Manual. — (3) See Heyne, de Musar. religione, ejusq. orig. et causis in Comment. Soc. reg. Got- 
ting. vol. vni. 

The Muses are usually represented as virgins with ornamented dresses, and 
crowned with palms or laurels. "According to the best authorities, Clio, His- 
tory, holds in her hand a half-opened scroll ; Melpomene, Tragedy, is veiled 
and leans upon a pillar, holding in her left hand a tragic mask ; Thalia, Com- 
edy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff resembling a lituus 
or augur's wand ; Euterpe, Music, holds two flutes or pipes; Terpsi- 
chore, the Dance, is represented in a dancing attitude and plays upon 
a seven-stringed lyre ; Erato, Amatory Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instru- 
ment ; Calliope, Epic Poetry, has a roll of parchment in her hand and some- 
times a straight trumpet or tuba ; Urania, Astronomy, holds in her left hand 
a globe ; in her right a rod, with which she appears to point out some object 
to the beholder; Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Imitation, places the fore-finger 
of the right hand upon her mouth, or else bears a scroll in her hand." (Anth. 
Lemp.) — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing 
the Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, 
in which the nine are represented. 

" The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring ; 
in the middle of them sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil 
of nature described them in that manner upon the agate which Pyrrhus, who 
38 



446 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring ; for in it was a representation of 
the nine Muses, and Apollo holding a harp • and these figures were not de- 
lineated by art (Plin. L. xxxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of 
nature." — Tooke's Panth. — See Montfauc. Ant. expl. T. i. pi. 56-62. 

§104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retinue of Venus 
belonged the Graces, Xaqirsg, Gratice, servants and companions of the 
goddess, diffusing charms and gladness. They were said to be daugh- 
ters of Jupiter and Eurynome, or according to others of Bacchus and 
Venus herself, and were three in number, ^Ayiaia (Splen- 
dor), QaUm (Pleasure), and 'Evipqoovvt] (Joy). They were 
honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal 
cities. Altars were often erected to them in the temples of other 
gods, especially Mercury, Venus, and the Muses. They are fre- 
quently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, 
commonly in a group, holding each other by the hand, and without 
drapery. 

Find. Olymp. xiv. — Manso, Abh. tiber die Horen und Grazien, in his Mythol. Versuchen. — 
Massieu, surles Graces, in the Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. in. 8. 

§ 105. The Hor<$, r S2qai, were the goddesses of Time, presiding 
especially over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were consid- 
ered as the daughters and servants of Jupiter. They came at length 
to be viewed as tutelary patrons of beauty, order, and regularity, in 
reference to which Themis was said to be their mother. They were 

named Evvouict, Jixr], and EiQj'rvtj. 

The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and 
garlands of palm-leaf, and all of the same age. In some monuments of later 
periods, four Hours appear, corresponding to the four seasons. — Winckelmann, 
Hist, de l'Art iv. ch. 2. § 83. 

The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some writers to have 
had originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have afterwards lost 
their astronomical attributes, when moral ideas and qualities became more 
prominent in the Greek system of fictions. 

§106. (6) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of 
human life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to 
the notion of the Fates, called Moiqai by the Greeks ; by the Romans, 
ParccB. They were three sisters, daughters of Night, whom Jupiter 
permitted to decide the fortune and especially the duration of mortal 
life. One of them, Clotho {id.o&w), attached the thread ; the second, 
Lachesis (juxsag), spun it; and the third, Atropos ("Atqotvos), cut it 
off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as inexorable, 
and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their 
worship was not very general. 

The Parcse were generally represented as three old women, with chaplets 
made of wool and interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long 
robes, and employed in their works : Clotho with a distaff; Lachesis having 
near her sometimes several spindles ; and Atropos holding a pair of scissors. 

See Catull. Epithal. Pel. et Thet. v. 305. — Manso' 's Abhandl. v. Parzen, in his Mythol. Ver- 
suchen. — Barrier, Sur les Parques, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i v. p. 648. 

§107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the 
lower world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto 
and Proserpine, whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, 
and often to inflict vengeance upon the living. The Greeks called 
them "Eqiweg, Furies ; and also by a sort of euphemism, or from de- 
sign to propitiate them, Evpevldsg, signifying kindly disposed; the Ro- 



MYTHICAL BEINGS. FATES. HARPIES. DAEMONS. 447 

mans styled them Furice. Their names were Tisiphone (from ri&ts 
and cporog) whose particular work was to originate fatal epidemics and 
contagion; Alecto (from uiiy/.rog), to whom were ascribed the devas- 
tations and cruelties of war; and Megara (from iisyuiQw), the author 
of insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them among 
both the Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, 
if we may consider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to 
a separate goddess Furina, as some suppose. They were represented 
with vipers twining among their hair, usually with frightful counte- 
nances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord 
or vengeance. 

Virg. G'eorg. iii. 551. JEn. vii. 341, 415. xii. 846. — Ov. Met. iv. 474.— Cf. C. A. Bottiger, Fu- 
rienmasken im Trauerspiel und auf. d. Bildwerken d. alt. Griechen ; eine archasol. Untersu- 
chung. Weim. 1801. 8. — Banier, sur les Furies, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 34. 

§ 108. The fable of the Harpies, "Aqnviai, seems to have had ref- 
erence originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which 
suddenly seizes and bears off whatever it strikes. Their names were 
Aello (from aaUa, storm), Celamo (from xelmvbg, dark), and Ocypeta 
(from ojy.vTtiTr t g,jiying rapidly), all indicative of the source of the 
fiction. 

They appear to have been considered, sometimes at least, as the goddesses 
of storms, and so were called 0vs?.?.ai (Horn. Od. xx. 66). They were said to 
be daughters of Neptune and Terra, and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the 
borders of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the Furies, to whom they 
sometimes bore off the victims they seized. They are represented as having 
the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and hands armed 
with claws. 

Virg. Mt\. iii. 210. — See Voss, Mytholog. Briefe. Stuttg. 1827. 3 vols. 12. — Le Clerc (in the 
Bibliotheque Universale, vol. i. p. 148) supposes the Harpies to be merely locusts ; a conjecture 
which Gibbon seems to approve (Rom. Emp. vol. n. p. 71. ed. N. Yk. 1822). 

§109. (8) The Demons or Genii, and Manes. In the earliest my- 
thologies we find traces of a sort of protecting deities, or spiritual 
guardians of men, called Juiuovag, or Genii. They were supposed to 
be always present with the persons under their care, and to direct 
their conduct, and control in great measure their destiny, having re- 
ceived this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad daemons, however, as 
well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained, that every 
person had one of each class attendant upon him. 

From the notion of an attending genius arose the proverbial expressions in- 
dulgere genio and clefraudare genio, signifying simply to gratify or deny one's 

self. The daemons of classical mythology must not be confounded with the 

fallen spirits revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing 
men in the time of Christ. 

See Farmer, Essay on Demoniacs. — Letters to Channing on Fallen Spirits, hy Canonicus. 
Boston, 1828. — Cf. Broionlee, Lights and Shadows of Christian Life, p. 379. N. Yk. 1837. 12. 

§110. The Manes were a similar class of beings. Although often 
spoken of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more com- 
monly to have been considered as guardians of the deceased, whose 
office was to watch over their graves, and hinder any disturbance of 
their tranquillity. They were subordinate to the authority of Pluto, 
on which account he is styled Summanus. Some describe a goddess, 

named Mania, as their mother. The Romans designated by the 

name of Lemures, or Larvce, such spirits of the dead, as wandered 
about in restlessness, disturbing the peace of men, issuing from the 
graves as apparitions, to terrify the beholders. 

g^e Manso's Abh. uber d. Genius der Alten. in his Myth. Vers Simon, Diss, sur les Lemures, 



448 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Mem. Acad. Liscr. vol. 1 — Ov. Fast. v. 421 — Blum, Einleitung in Rom's alte Geschichte. Bert 
1828.12. 

§111. (9). The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary 
spirits was carried further by the Romans than by the Greeks. The 
former assigned to each dwelling and family its guardian deities, 
which were called Lares and Penates. The Lares were said to be 
sons of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda, daughter of Almon. They 
received a variety of epithets or b}'-names, according to the particular 
object, over which they were in different cases supposed to preside, 
as familiares, compitales, viales, patellarii, puhlici, privati. They 
were especially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and 
had in every house their proper sanctuary (Lararimn) and altar. They 
seem to have been viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, 
the fathers and forefathers of the family, who sought the welfare of 
their descendants. 

The dog was sacred to the Lares, and an image of this animal was placed 
by their statues. These statues were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even 
formed in the shape, of dogs. Public festivals were held in their honor, called 
Compitalia, which were made very joyful occasions ; the slaves of the family 
shared liberty and equality with their masters, as on the Saturnalia. — T. Hem- 
pel, Diss, de Laribus. 2d ed. Zwiccav. 1816. 8. 

§ 112. The Penates were also domestic or household gods, but 
they were not properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, be^- 
cause the master of the dwelling was allowed to select any deity 
according to his pleasure, to watch over his family affairs, or preside 
over particular parts of them. ^ Accordingly Jupiter and others of the 
superior gods were not unfrequently invoked in this capacity. The 
gods who presided over particular families, were sometimes styled 
parvi Penates, while those that presided over cities or provinces, were 
styled patrii or publici Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to 
the rank of Penates even living persons; especially the emperors. 

Cf. Virg. Mxv. ii. 717. iii. 148.— Heyne, Excurs. ix. ad Virg. JEn. ii.— T. Hemp el, Diss, de diis 
Laribus (cited above). — Mutter, de diis Rom. Laribus et Penatibus. Hafniae, 1811. 8. — The Ar- 
thceologia, cited P. I. § 243. 3, contains a notice, with plates, of a number of small bronze stat- 
ues, representing Roman Penates, found at Exeter, England. See vol. 6th, p. 1. published 1786. 

The Lares and the Penates are often confounded, but w T ere not the same. 
" The Penates were originally gods, the powers of nature personified ; the 
mysterious action of which produces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, 
to the common good, to the prosperity of families, whatever, in fine, the hu- 
man species cannot bestow on itself. The Lares were originally themselves 
human beings, who, becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to hover round 
the dwelling they once inhabited; to watch over its safety, and to guard it as 
the faithful dog does the possessions of his master. They keep off danger from 
without, while the Penates, residing in the interior of the dwelling, pour bles- 
sings upon its inmates." (Anth. Lemp.) 

§ 113. (10) Sleep, Dreams, and Death. Among the imaginary 
beings supposed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, 
"Yjvrog, "Ovaioog, and Quvaxog, gained a personification, being called 
sons of Nox, or night, and ranked among the deities of the lower 
world. To "Tjtvog, or Somnus, Cimmeria was assigned as his resi- 
dence, on account of the perpetual darkness, which tradition ascribed 
to it ; and the poppy, on account of its soporific qualities, was his 
common symbol. He is represented as holding in his hand a light in- 
verted and about to be extinguished. 

The last symbol was also employed in representing Gurarog,. or 



MYTHICAL BEINGS. SATYRS. FAUNS. GORGONS. 449 

Death, who was often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral 
monuments, and appeared in a similar bodily form, and not a 'mere 
naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death was the result of vio- 
lence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks expressed 
it by the word x ^q, and they fancied a sort of beings called y.tjosg, who 
caused death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar 
distinction between mors and lethum. 

"OrsiQog was the god of dreams, more commonly called Morpheus , 
from the various images or forms (uoqcpi,) presented in dreaming. 
Morpheus is sometimes considered as the god of sleep, but was more 
properly his minister ; Phobetor (^o^'two), sometimes considered as 
the god of dreams, was another minister of Somnus, and Phantasus 
((pavTutco) another. 

Cf. Ov. Met. xi. 592. 634, 640.— Lessing's Untersuchung, wie die Alten d. Tod gebildet. Berl. 
1769. 4.— Herder's Abh. in his Zerstreuten Blattern. Th. 2. 273. Cf. Theory of Dreams &c. il- 
lustrated by the most remarkable dreams recorded in History. Lond. 1808. 12. 

The Romans imagined death as a goddess, Mors. The poets described her 
as roving about with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and 
dark wings. She is not often found represented on existing monuments of art ; 
in one supposed to represent her, a small figure in brass, she appears as a skele- 
ton sitting on the ground, with one hand on an urn. — Spence, Polymetis, cited 
P. I. $151. 

§ 114. (11) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the 
forests and woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, 
took its rise in the earliest ages either from the custom of wearing 
skins of animals for clothing, or in a design to represent symbolically 
the condition of man in the semi-barbarous or half-savage state. The 
Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, in their repre- 
sentation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a 
buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Panes, 
which had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance 
of the brute. The Fauns were represented as older than the Satyrs, 
who, when they became old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans 
represented the Satyrs more like beasts, and as having the goat's feet. 
The Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to the retinue of 
Bacchus (§ 60). The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived 
from a national god Faunus, who was son of Picus, king of the Lat- 
ins, and the nymph Canens (1), and whose wife Fauna was also hon- 
ored as a goddess. 

(1) Ov. Met. xiv. 320, 336 — See Heyne's Abh. von Unterschied. zwischen Faun. Sat. Silen. 
und Panen, in his Samml. Ant. Aufsdtze. Found also in Winckelmann, Histoire de l'Art (cited 

P. I. <S 32) vol. i. p. 680. Ueber Faun. Sat. Pan. und Silenen. Berl. 1790, 91. 8 Vnss, Myth. 

Briefe. 

§ 115. (12) The Gorgons. Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Phorcys 
and Cete, were termed jToQyoveg, from their frightful aspect. Their heads 
were said to be covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the 
tusks of a boar, and so terrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. 
They are described as having the head, neck, and breasts of women, while the 
rest of the body was in the form of a serpent. According to some they had 
but one eye and one tooth, common to them all, which they were obliged to 
use in turn. Their names were Stheno, Eurijale, and Medusa. Medusa is said 
to have been slain by Perseus, who cut off her head, while they were in the 
act of exchanging the eye. 

They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. 
But their residence is variously assigned ; some placing them in a distant part 
of the western ocean, others in Libya (cf. P. V. § 179), and others in Scythia. 

38* 



450 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Some have explained the fable as referring to a warlike race of women, lik& 
the Amazons. Others suppose it to have had some reference to the moon as 
a dark body, which is said also to have been called roqyoviov, from the face 
believed to be seen in it. 

Massieu, sur les Hesperides, and sur les Gorgones, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr^ vol. nr. p. 28, 51. 
§ 116. (13) The Amazons. The Amazons were no doubt mythical beingSj 
although said to be a race of warlike women, who lived near the river Ther- 
modon in Cappadocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. They are 
said to have burnt off their right breast, that they might use the bow and jave- 
lin with more skill and force; and hence their name, ^Jtuatoveg, from « and 
paVog. They are mentioned in the Iliad (iii. 189. vi. 186.) and called avria- 
veiQcu. 

Various explanations of the fable are given.. Some consider it as having a 
connection originally with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Ama- 
zons were placed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus (Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8), 
and may have represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her 
own attributes. — A figure resembling an Amazon, but having four arms, is 
seen in the caverns of Elephanta. 

Traditions respecting a race of Amazons are said to be still current in the region of Caucasus. 
Cf. Edinb. Rev. No. lvi. p. 324. On the Amazons, see Creuter's Symbolik. 

$ 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particularly several 
Monsters, which are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology. 

(a) The Minotaur was said to be half man and half bull. The story is, that 
Minos, king of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull,, 
which was demanded by the god. The angry god showed his displeasure by 
causing Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through 
the aid of Daedalus, and give birth to the monster. Minos confined the Mino- 
taur in the famous labyrinth. Here the monster devoured the seven young 
men and the seven maidens annually required from the Athenians by Minos. 
Theseus, by the aid of the king's daughter Ariadne, slew the Minotaur and 
escaped the labyrinth (cf. §125). 

(b) The Chimcera was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and lion united : 
the middle of the body was that of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, 
the fore parts those of a lion ; and it had the heads of all three, and was con- 
tinually vomiting forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia, in the reign of 
Jobates, king of that country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in 
order to gratify his son-in-law Prsetus, sends him against the ChimaBra; but 
Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva, and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of 
perishing himself, destroyed the monster. 

This fable is by some supposed to refer to a volcanic mountain on the Lvcian coast. — See 
Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. ii. ch. 8 (vol. in. p. 211. ed. N. Yk. 1815). — Plin. N. Hist. v. 27. 
— Baider, and Freret, on Bellerophon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vn. 37. 69. 

(c) The Centauri were said to be half men and half horses. Some make them 
the offspring of Ixion and the cloud; others refer their origin to the bestiality 
of Centaurus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaiy. The 
principal incidents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at 
the marriage of Pirithous and Hippodamia, and the consequent battle with the 
Lapithee, who drove them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwards chiefly 
destroyed by Hercules. (Ov. Met. xii. 530.) — Some have imagined this fable 
to allude to the draining of the low parts of Thessaiy, as the horse is in gene- 
ral symbolical of water. 

Knight's Inquiry &c. in the Class. Journal. — Cf. Mitford, ch. 1. sect. 3. — Bonier, La Fable des 
Cent, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. in. 18. 

(d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirhoe, 
and to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of 
Gades, where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and 
guarded by a two-headed dog called Orthos. The destruction of this monster 
formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules ($123). 

(e) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous 
heads, nine according to the common account. When one of these heads was 
cut off, another or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood 
of the wound was stopped by fire. The destruction of the Hydra was another 
labor assigned to Hercules, which he accomplished by the aid of Iolaus, who 



MYTHICAL BEINGS. MONSTERS. 451 

applied lighted brands or a heated iron, as each head was removed. The ar- 
rows of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. 

(f) Pegasus was not so much a monster as a prodigy, being a winged horse 
said to have sprung from the blood, which fell on the ground when Perseus 
cut off the head of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Helicon, where 
he opened the fountain called Hippocrene (ire-nog and ggifrq). He was a favo- 
rite of the muses, and is called ' the muses' horse.' The horse, having come 
into the possession of Bellerophon, enabled him to overcome the Chimaera. 
Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from Jupiter, threw off Bellerophon to 
wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place among the stars. 

Cf. Froncaur, Uranographie ou Traite Elementaire d'Astronomie. Par. 1813. 8. containing 
the ancient Fables respecting the Constellations. 

(g) Cerberus was the fabled dog of Pluto (§ 34), stationed as centinel at the> 
entrance of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, some- 
times as having fifty. Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from the 
world of the living could pass him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, 
composed of medicated and soporific ingredients. (Virg. iEn. vi. 420.) — To 
seize and bring up this monster was assigned to Hercules, as one of his labors. 

(h) Scylla and Charybdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian 
shore, in the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirl- 
pool or strong eddy over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients con- 
nected a fabulous story with each name : — Scylla was originally a beautiful 
woman, but was changed by Circe into a monster, the parts below her waist 
becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking, while she had twelve feet and 
hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified at this metamorpho- 
sis, she threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks which bear 
her name. — Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Hercules, 
and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. 

(i) The Sphinx was the offspring of Orthos and Chimsera, or of Typhon and 
Echidna ; a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a 
dog, the tail of a serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human 
voice. This monster infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas 
and devouring the inhabitants who could not explain them. At length one of 
the enigmas, in which she demanded what animal it was which walked on 
four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three at night, was solved by CEdi- 
pus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning of life creeps upon 
his hands and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening of his days 
uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphinx instantly destroyed herself. 

Representations of the Sphinx are very common among Egyptian monuments. A very cele- 
brated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet remains near the pyramids. It is cut in the solid rock, 
and is 125 feet in length.— Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch. 4. — Denon's Travels (vol. i. p. 55- 
Loud. 18U4).— Land. Quart. Rev. xix. 193, 403 ss. 



IV. — Mythical History of the Heroes. 

§ 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinguished even by 
the ancients : the unknown, adylov, of which no historical monuments 
remained to make known the state of society; the fabulous, uvtiiy.or, 
of which the accounts left are mingled with manifold fictions ; and the 
historical, [otoqixov, of which a genuine and trustworthy history is re- 
corded. The first extends to the deluge of Deucalion, the second to 
the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third 
through the subsequent times. To the second of these periods be- 
longed the Heroes, as they are called, and it is on that account often 
styled the heroic age. These personages are supposed to have pos- 
sessed extraordinary powers of body and mind, and distinguished merit 
is ascribed to them as having founded cities or countries, improved 
their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or defended them. 



452 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

§ 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progeni- 
tors, was a most common cause of the sort of deification, with which 
these heroes were publicly honored after death ; and the disposition 
towards this grateful remembrance was quickened and sustained by 
oral traditions respecting their deeds, which were much adorned and 
exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that most of the heroes 
were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter himself. The 
veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less universal 
than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were 
established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and 
public solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hanoV re- 
ceived only an annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicin- 
ity, when offerings and libations were presented to them. Sometimes, 
however, the respect paid them exceeded these limits, and they were 
exalted to the rank and honors of the gods. The introduction of 
solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to Cadmus. 

Cf. Virg. Mn. iii. 301.— Saltier, in the Hist, de VJlcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 299. 

§ 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some 
were viewed as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal 
existence watched over their families and friends and were honored 
and worshiped only by them. Others, whose services while they lived 
were of a more extended character, were worshiped by whole states 
and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had their appropriate festivals 
and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To such was ascribed 
a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the latter clas3 
that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illustri- 
ous, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, but was adopted 
also among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be men- 
tioned, in doing which the order of time will be followed. 

§ 121. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked 
among the Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same 
class, too, belong Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son 
Phoroneus, to whom various merits were ascribed ; and Ogyges, a 
king of Boeotia, memorable from the flood which occurred in his 
reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among their respective 
people and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state ; Deucalion, 
a Thessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha, escaped the general 
flood that happened in his times ; Amphictyon, author of the cele- 
brated council or confederation of the early Grecian states; Cadmus, 
who came from Phoenicia to Greece, and contributed so much to en- 
lighten and improve the people (P. I. § 34) ; Danatis, to whom the 
kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advancement; Belkrophon, 
who was said to have destroyed the monster Chimgera, and to have 
performed other exploits; Pelops, king in Elis, from whom Pelopon- 
nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula ; and 
the two princes of Crete by the name of Minos, one celebrated as a 
lawgiver, the other as a warrior. 

Some writers argue against the existence of two individuals by the name of 
Minos. See HOck's Kreta. Gotting. 1823. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 122. Perseus was one of the most distinguished of the early 
Heroes. He was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Poly- 



HEROES. PERSEUS. HERCULES. 453 

dectus on the island Seriphus. His chief exploit was the destruction 
of the gorgon Medusa, whose head he struck off with a sword given 
to him by Vulcan. From the blood, that fell, sprang the winged horse 
Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed over many lands. Of 
his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing 
king Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, 
and his deliverance of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be 
devoured by the sea-monster. In connection with the latter adventure 
he also changed into stone Phineus, who contended with him for the 
possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon 
Polydectes for ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascribed 
the invention of the discus or quoit, with which he inadvertently occa- 
sioned the death of his grandfather Acrisius. Finally he founded the 
kingdom of Mycenae. After his assassination by Megapenthes, he was 
placed among the constellations, and several temples were erected to 
him, besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. 

Ov. Met. iv. 603. v. 1-350. The fables respecting Perseus are by some 

considered as a modification of the story of the Persian Mithras, and a piece of 
ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel of Mycenae has been thought 
to confirm the analogy. — Creuzer, Symbolik. — Gell, Itinerary of Greece. 

§ 123. Of all the Grecian Heroes, no one obtained such celebrity 
as Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful strength was 
ascribed to him even in his infantile years. Eurystheus king of My- 
cenae imposed upon him many difficult enterprises, which he carried 
through with success; particularly those, which are called the twelve 
labors of Hercules. These were : to kill the Nemaean lion ; to destroy 
the Lernaean hydra ; to catch alive the Stag with golden horns ; to 
catch the Erymanthean boar ; to cleanse the stables of Augias ; to 
exterminate the birds of lake Stymphalis ; to bring alive the wild bull 
of Crete; to seize the horses of Diomedes; to obtain the girdle of Hip- 
polyta, queen of the Amazons; to destroy the monster Geryon; to 
plunder the garden of Hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon ; 
and to bring from the infernal world the three-headed dog Cerberus. 

These various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion 
in the poets. The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. — The twelve 
labors are described in 12 verses in the 3d Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf. P. II. § SI). 

§ 124. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he gave 
proof of his extraordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an aven- 
ger and deliverer of the oppressed. Such were, his slaying the rob- 
ber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of Prometheus, 
bound to a rock ; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus : the contest with 
Achelous; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less 
honorable was his love of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he 
sank into the most unworthy effeminacy. His last achievement was 
the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying gave his poi- 
soned tunic to Dejanira ; Hercules afterwards receiving it from her, 
and putting it on, became so diseased, that he cast himself in despair 
upon a funeral pile on mount (Eta. 

The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were 
erected to his honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great 
many surnames and epithets from his exploits and from the places of 
his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded the artists of ancient 



454 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and 
they very often employed them. 

On the Hercules Famese, see P. I. § 186. 6.— For other principal representations of Hercules, 
Montfauc. Ant. expl. T. i. pi. 123-141", and Ogle's Ant. exp. No. 31-40. — See also Laur. Begeri 
Hercules Ethnicorum, ex. var. antiq. reliquiis delineatus. Col. March. 1705. fol. — Heynii Not. 
ad Apollodor. p. 325.— /. GurliWs Fragment, e. archceol. Abhandl. Ub. Hercules. Magd.1800. 4. 
— Ph. BuUmann, iiber d. Mythos des Herakles. Berl. 1810. 8. — Dupuis, Orig. de tous les cult, 
vol. ii.— Respecting the ancient writers on the Mythol. of Hercules, see Muller's Hist, and An- 
tiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. 1830. vol. i. p. 523. 

Among the various solutions of the story of Hercules, there is one which very ingeniously ap- 
plies the account of his twelve labors to the passage of the sun through the 12 signs of the Zodiac. 
A view of this is given in Anthori's Lempriere. 

§ 125. Theseus, a son of iEgeus and iEthra, or according to 
others a son of Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to 
engage in enterprizes the most hazardous, and he successfully accom- 
plished them. Among these, was the extermination of a multitude of 
robbers and assassins that infested Greece, and especially the destruc- 
tion of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, to which the Athe- 
nians had previously been compelled to send seven male youth and as 
many young virgins annually, to be devoured by him. By the help 
of Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the 
winding of the labyrinth, in which the monster had his abode, and 
put him to death. Ariadne accompanied him on his return to Athens, 
but he ungratefully deserted her on the island of Naxos. 

§ 126. The other principal exploits of Theseus were his descent 
to the lower world with his friend Pirithous, his victory over the 
Amazons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyta became his wife, and the 
assistance he gave Adrastus, king of Argos, against the Theban 
prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the 
legislation and the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he 
was for some time an exile. The manner of his death is variously 
related, but it seems by all accounts to have been caused by violence. 
— The honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities; 
a superb temple was consecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was 
established called Qtfosia, held on the eighth day of every month, 
with games, and a regular sacrifice termed oySodtor. Provision was 
made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festiv- 
ities of this occasion. 

Cf. Pint, in Fit. Thes. — Diod. Sic. L. iv. c. 61. — Ov. Metam. vii. 404 ; viii. 152 ; xii. 210. 
— Mitford's Greece, ch. i. sect. 3. — For a view of the temple of Theseus, see Plate XVI. fig. 3. 

§ 127. Jason and the Argonauts. One of the most celebrated 
enterprizes of the heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch 
in the Grecian history, a sort of separation-point between the fabu- 
lous and the authentic, was the Argonautic expedition. This was a 
voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain the golden fleece, 
conducted by Jason, the son of JEson, king of Thessaly. The un- 
dertaking was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited 
the most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and 
among those who joined him were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, 
Pelcus, Pirithous, and Theseus. The vessel built for the purpose 
was named Argo, which after various adverse events arrived at ^Ea, 
the capital of Colchis. yEetes was then king of Colchis, and prom- 
ised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most difficult conditions. 

§ 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet JEetes was 
unwilling to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay 



HEROES. JASON. CASTOR AND POLLUX, 455 

Jason and his companions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, 
the king's daughter, by whose assistance and magical art Jason slew 
the dragon that guarded the fleece, and seized the treasure. He im- 

too ' . 

mediately fled accompanied by Medea, but was pursued by her fa- 
ther. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse into 
pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's 
pursuit. Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married Creusa, 
or, as others name her, Glauce, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. 
Medea took vengeance by causing the death of Creusa and also of 
the children shehad herself borne to Jason. After death Jason re- 
ceived the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a temple at Abdera. 

See the poems on the Argon. Exped. by Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, and Valerius Flaccus. 
(Cf. P. II. § 48, 73, 376.) — "Banier, or the Argon. Exped. in Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv, 
p. 54 5 in, 123 ; xiv. 41. — ffeynii Not. ad. Appolodor. p. 177. 

Various explanations have been put upon the story of the Argonauts. One writer thinks 
the golden fleece was the raw silk of the East. Hager, Pantheon Chinois. — Another thinks 
the phrase arose from the habit of collecting gold, washed down from the mountains, by put- 
ting sheepskins in the channel of the streams. Mitford, ch. i. sect. 3. — Bryant (Anal. Anc. 
Myth.) considers the whole story as a tradition of the flood. 

§ 129 m. Castor and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, were twin 
sons of Jupiter and Leda and brothers to Helena. On account of their de- 
scent, they were called Dioscuri (Jiuoxovqoi), although according to some, 
Castor was the son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. Castor distinguished 
himself in the management of horses, and Pollux in boxing and wrestling. 
The last exploit of the Dioscuri was their contest with Lynceus and his broth- 
er Idas. Castor was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux ; and as Idas 
was about to avenge the death of his brother, Jupiter smote him with light- 
ning. — Pollux obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and immortal- 
ity in conjunction with his brother Castor. Both were placed among the 
constellations and represented by the Gemini or twins in the zodiac. Both 
the Greeks and the Romans consecrated temples to them, and they were es- 
pecially invoked and worshiped by mariners. 

1. They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from having cleared 
the Hellespont and the neighboring seas from pirates. They were invoked 
as ^Anorijonoiy averlers of evil ; and white lambs were sacrificed to them. — 
The Romans honored them especially for services supposed to be received 
from them in pressing dangers, as in the battle with the Latins near lake Re- 
gillus. They constantly swore by their names ; the oath used by the women 
was JEcastor, or by the temple of Castor ; that of the men was JEdepol, or by 
the temple of Pollux. 

2. The festival called Dioscuria (Siooy.ovqia) was in honor of these brothers, 
celebrated especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts of Bacchus 
were very freely shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of 
Castor and Pollux, which Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his 
devoted friend Clitus. — This festival is supposed by some to have had the 
same origin as the famous mysteries of the Cabiri, which were celebrated 
particularly at Samothrace, and w T ere thought to have great efficacy in pro- 
tecting from shipwreck and storms. 

G. S. Faber, Mysteries of the Cabiri. Oxf. 1803. 2 vols. 8. — Freret, Les Cabires, in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxvu. p. 9. 

§ 130 u. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of Greece, the 
war of Thebes, which is dated upwards of 1200 years before Christ, is much 
celebrated. Without relating its incidents we shall here only name some of 
the principal heroes of the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, 
the two sons of GUdipus, king of Thebes, whose own private story was so 
tragical. The war arose from the dissension of these brothers, who slew each 
other in a single combat, and were afterwards honored as demigods. Several 
famous chiefs, as Capaneus, Tydeus, Hippomedon, Parthcnopams, united with 
Adrastus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to take part in the 
war. The events connected with it furnished the poets with matter for nu- 
merous tragedies- — The second enterprize against Thebes, ten years later, was 
more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons 



456 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

and descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the 
war of the ^Enlyovoi. The most illustrious of these were Alcmseon, Ther- 
sander, Polydorus, and Thesimenes. 

Paus. ix. 25. — Jl-pollod. i. 3. — Diod. iv. — Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. i. The Theban war was 

one of the favorite themes of ancient poets. 'Antimachus of Colophon, a Greek poet and con- 
temporary with Chcerilus, wrote a poem in 24 books on the subject ; the fragments have been 
collected. Cf. P. II. § 19. — The poem of the Latin poet Statins is still extant. Cf. P. II. § 378. 
$ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were the sport of fortune, Tantalus, and his de- 
scendants the Tantalides, were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, occasioned by the im- 
piety of this prince. Being of immortal descent, he was honored with a visit from the gods 
during an excursion they made upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his 
guests, he served up among other meats the limbs of his son Pelofs, whom he had cruelly mur- 
dered. The gods perceived his perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish ; but Ceres, 
whom the recent loss of her daughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the 
shoulders. In compassion to the fate of the young prince, Jupiter restored him to life ; and in- 
stead of the shoulder which Ceres had devoured substituted one of ivory, which possessed the 
property of healing by its touch all kinds of diseases. 

As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell (§ 34) with an insatiable 
hunger and thirst in the midst of abundance. — He had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to 
her intolerable vanity. Having a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, 
who had only two, with overbearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to 
Apollo and Diana, who (§ 38) destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris ; and Niobe was 
so shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. 

Pelofs quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the 
daughter of king CEnomaus ; but this monarch, having been informed that he should perish by 
the hand of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun 
him in the chariot-race ; and those who entered the list were to forfeit their lives if conquered. 
Undaunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he 
previously bribed Myrtiles the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the axle-tree of the chariot 
in such a manner as to break it on the course ; and the unfortunate king being thrown to the 
ground, killed himself. CEnomaus thus left his kingdom and daughter to Pelops, who acquired 
great celebrity, and gave his name to the peninsula in the southern part of Greece. Pelops, af- 
ter death, received divine honors. He had an altar in the grove Altis at Olympia, and was much 
revered, even above other heroes (Pind. Olymp. i. 146. Pausan. v. 13). His descendants were 
called Pelopida. His two sons, Atreus and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual hatred 
and crimes. But his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Atridm, acquired a more 
honorable renown. 

§ 132 u. Heroes of the Trojan War. Of all the wars of Grecian story, 
none is more famous than that of Troy, which was the first military campaign 
of the Greeks out of the limits of their own country. The immediate occa- 
sion of it was the seizure of Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Lacedsemon, 
by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. The siege continued, according to the 
common account, including the preparation and marches, ten years, with va- 
rious successes and disasters, until at last the Greeks became masters of the 
city by stratagem. The chiefs who were engaged in this enterprize acquired 
the highest renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured their 
everlasting remembrance. The chief commander was Agamemnon, and the 
more illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Me- 
nelaus, Ajax son of* Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, Idomeneus, and Nestor. 
On the side of the Trojans, Hector , JEneas^ and Antenor were among the most 
celebrated. 

The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself, than for its conse- 
quences. It gave a new spring to Grecian culture (P. I. § 40). The arts of 
war were greatly improved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took 
place in most of the states. But all this pertains to authentic history rather 
than to the mythic tales. 

See Mitford, ch. i. sect. 4 Gillies, ch. i. iii Class, Journ. v. 14. 18. vi. 25. ix. 605, 626. 

xviii. 141. — Cf. P. II. § 50. — Bryant (in a Dissertation on the war of Troy, Lond. 1799. 4) has 
maintained that the whole tale is mere fable, and that there never was any such war. 

§ 133. At a much later period, after the Roman imperial power was established, it became a 
regular custom to deify the deceased emperors, as has been already mentioned (§ 94). This ser- 
vile and impious adulation was first practiced by the Asiatic Greeks towards the successors of 
Alexander. It was sometimes extended to the governors of provinces. The Roman senate made 
it their business by solemn decree to place every deceased emperor in the number of the gods, 
and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of his funeral. But as the actions 
of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was impossible to connect with the dei- 
fied name such fabulous and mysterious tales, as to give the divinities, thus established by law, 
much hold upon the popular feelings. The list of imperial demigods, therefore, is of compara- 
tively little importance in a view of the ancient mythology. — This deification of the emperors, 
it is very likely, gave rise to the beatification of saints, practiced by the Roman Catholics. 

See Middleton's Letter from Rome, shewing the conformity between Popery and Paganism. 
Lond. 1729. 4. Also in his Miscellaneous Works. Lond.1755. 5 vols. 8. — Cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall 
&c. ch. iii. — Respecting the ceremonies attending the Apotheosis, or Consecratio, see P. IV. $ 343. 



PART IV 



GREEK AND ROMAN 



ANTIQUITIES. 



39 



PLATE XIII. 




GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. Gr^ecia is by some supposed to have derived its name from 
Graicus, a son of Thessalus, his descendants being called Graici, 
rqaixol. The Graici, however, were only a single tribe of the inhab- 
itants, some of whom planted themselves in Italy. The country orig- 
inally seems to have had no common name, comprehending properly 
all its tribes. Graecia was a name used by the Romans, not by the 
inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, from Hellen, 
a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the peo- 
ple were called by the ancient writers Achaeans, Argivi, Danai, Hel- 
lenes, Pelasgians, and Ionians. These names of the country and 
the occupants, however, were not employed always in a uniform 
sense, but seem to have referred in their general application chiefly 
to the more important colonies or communities, which originally oc- 
cupied and peopled the land. 

§ 2. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was 
bounded on three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which 
were distinguished by the names of JEgean, Cretan, Ionian, and 
Adriatic ; on the north it extended to Ulyricum and Thrace. In a 
more limited sense it did not include Macedonia ; but contained, in 
the Peloponnesus, Sicyon, Argos, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Arcadia, 
Achaia, and Corinth, and in Greece Proper, Attica, Megara, Boeotia, 
Locris, Doris, Phocis, ^Etolia, Thessalia, and Epirus. — Ionia and 
.'Eolia were Grecian colonies in Asia Minor. Greece is otherwise 
divided also, into the Peloponnesus, Hellas, North Greece, and the 
Grecian islands. (Cf. P. V. § 72.) 

§ 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were 
distinguished for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, 
in Attica: Sparta or Lacedasmon, in Laconia; Argos, Mycenae, and 
Corinth, in the territory of Argolis ; Thebes, in Boeotia ; Megalo- 
polis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or colonial cities of 
the Greeks were the following; Miletus and Ephesus in Ionia ; Mi- 
tylene, Chios, Samos, and Rhodus, in the islands near Asia Minor; 
Byzantium on the. Thracian coast; Corcyra on the island of that 
name ; Tarentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy ; Syracuse, 
Agrigentum, Gela, and Leontium in Sicily ; Syrene in Africa. In 
later times Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in 
Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as Grecian cities. 

§ 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course 
of its history, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic ages ? 



460 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES, 

the several tribes or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of 
their own choice. Subsequently monarchies properly so called were 
established in Sicyon, Argos, Attica, Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, 
Corinth, Lacedsemon, Elis, iEtolia, ./Egialea, or Achaia. But the 
Greeks were in the most flourishing condition during the time of 
the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — The Achaean and Etolian 
league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political constitution of the 
Greeks in Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian 
history. 

§ 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from 
Thrace and who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. I. § 33, 
34) and the Hellenes, lived in a very rude state, without any com- 
mercial relations or even common laws. They practiced upon each 
other constant robbery and violence, and were exposed to frequent 
attacks from the occupants of the neighboring islands. Colonies 
from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to 
their culture, which was aided by the commencement of navigation* 
The famous Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable 
exploits in the navigation of this early period, occurring about 80 
years before the Trojan war. About fifty years before the same, the 
first formal state constitution was adopted, in Crete, under the direc- 
tion of Minos ; not with the perfection, however, which was secured 
at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him Theseus* 
The people of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, 
and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants 
of other regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory ex* 
cursions. 

§ 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the 
different people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects 
of common interest, particularly in reference to murders and depre- 
dations. A proof of this was given by the fact of so many states 
joining to avenge the injury of Menelaus (committed against him by 
Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on together the war 
against Troy. This war became a means of the further advance* 
ment of Grecian culture, although it was also the occasion of many 
troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus led to the 
migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi* 
nally they became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, 
law, and social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and 
religious rites, and maintaining social and civil order. 

§ 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a mili-* 
tary character; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil 
head of his people ; but now a more monarchical form was assumed. 
Soon however the kings abused their power, and by their tyranny 
forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. Love of liberty then be^- 
came the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very name of king 
was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a state of things in 
which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. 
Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring in- 
dependence, the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned 
were in great measure allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens,- 



INTRODUCTION. 461 

had united several of the states in a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), 
and this compact afterwards became much more close and strong. 
An excess of population in this period of tranquility and prosperity 
was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, and 
Africa. 

§ 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedsemon enjoyed first 
the advantages of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of 
laws, which however in some particulars evinced the imperfect cul- 
ture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. about 820, the author of this code, 
had previously made himself acquainted with the manners and in- 
stitutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without introducing any 
violent changes, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold regal 
office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a 
new and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in 
part very severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a 
brave, constant, and warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared 
and respected. His design was accomplished, and Sparta acquired 
in these respects a high preeminence over the other states. 

See J. E. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Erklrerung d. Geschichte und Verfassung die- 
ses Staats. Leipz. 1800-1805. 3 Th. 8.— Cf. references given P. II. § 7. 7(d). 

§ 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being ad- 
vanced in culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and 
subsequently acquiring glory and power from the defeat of the Per- 
sians at Marathon, she became more and more jealous of the superi- 
ority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mutual animosities and finally 
to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was carried on for eight 
and twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens and Spar- 
ta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part on 
one side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory 
did not endure long after this. Athens rose far higher in political 
and literary character, and became the residence of refined manners, 
useful knowledge, and cultivated taste in the arts. 

Wm. Young's Political History of Athens. — Trans, into Germ. Leips. 1777.8. — Athenian 
Letters, or the epistolary correspondence of an agent of the king of Persia, residing at Athens 
durina the Peloponnesian war. Lond. 1799. 2 vols. 8. — Trans, into Germ, by F. Jacobs, Leipz. 
1800. — Bulwer, Rise and Fall of Athens. — Cf. P. II. § 7. 7(d). 

§ 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece has already 
been exhibited in the Archaeology of Literature (P. I. § 33ss. 61ss.), 
and here it is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired 
to render Greece so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes 
were, besides the highly propitious climate of the land, its numerous 
population, whose very necessities as well as mutual emulation ex- 
cited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention ; its enjoyment 
of an encouraging and ennobling liberty; its commercial intercourse, 
and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favor- 
able circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to 
the present day one of the most remarkable in history, and whose 
works in literature and art are still valued as our best models. 

§ 11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the an- 
tiquities of the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their 
religious, civil, military, and domestic institutions and customs. The 
general utility of such knowledge, especially as an aid in the inves- 
39* 



462 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tigation of history, language, criticism, mythology, and art, com- 
mends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at all in 
classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek an- 
tiquities, that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the lan- 
guage, literature, religion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, 
hold so high a place in point of relative importance. Some acquaint- 
ance with what is denominated their antiquities is essential to enable 
us to enter much into these subjects, to comprehend well their spirit 
and character, or to contemplate the various monuments of their lit- 
erature and art in a definite and correct view. 

On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we would introduce the 
following remarks, abridged from Rollin (as cited P. III. § 5). — " To a cer- 
tain extent, this study is indispensable for all who make pretensions to edu- 
cation. Without it, there are a multitude of expressions, allusions, and com- 
parisons which they cannot understand ; without it, it is scarcely possible to 
advance a step even in reading history, without being arrested by difficulties 
which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily solve. Like all other 
studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. There is some- 
times connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly conducted, 
which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on 
every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be 
comprehended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that 
this vitiated taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the 
Romans. Juvenal also (I>. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his con- 
temporaries, who required that a preceptor should be able to reply without 
preparation to a thousand absurd and ridiculous questions. It is to know ve- 
ry little of the worth of time, and grossly to misapply one's talents and exer- 
tions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure and difficult and at the 
same time, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and sometimes even 
vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this 
danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is 
a foolish and pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every sub- 
ject all that inferior writers have said ; that such an occupation consumes un- 
profitable the time and strength which ought to be reserved for better things } 
and that of all the eminent qualifications of a good teacher, that of knowing 
how to be ignorant of certain things is by no means the least. 

After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of an- 
tiquities either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very com- 
prehensive branch of learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who pro- 
poses to pursue important studies himself, or to direct those of others. The 
extent or difficulty of the work should dishearten no one. By devoting every 
day a fixed portion of time to the reading of ancient authors, intellectual 
riches will be amassed, little by little, which will afterwards be a source of 
astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only necessary to make 
the commencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down observations 
in order and with accuracy. 

Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under 
seven or eight heads: religion; political government; war; navigation j 
monuments and public edifices ; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; 
the customs of common life, such as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under 
each of these divisions are included many subdivisions. For example, under 
the head of religion are comprised the gods, priests, temples, vases, furniture, 
instruments employed in difF.'rent religious ceremonies, sacrifices, feasts T 
vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads." 

See K. H. Milliwuser, Ueber Pfiir.lop.ie, AUertfiumrswissenscfiaft, mid Altertfiumsstudium. 
Fiir Studirende. Lps. 1837. 8. pp.88. — Burgess? Essay on the Study of Antiquities. Oxf. 
1782. 8. — Cf. P. I. $19. 

§ 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical 
writers, and especially the historians^ more particularly such of thein 



INTRODUCTION. 



463 



as give details of the whole constitution of Grecian society, the man- 
ners, customs, and modes of thinking and feeling. Among the class- 
ical writers, the poets also must be considered as sources of informa- 
tion on this subject, especially the epic poets, whose narrations, not- 
withstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth for a oasis, 
and whose representations give much insight into the character and 
views of the people of the times. But another important source is 
found in the remaining monuments of art ; inscriptions, coins, stat- 
ues, bas-reliefs, gems, and vessels of various kinds. These, being 
sensible objects, give us a more distinct and complete conception of 
many points than could possibly be gained from mere verbal de- 
scriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations of beau- 
ty and taste. 

§ 13. Various modern writers have collected from these sources 
the scattered items of information, and arranged them methodically 
for the benefit of those who wish to gain a knowledge of antiquities, 
and apply it in the study of Greek literature. Other writers have 
investigated particular topics in a more full and extended manner. 



1. For an account of works of both kinds, 
see J. A. Fabricii Bibliographia antiquaria. 
(Stud, et op. P. Shaffshausen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. 
cap. ii. — Nitsch's Beschreibung des &c. which 
is cited below (Th. i. p. 35). — Krebs, Handbuch 
der philolol. Bucherkunde (Bd. ii. p. 211).— Cf. 
Suher's Allg. Theorie, Alten. — Meusel's Biblio- 
theca Historica, vol. 3d, as cited P. II. $240, 
enumerates the writers on Antiquities. 

2. The most important collection of particu- 
lar treatises on Greek Antiquities is Jac. Gro- 
novii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grsecarum. Lug. 
Bat. 1697-1702. 13 vols. fol. Ven. 1732. An ac- 
count of the contents is given in the work of 
Fabricius, just cited. — A mass of valuable mat- 
ter relating to various branches of Greek Anti- 
quities, with illustrations taken from ancient 
monuments, is found in Montfaucon's Antiq. 
Expliq. cited P. III. $ 12. 2 (d). An abridge- 
ment of this in German, by J.F. Roth, was pub- 
lished Nurnb. 1807. fol. with 150 plates. 

3. Among the best Manuals and Compends 
on the subject, are the following : — Everh. Fei- 
thii Antiquitatum Homericarum Libri iv. (ed. 
El. Stbber) Argent. 1743. 8.— Jo. Phil. Pfifffer, 

Libri iv. Antiq. Gnecarum. Lpz. 1708. 4 

Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Graecarum, pracipue Attica- 
rum, Descriptiobrevis (with obs. of Lcisner and 
Zeunius). Lpz. 1787. 8. (Eng. trans, by Stock- 
dale) Lond. 1772. 8. — Sig. Havercamp, Antiq. 
Grfecarum, praecipue Atticarum, Descriptio bre- 
vis. Lug. Bat. 1740. 8. — P. F. A. JVdsch, Be- 
schreibung des ha?uslichen,gottesdienstlichen, 
sittlichen, politischen, kriegerischen und wis- 
senschaftlichen Zustandes d. Griechen, &c. 
(fortgesetz von Hopfncr) Erf. 1791-1800. 3 vols. 
8. with a 4th vol. by Kvpke. Erf.1806. Cf.Class. 
Joum. v. 10. — Nitsch (same), Entwuif der 
Griech. Alterthiimer. Altenb.1791. 8.— Sthaajps 
Antiquitceten und Archreologie der Griechen 
und RSmer. Magdeb. 1820. 8. — J. Robinson's 
Archreolosia Graaca, or the Antiquitiesof Greece 
&c. Lond. 1827. 8. — J. Putter, Archreologia 
Graca, or the Antiquities of Greece. Oxf. 1699. 
2 vols. 8. Same work, ed. G. Dunbar. Edinb. 
1820. with additions and corrections by Anthon. 
N.Yk.1825. 8. with notes, maps, &c. by J. B yd. 
Glasg. 1837. 12. valuable. Same work in Ger- 



man, with additions by /. /. Rambach. Halle, 
1777-78. 3 vols. Cf. P. I. § 32.— A compendium 
of Grecian antiquities bv C. D. Cleveland. Bost. 
1831. 12.— Abriss der Griech. und Rom. Alter- 
thiimer, von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal 1821. 
12 (very brief). 

4. The following are not designed for manu- 
als, but contain highly interesting pictures of 
Grecian antiquity. — J. Jac. Barthelemy, Voyage 
du jeune Anacharsis en Grece. ed. StersoU 
Par. 1820. 7 vols. 12. Engl, transl. by W. Beau- 
mont. Lond.1806. Cf. P.II. $153. In Germ.with 
notes by J. E. Blester. Berl. 1792, 7 vols. 8. — 
J. D. Hartmann's Yersuch einer Kulturge- 
schichte der vornehmsten VSlkerschaften 
Griechenlands. Lemgo 1796 & 1800. 2 Bde. 8. 

5. The following works also may be con- 
sulted with advantage on different points t 
— Wacksmuth Hellenische Alterthumskunde. 
Halle. 1826. Trans, into Engl. (Historical An- 
tiquities of Greece) Oxf. 1837. 4 vols. 8.— Hill's 
Essays on the Institutions of the Greeks. — 
Bock's Public Economy of Athens. — Gillies 7 
Discourse on the Manners of the Greeks. — 
H. Hase, The Public and Private Life of the 
ancient Greeks. Transl. from German. Lond. 
1836. 8.— Heeren's Politics of Anc. Greece. Tr. 
by G. Bancroft. Bost. 1824. — C. O. Midler's 
History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. 
Tr. by II. Tufuel and G. C. Lnois. Oxf. 1830. 
2 vols. 8. — We may add here, Win. Bruce, State 
of society in the age of Homer. — Lardner's Cabi- 
net Encyclop. No. xlvii & lxx (On Arts, Man- 
ufactures, .fee. of Greeks &. Romans). — Rougier, 
L'Agriculture Ancienne des Grecs. Par. 1830. 
8.—D.G.Wait, Jewish, Oriental, and Classical 
Antiquities ; containing illustrations of the 
Scriptures and Classical Records, from Oriental 
sources. Camb.1823. 8 (cf. Home, Int. to FtucL 
S. Script, ii. p. 727).— Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. x. 
Be<t edition, N. York, 1S35. 2 vols, large 8. — 
C. F. Weber, Repertorium der classischen Alter- 
thumswissenschafl. Lpz. 1832. 8. — A. Pauly, 
Real Encyclop'Adie der classischen Alterthums- 
wissenschnften. Stuttg. 1838. commenced. — 
Fosbroke, Encycl «pasdia of Antiquities, Clas- 
sical and Mediaeval. Lond. 1838. 3 vols. 4. with 
plates. 



§ 14. The subject of antiquities cannot he treated in so strict ac- 
cordance with chronological order, as the events of history, because 



464 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the sources of information are not sufficiently minute. But still in 
describing the antiquities of a people, one should not lose sight of the 
influence, which political revolutions, the progress and decline of re- 
finement, and other circumstances, have exerted at successive times 
upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and 
social state. Most writers have been not sufficiently mindful of this, 
and have also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of 
the Grecian states, viz. Athens, and so have described Attic, rather 
than Grecian antiquities. In order to avoid this double fault in the 
present sketch, the antiquities of the earlier and less cultivated times 
will be distinguished from those of a later and more enlightened pe- 
riod ; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was then the 
most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitu- 
tion and peculiarities of the other principal states. 



I. — Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages. 

§ 15. It has been already suggested (§ 5, 10). that Greece advanced 
with very rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness in manners and 
morals to the highest degree of refinement. The history of this pro- 
gress may be divided into three distinct periods. The first extends 
from the original state of barbarism to the time of the Trojan war; 
this was the period of the peopling of Greece : the second extends 
from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the period of the rise 
and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs: the third 
extends from the age of Solon, to the time when the Greeks lost their 
liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (cf. P. II. § 9), the period 
of their greatest perfection and glory. 

Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more 
particularly to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods ; 
and the subject will be considered in four general branches, viz. 
religious, civil, military, and domestic affairs. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the 
Greeks, their religion had no fixed or steady form ; yet a great part of 
the popular belief originated in these times, which on this account 
have been called the mythical ages or fabulous period. The formation 
of this early popular faith was aided by the general ignorance, the pre- 
dominance of sensual ideas, and the natural tendencies of the mind in 
an uncultivated state of society (P. III. § 5u). With the progress of 
social and moral culture, the traditions and fables grew into a sort of 
system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented 
and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology. 

According to common accounts, Greece received new and better 
religious notions from Thrace, by Orpheus, B. C. about 1250 (cf. 
P. II. § 12, 48). They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian origin. 



JRELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 465 

The worship of animals the Greeks never adopted ; but they err^ 
braced, in common with most of the ancient nations, the worship of 
the stars, that early form of idolatry. They also practiced the custom 
of deifying and worshiping men (P. III. §118), who were styled heroes^ 
having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries, estab- 
lishing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits. 

On the religious affairs of Greece, we may refer to J. G. Lakemacher, Antiquitates GnEcorum 
sacne. Helrast. 1744. 8. — Chr. Brtlningii, Compendium Antiq. Graec. e prolan is sacrarum. — 
Francof. 175S. 8*—Mitford, Hist. Gnec. ch. ii. sect. 1. — Foucher, sur la religion des Grecs, in the 
Mem. Acad. Itiscr. vols, xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxviii. and xxxix. 

§ 17m. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks was the 
business of their wise mien, lawgivers, and poets, who Were mostly at the same 
time priests. The matter of these was confined chiefly to the dogmas and 
narratives of Theogony and Cosmogony, which were of a mixed character, 
fabulous and allegorical, but based upon some real appearances in nature and 
man. The various operations of the powers of nature and the movements of 
human passions, were the principal foundation of the tales and doctrines of the 
mythology. The origin of things, their vicissitudes and transformations, their 
nature, tendency and effects, were the subjects ; and these were, by a lively 
fancy, changed into supposed or imaginary persons, to whom words, actions, 
and appropriate attributes were ascribed. The regular combination or assem- 
blage of these in order was called the Theogony, or account of the origin and 
descent of the gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, which one 
of the most ancient of the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular 
form in his poem styled the Theogony, and all the principal elements of which 
Homer interwove in his two epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey. (Cf. P. II. 
§ 50, 51.) 

§ 18 u. In the first ages the wise men> and especially the poets, made great 
exertions to imbue the minds of the people with reverence for the gods and 
respect for their worship. On public solemnities, and in great assemblies of 
the people, they were accustomed to adapt their songs to this object. Even 
when the subject of these songs was not the history of the gods, nor any point 
of direct religious instruction, they were opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apol- 
lo, or some inspiring deity. In this way they fixed and strengthened a pre- 
vailing faith in the power and providence of the gods, and formed the first ideas 
of right, virtue, and morality, and of future rewards and punishments. The 
songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and subject of the in- 
struction of the young. Hence arose on the one hand the great influence of 
their poetry on the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the other hand the 
great admiration in which the earljr poets were generally held. 

§ 19u. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their names, rank, 
history, attributes and mode of worship, we must refer to the portion of 
this work which treats of Mythology (P. Illj. Here we only remark, that 
the number of the Grecian gods constantly increased with the progress of 
time, yet the highest and most distinguished of them were introduced and 
honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly in the class of heroes or demi- 
gods that this augmentation took place, after the lapse of the heroic ages, and 
by means of oral traditions. The more extensive the services of these heroes 
were while living, the more general was the reverence for them after death; 
while those, whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particu- 
lar city or tribe, wei-e -deified chiefly by the same, and received a less general 
homage and worship. 

§ 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the 
gods in these early ages, were in part, fields and grounds, whose pro- 
duce was devoted to uses connected with religious worship; partly 
groves and particular trees, the former being commonly planted in a 
circular form; and partly, at length, temples, which were viewed as 
the seats and habitations of their respective gods. The temples were 
usually in the cities near the market or place of public business, 
although they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the 



466 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

consecrated groves. The ground, on which they stood was usu- 
ally elevated either by nature or art, and their entrance or front 
was commonly towards the east. Some bf them were dedicated to a 
single deity, others to several. It was not uncommon to place the 
name of the god, to whom the temple was sacred, in a brief inscrip- 
tion over the entrance. 

§ 21. Originally the interior of the temple was entirely vacant, 
after the Egyptian manner, even without the image or statue of its 
god. And in the earliest times the image of a god, as has been al- 
ready observed (P. I. § 156. 2), was nothing but a mere stone, which 
served to represent the deity, and to which offerings were brought. 
This was the primary origin of altars. By degress, these stones came 
to be formed into a human shape, after which it was more common to 
place statues (hyaXuara) of the gods in their temples. The posture 
was sometimes standing, sometimes sitting. The material, at first 
employed, was of no great value, being stone, wood, or clay. There 
were, however, in the heroic ages, images of the gods of a more costly 
substance, such as ivory, brass, silver or gold, although Homer never 
exactly describes the material. 

§ 22. The care of the temples and holy things was entrusted to the 
priests and priestesses. The number of these varied in different cases, 
and depended generally upon the rank of the deity, on whose temple 
and worship they attended. The marriage state was not forbidden 
them, although it became afterwards customary to take priestesses 
mostly from persons unmarried, who either were obliged to perpetual 
celibacy, or remained priestesses only until marriage. In some in- 
stances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it was adopted 
in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was usually 
near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the limits of 
the latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered to 
the gods, and were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office 
was highly honored in the early ages of Greece, and was held, in part 
at least, by the noblest and most distinguished personages, sometimes 
even by kings. 

§ 23. SorLe of the principal rites and solemnities pertaining to the 
religious worship must here be mentioned. Among these were lus- 
trations (y.a&aQuoi, ayviauol), which consisted in the ablution of the 
body, and a certain purification of the clothes, and of sacred uten- 
sils. For this purpose salt water was used, which was taken from 
the sea, or prepared by a solution of salt in common water. Sul- 
phur and fire were also used on these occasions. These purifications 
were considered as especially necessary for those who were defiled 
by murder and blood, and even for the places where such crimes had 
happened. They were often ordered for the propitiation of offended 
deities. 

§ 24. But prayers and sacrifices were tbe most essential parts of 
Grecian worship. The former were put up, especially, when some 
important enterprise or undertaking was commenced ; the object of 
the prayer being to secure a happy issue, in case of which very rich 
gifts were promised to the gods by the supplicant. Both prayers and 
vows were termed iv X ui. In making them, the eyes and hands were 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 467 

raised towards the heavens, or in the temples directed towards the 
images. The posture was sometimes standing, sometimes kneeling 
{yovvuUo&ai, yowTtsxiiv) ; the latter was used especially in case of ear- 
nest desire or peculiar distress, and often by the whole assembly in 
common. 

1. Supplicants usually had garlands on their heads and necks, and green 
boughs of olive or laurel (&a?J.ol or y./.uSoi ixTt'jQioi) in their hands. In the 
boughs wool was placed without tying, and they were hence called some- 
times arhiuaxa. With these boughs the supplicants touched the kndes, some- 
times the cheek, of the statue of the god addressed in their prayers. 

2u. With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink offerings, 
otvovSui, called also /.oifiai, yolxi. These consisted generally of wine, part of 
which was poured out in honor of the gods, and part of it drunk by the wor- 
shiper. The wine must be pure (axQarov), and offered in a full cup. Some- 
times there were libations of water (iidQoonovda), of honey (iisZLojiovda), of 
milk (ya/.ccxToOTCorda), and of oil (i7.aioOTCov8a). 

§ 25. The sacrifices. -&voiai, originally consisted merely of incense, 
■9-vog, or some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron wood, or 
the like. In very early times, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, un- 
prepared state, were offered ; and subsequently, cakes, ov?.al, baked 
of coarse barley, or meal mixed with salt. It was not until a some- 
what later period, that the slaughter of living victims was introduced. 
These victims were selected with great care. At first, bullocks, 
sheep, goats, and swine, were chiefly taken for the purpose. After- 
wards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropriate 
to particular gods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, some- 
times several at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, 
and often also of different kinds. The hetacomb (ixaroupt]) properly 
consisted of a hundred bullocks or oxen ; yet neither the number 
nor kind of animals was very precisely regarded. 

The origin of sacrifices is an interesting and important theme. Some flippant and superfi- 
cial writers ascribe them wholly to mere superstition and priestcraft. Others attempt in a 
more serious manner to explain their existence by human origin. Several theories have been 
proposed ; one is, that they were at first gifts, a natural expedient for procuring the favor of 
the gods ; another, that they were federal rites, drawn from men's eating and drinking togeth- 
er in token of friendship, and hence the sacrificial banquet (cf. § 27) ; a third, advanced by 
Warburton (in his Divine Legation of Moses), is that they were symbolical actions, expressive 
of gratitude in some offerings, and in others, of the acknowledgement of sin and contrition 
through the death of an animal representing the death deserved by the worshiper. But a fourth 
account, which refers them to a divine institution, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents 
the Hebrew sacrifices as typical of the death of Christ as the great atoning sacrifice for sin- 
ners. (Cf. Ep. to Heb. ix. and x.) On supposition that God, when he promised a Redeemer to 
Adam, instituted some memorial and type, in an animal sacrifice, it is easy to see how by tradi- 
tion the practice of offering sacrifices should be universal. — See Magee, On the Atonement ; 
where the whole subject is well discussed. 

§ 26. The altars (pjjuoi), on which the sacrifices were presented, 
were erected not only in the temples, but often in open places, as on 
the banks of rivers, on mountains, in groves, and the like. 

" Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention occurs of a temple in 
Greece, except in the second book, evidently incidental, and the interpolation 
of some vainly patriotic Athenian rhapsodist. The passage indeed might be 
condemned on the grounds of philological discussion, but it contradicts both 
the history of art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of 
Minerva appears to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was enclosed, 
and probably, in Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During 
the age of Homer, then, the primeval altar, common both to Europe and Asia, 
was the only sacred edifice known. This differed little from a common hearth ; 
the sacrifice being in fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to heav- 
en, and the food of man, was prepared by roasting ; the first improvement on 
their simple construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an 



468 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

obvious means of cleanliness and comfort. Yet even this appears to have con- 
stituted a distinction not common, since, in particular instances, the pavement 
is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in order to mark in a 
more conspicuous manner, and with more dignity, the sacred spot, while the 
rites should be equally exposed to the spectators, an open colonnade was 
added, enclosing the altar and pavement. Thus the rootless temple mighi 
be said to be finished; but whether this primeval structure existed in his na- 
tive country during the age of Homer, does not appear. We remark here a 
very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in Greece, 
and the Druidical temple of the more northern regions. In fact, the astonish- 
ing remains at Stonehenge present the best known, and perhaps one of the 
most stupendous examples ever erected of the open temple. This species of 
religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with the spread of the 
human race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion 
of the globe." — Memes y Hist, of Sculpture, &c. p. 255, as cited P. I. § 169. 

§ 27. Among the ceremonies connected with offering a sacrifice, 
was the previous washing of the hands {§ 67. 2) and the sprinkling, 
by the priests, of those who were present, with sacred water ( /f ' ? w^). 
Then was plaeed upon the back and head of the victim, in early 
times, unground barley, in later times, a number of small cakes 
(nl>nava, bvioyvTa), often meal mixed with honey, wine, or oil ; a lit- 
tle hair torn from the forehead of the victim was then thrown upon 
the fire ; next followed the prayer and libation (§ 24) ; then the 
priest, or the x^qv's, smote the animal on the head with an ax or club, 
and cut its throat with a sacrificial knife (ocpayig). The blood was 
received in an appropriate vessel (oyayttov). The victim was then 
flayed and cut in pieces. The next thing was to cover the haunches 
or thighs (uyjQoi) with caul or fat (xvloaij), and to take small pieces 
from other parts of the animal and place upon them (duo&srsrr). Up- 
on the portions thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they 
were then placed on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim 
was usually roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. 
Banquets of this kind were made especially on the sacred festivals. 

§ 28. Besides the sacrifices properly so called, it was common to 
bring to the gods other gifts and offerings ((?«£«, ara6 {tiara). Among 
these, were crowns or garlands (oricpavog, crhpog), with which the tem- 
ples, altars, and statues were often adorned, and which were formed 
of the leaf sacred to the particular god to whom they were offered ; e. g. 
of ivy, for Bacchus ; of oak, for Jupiter. Curtains and vestments 
(■rcBQiTtiTuaiiara, TtsQov^uara) wrought with rich embroidery were brought 
and placed upon the statues or hung in the temples. Vessels of gold, 
silver, and brass were also offered, and tripods (rqlnodeg) especially to 
Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, ity.Qo6ivia, 
with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated to the gods 
were marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and circumstances 
of their dedication. From the custom here described,, arose the 
great riches of some of the Grecian temples. 

The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years 
possessed of immense wealth. 

See Mitford's Hist. Greece, ch. xxxvii. sect. 1 ; ch. xxxviii. sect. 1 ; ch. xxxix. sect. 5. — Ban- 
croft's Heeren, p. 201, as cited P. II. $7. 8. — De Valois, Les richesses du temple de Delphes, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. in. 78. 

§ 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a 
worship of the heroes as demigods (§ 16), which however was neith- 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 469 

er so general nor attended with so much ceremony. These had no 
festivals, properly speaking, but an annual funeral solemnity (huyioua), 
and were viewed as tutelary guardians of their country, tribe, or 
family. On these solemnities, the drink offerings (%oui) were in com- 
mon practice ; not only wine was used for the purpose, but often 
milk, and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various 
offerings presented, and from these a trophy (rqoTtaiov) or a funeral 
pile, was constructed. In some cases, the first fruits of the season 
were offered. The usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of 
the hero, in whose memory they were held, near which it was cus- t 
tomary to erect an altar; often also to make a pit or hole (p66Qog t 
?.uy.y.og), which had reference to their dwelling in the under world. 
(Cf. P. III. § 32.) 

§ 30. Funeral solemnities were generally a part of the religious 
usages of the more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediate- 
ly on the death of an individual, in the formal closing of his eyes 
(avyxlsteiv rovg 6(p6a?.uovg), a ceremony usually performed by the near- 
est kinsman. The corpse was then washed and anointed, clothed in 
a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier (uzjqov, iplqtTQov). 
Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the fu- 
neral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed 
for the occasion, and accompanied by mournful notes of the flute. 
The mourners also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, 
and casting it upon the corpse. These ceremonies were continued, 
not always the same length of time, sometimes three, sometimes sev- 
en days, and often a greater number. 

§ 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the 
Greeks, as the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. 
In the earliest times interring was practiced by the Greeks, although 
Homer speaks only of burning. 

lu. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was 
borne on abed or bier to the appointed place, where a funeral pile (jcvqa) was 
erected. Near this, funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed 
various objects, which had been particularly valued by the deceased, even an- 
imals, and sometimes human beings previously put to death. During the 
burning, the attendants uttered their wailings and funeral chants. The flame 
was finally extinguished by pouring on some liquid, and the ashes or remain- 
ing bones were collected by the nearest relative, and deposited in an urn, 
which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was marked by stones 
and a mound (/cThiu), on which was commonly raised a pillar (an'^.tj), or other 
monument, with an inscription. The ceremonies were ended with a funeral 
repast (vexqoSsitvvov, Trsqidsucvov). Sometimes games were celebrated in hon- 
or of the deceased. 

2. It is stated, that among the Thracians wives were burned on the funeral 
piles of their husbands; a custom which is still prevalent in India, although 
the influence of Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the country 
subject to England. 

§ 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we 
should notice their regard to oracles and to divinations. The most 
ancient of the oracles was that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still 
more celebrated, and also of early origin. The practice of divina- 
tion and the interpreting of signs was a business of the priests in 
particular. It was done partly by observing accidental occurrences, 

40 



470 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

as the flight of birds, or the breaking of thunder, in both of which 
the right side indicated good fortune, the observer having his face di- 
rected to the north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of vic- 
tims. Sneezing was regarded as a favorable prognostic. We may 
mention also the prophetic interpretation of dreams, and the belief 
of- the multitude in magic, and in bodily metamorphoses, which they 
supposed to afford various means of aid and protection. 

The religious festivals were numerous and attended with various 
ceremonies. — But on each of the topics mentioned in this section,, 
we shall speak more particularly again (§ 70-77). 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§ 33. It has been already remarked (§ 5), that the first inhabitants 
of Greece lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any so- 
cial compact. The family relations, the authority of the parent over 
the child, of the husband over the wife, exhibited the only traces of 
government. Phoroneus, a son of Inachus, is mentioned as the first 
author of association for civil purposes. Gradually the Greek tribes 
began to select leaders, who were called kings (paotketg), however 
limited might be the extent of their dominion or authority. The 
choice most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe 
or country some distinguished and meritorious service ; and then the 
dignity became hereditary,. a thing rather rare, however, in the ear- 
lier ages. Sometimes the choice was determined by consulting an 
oracle, and in such case the authority was viewed as the more right- 
ful, and as sanctioned by the gods. 

On the subject of the civil affairs of the early Greeks, we may refer to F. W. Tittmann's Dar- 
stellung der griechisch. Staatsverfassungen. Leipz. 1S22. 8. — Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 2;ch. iv. secU 
4. — K. F.Hermann, LehrLmcli der griechischen Staatsalterthamer. ( — Transi. into English.) 
Political Antiquities of Greece. Oxf. 1836. 8. A 2d altered and improved ed. of the original, 
in 183o. — Waclismuth, as cited §13. 

§ 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being des- 
potic, or unlimited ; the leaders and princes being bound by certain 
laws and usages. The principal duties of these chiefs were to com- 
mand in war, to settle disputes between the people, and to take care 
of the worship of the gods. Valor, love of justice, and zeal for re- 
ligion were therefore reckoned among their most important excellen- 
ces. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was as- 
signed, the cultivation of which they superintended themselves. Cer- 
tain taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in 
time of war. The signs of their office were the scepter and diadem. 
The former (ay^nr^or) was usually of wood, and in length not unlike 
the lance ; the latter (Siudijiia) was a sort of bandeau or head-band, 
rather than a proper crown. The general costume of these kings 
was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of a purple 
color. 

In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was some- 
thing attached to the head, a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic 
crown was common. David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious 
stones, of the weight (meaning probably of the value) of a talent (1 Sam. xii- 
30). Athenaeus mentions a crown, made of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on 
the throne of king Ptolemy. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 471 

In our Plate XIII. fig;. C, we have a curious golden crown, which is said to have been found 
in some part of Ireland, in 1692, about ten feet under ground. Near it in the Plate, fig. a, is an 
ancient Abyssinian crown ; on the other side, fig. b, is the covering seen on the head of a con- 
quered prince or general upon Egyptian monuments. — In Plate XIX. fig. 6, we have the fillet 
and horn worn by governors of provinces in Abyssinia. " A large broad fillet," says Bruce, 
*f was bound upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the middle of this was a con- 
ical piece of silver about four inches long. It is called kirn or horn, and is worn especially in 
parades after victories." Bruce, Travels &c. as cited P. I. $ 118. 1. 

§ 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple and 
unimposing. In war, they usually had by their side a friend, who 
served as a kind of armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, they em- 
ployed heralds {^^vxEg) in the publication and execution of^their or- 
ders. The heralds also imposed silence, when the chiefs wished to 
come forward and speak in an assembly. The same officers assisted 
in religious ceremonies, and were present in the forming of treaties. 
— The kings also selected councillors, of the most distinguished, 
experienced, and brave of the people ; and in cases of doubt or dif- 
ficulty, held with them consultations and formal assemblies, in which 
the speaker was accustomed to stand and the rest to sit. Both pub- 
lic and private affairs were discussed in these assemblies. 

§ 36. The courts of justice were in public places ; and the whole 
assembly usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat 
upon seats or benches of stone ; the men selected for the office were 
such as were much respected on account of age and experience. 
They bore in their hand a scepter or staff. The cause was stated 
orally by the contending parties themselves, and by them the witness- 
es were brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in these ju- 
dicial assemblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, 
equity and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions ; but 
afterwards, the courts had for their guide particular laws and stat- 
utes, which were first introduced by Phoroneus, and more extensively 
by Cecrops. 

§ 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, 
so were the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. Mur- 
der was commonly punished by banishment, either voluntarily sought 
by the murderer, or expressly decreed by public sentence ; its dura- 
tion, however, was but a year, and even this could sometimes be 
commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum belonged only to 
the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was pun- 
ished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very 
frequent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not con- 
sidered as criminal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, es- 
pecially if shrewdness and cunning were united with the theft. Noth- 
ing therefore was aimed at but to recover what had been taken, or to 
inflict vengeance by a corresponding injury. Afterwards, however, 
particular punishments were imposed for these offences. 

§ 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Crete were connected with 
the Greeks by their having a common language, it is important to 
mention the Cretan laws, which were introduced by Minos. They 
are said to have been the most ancient written code, and were after- 
wards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military valor and union 
among the people seems to have been their great aim ; every ordi- 
nance of Minos was directed to promote strength of body, and to 



472 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cultivate social attachment between the members of the state. In 
order to impart greater dignity and authority to his laws, he brought 
them forward as having been revealed to him by Jupiter. But the 
moral culture was not greatly advanced by institutions having their 
primary -and chief reference to a state of war. 

§ 39. In the progress of time, the form of government among the 
Greeks underwent many changes, and at length became wholly dem- 
ocratic. The most celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. 
Of these in particular a few important circumstances respecting their 
government in the more early ages are here to be mentioned. 

Athens was originally governed by kings. The power of these 
kings was more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death 
of Codrus (1068 B. C), it became a free state. The chief author- 
ity was given to officers styled Arc/tons, who ruled for life. Thirteen 
Archons of this description succeeded each other, all descended from 
the family of Codrus. After the time of these (752 B. C), the of- 
fice of Archon ceased to be for life, and was limited to ten years, and 
was held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven 
Archons of this kind, the office was made annual (684 B. C), and 
nine Archons were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the 
same rank. — The civil government experienced changes under 
Draco, and others still greater under the distinguished legislator So- 
lon, and in after times. 

§ 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Eurysthenes 
and Procles, the two sons of Aristodemus £one of the Heraclidse that 
invaded Peloponnesus) reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under 
their descendants the kingly office lost much of its authority. Ly- 
curgus, the famous Spartan lawgiver, changed greatly the form of 
government ; it did not become democratical, neither was it, proper- 
ly speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the head, and a 
senate was established consisting of 28 men, who were above sixty 
years of age. There was also the body of 5 Ephori, appointed an- 
nually. The people themselves likewise had some share in the ad- 
ministration of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions 
and disturbances, this state enjoyed a long period of comparative 
rest and liberty. This it owed very much to the wise regulations of 
Lycurgus, the salutary influence of which was aided by the limited 
territory, and moderate population of Lacedaemon. 

§ 41. One of the most effectual means of advancing the Greeks 
was their commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the 
earliest times, commerce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal 
exchanges of native products, the use of gold not being introduced. 
Afterwards pieces of metal of different values were employed. (Cf. 
P. I. §94). Navigation became more common after the Trojan war, 
and jEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. Corinth 
and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The com- 
merce of Athens finally became something considerable; that of 
Lacedaemon on the other hand always remained comparatively unim- 
portant. — On the whole, it is worthy of remark, that the extension 
of commerce and maritime intercourse had an important influence 
upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian states. Cf. P, I. §40, 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 473 

il Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the 
kands of the Phenicians. The carrying-trade of the Mediterranean was early 
theirs, and Sidon was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not 
without traffic carried on by sea among themselves ; but the profession of 
merchant had evidently not in Homer's time that honorable estimation which 
yet, -according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early period in Greece. While it 
was thought not unbecoming a prince to be a carpenter to supply his own 
wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean employ- 
ment ; a pirate was a more respected character. 

Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open 
vessels, nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean; and the poet 
gives no hint of any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which 
nearly surround Greece, are singularly adverse to improvements upon that 
vast scale which oceans require, and which modern times have produced. 
Broken by innumerable headlands and islands, with coasts mostly mountain- 
ous, and in some parts of extraordinary height, the Grecian seas are beyond 
others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united circumstances, 
which have made the Greeks of all ages excellent boatmen, have contributed 
much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of 
the pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted; the science 
of the navigator is of little avail ; even the compass is comparatively useless 
in the iEgean, The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, 
which are mostly navigated by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there 
but with a fair wind. The English alone, accustomed in all their surround- 
ing waters to a bolder navigation, commonly venture in the Archipelago to 
work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in Homer's time ; but the 
art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's dependence was his 
oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet so tempest- 
uous, the greatest danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which with 
their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms, 
and, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an 
open beach, were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The Pheni- 
cians, for their commerce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more 
open seas and longer voyages." Mitford. 

(3) Military Affairs. 

§ 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of 
the greatest merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. 
The first inhabitants were distinguished for their warlike inclinations 
and habits of life, although their wars were conducted without much 
method or discipline. They were constantly in arms, not only to de- 
fend themselves and their property, but to attack and plunder others. 
Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and devastation in the ex- 
treme. It needed but a trifling occasion to excite a general, long, 
and bloody war ; the seige of Troy furnishes a striking example. In 
such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant prov- 
inces, united as in a common cause. 

On Grecian military affairs, see /. T. H. JVast's Einleitung in die griechischen Kiiegsalter- 
thiimer. Stattg. 1780. 8. a valuable work on the general subject. — Also G. O. S. K'dpke, uber 
das Kriegsweisen der Griechen im heroischen Zeitalter &c. Berl. 1807. 8. cf. Class. Journ. ix. 
11. — C. Guiscard, Memoires militaires sur les Grecs et sur les Romains. La Hage, 1758. 4. 
It contains a translation of Onosander (cf. P. II. $221), and plans of some ancient battles, &c. 
Cf. $275. — Gamier, as cited §136. MitforcPs Hist. ch. ii. sect. 3, 4. 

§ 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of foot-soldiers and in 
later times of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. 
The foot-soldiers were distinguished as light armed (yabt) and heavy 
armed (onMraiY The Thessalians were early and especially cele- 
brated for their cavalry (itzjuu). Still more ancient was the use of 
40* 



474 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

war-chariots, which were employed by the heroes of Homer, Two 
horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots; each con- 
tained two warriors, one of whom guided the horses (i l r'to X og) t while 
the other pointed out the direction (^g^ut^c), discharged arrows, 
hurled missiles from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the 
action was close sprang from the chariot (diyQog). Notwithstanding 
the inconvenience of these vehicles in battle, they were in use for a 
long time, before cavalry came to be generally substituted in their 
place. 

§ 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, de- 
fensive and offensive. Among the former (aXEhjrtjqia, nqop^iiara,) was 
the helmet (xwh}, xqavog, ntQty.tipalaia, xhqvg) made of hide or leather 
and adorned with a crest of hair or tufts of feathers (<pu?.og,?.6(pog) y 
and attached to the neck by a strap (oxsvg) ; the breastplate (^qa^), 
commonly made of brass, sometimes of leather or linen ; the girdle 
(?«!"/), mostly of brass and encircling the lower part of the body ; 
the greaves (xvyutSeg), of brass or some more precious metal ; and 
the shield (aonig), usually round, made of bullock's hide, and used 
for the protection of the whole body (cf. § 139). 

lu. The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as much so as 
Hesiod represents the shield of Hercules to have been, and Homer that of 
Achilles. 

2. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (II. xviii. 478) is consid- 
ered as one of the finest passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of 
the shield was formed by the celebrated artist, Flaxman, and several casts 
were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster. He brought the whole work 
within a circle of three feet in diameter. It contains upwards of a hundred 
human figures exhibited in relief. 

Cf. Felton's Iliad, Notes. — See Qiiatr. de Quincy, Sur la description du bouchlier d'Achille 
&c. in the Mem. Vlnst. de France, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 102, with a colored 
plate. — De Caylus, Baucliers d'Achille, d'Heucule, et d'Enee &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
xxvii. 21. — Class. Journ. vi. 63 vm. 409. 

§ 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (S6qv), commonly 
made of the ash-tree (ua?.hj), and of different lengths and forms ac- 
cording as it was designed for combat more or less close ; the sword 
(tl(pog), the belt of which hung from the shoulders \ the bow {ro%ov)\ 
usually of wood, with a string (vwqov) of twisted horse-hair or of 
hide; the arrows ((}{?.i],6iotLc), of light-wood, pointed with iron, and 
winged (nrsqusig lug) with feathers; the javelin (uxovnor), of various 
lengths and forms; and the sling (oysvSovr]), of an oval shape, with 
two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which arrows, 
stones, and leaden balls (iioit'^wst) were hurled against the foe. 

The spear used for close combat was called S6qv oqextov ; that for a distance, 
■7ta?.rbv; the point, termed uiyui n was always of metal. Jovqod&xrj was the 
name given to the box or case, in which the spears were deposited when not 
in use. — The term tyx°? also designates the spear ; the epithet brazen (x"?-- 

xsov) is usually applied to it. Cf. Horn. II. iii. 380. The arrows were kept 

in a quiver ((.paqtrqa), which with the bow, was usually carried on the back of 
the shoulders (en* wuoiou). The quiver had a lid or cover (ncotia). Cf. Horn. 
II. iv. 116-120. 

Various articles of ancient armor are seen in our Plates XIV and XVII. The how and quiver 
are given in fig. t, ik. l, of Plate XIV. In this Plate also, fig. y, y, we have forms of the Gre- 
cian javelin .- in o, o, spear-heads : in h, a form of the chits (cf. §139) which in various forms 
were used in early periods ; in fig. a, a, are given forms of the club or battle-mallet used by the 
Egyptians, which sometimes had leaden heads with handles four or five feet long :■ in fig. 1,1, 
we have the Grecian battle-axe-, in the several figures s, c, n, forms of the Grecian and Ko- 
man sword; in e, a Dacian sword; in those marked b, Persian swords, — In Plate 



PLATE XIV 




476 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

XVII, fig. a, b, c, d, and e, are varieties of helmets found in Egyptian remains : /, g, h, and i, 
are Persian and Syrian helmets ; the lungs are sometimes represented with crowns of a similar 
appearance : n, and o, are given as Phrygian : I, m, are Grecian, and may represent also the 
Roman : p, and q, are Dacian : k is a form quite similar to the latter, said to be used also by 
the Syrians. In fig. r, and on the Grecian warriors fig. 1. and 7, the thorax is seen, and the 
girdle : s represents a figure found buried in a sitting posture, near the celebrated Dighton Rock, 
in Massachusetts, with a concave breast-plate thirteen inches long, supposed to be of cast brass, 
and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide having a reed-like appearance ; a 
brazen arrow-head, t, was found with it. In fig. w, and on the warrior fig. 7, we see the greaves; 
the shield in fig. 1, 3, 7 : the spear in the hands of the Grecian warriors in fig. 1, 2; and of tli£ 
Persian, fig. 3 : the bow &x. in fig. 6, which represents an Egyptian archer. 

§ 46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of 
brass or copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron (P. L 
§10), and was often used after the introduction of iron. For defen- 
sive armor iron was afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass 
or breast-plate, the greaves and the shield, tin or lead was sometimes 
used. To adorn the weapons with gold was considered as too ex- 
travagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to give their armor 
the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of beauty, but 
to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of field- 
badge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some 
god, or animal, especially the lion. The horses also were orna- 
mented with much care. 

Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the 
Lacedaemonians to clothe their soldiers in scarlet. — The Greek soldiers usu- 
ally carried their own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, 
onions, &c. For this purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker with a long 
neck, called yv/.tov. Robinson, p. 349. 

§ 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice 
the use of ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed 
partly in piracy, partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual 
combat. In later times the naval battles of the Greeks were frequent 
and celebrated. Their first ships were long (i/«*out), and moved by 
oars. The number of rowers was various, often very considerable. 
Originally there was but a single rank on each side ; afterwards, as 
the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added ; vessels 
of the latter kind were called diy.Qora, those of the former uoroy.nora, 
also iior^QBig, xtirfTtg. At a later period they were built with three 
tiers or ranks, tqu'^sic, which continued to be the most common form, 
although there were vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and some- 
times even more. 

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and 
signs, from which they were named. The ship commonly bore the 
image or statue of some god, to whose protection it was especially- 
entrusted. In the capture of a vessel, the first object of a victor was 
to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy in his own ship. 

§ 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular 
camps. Their compass and extent were such as not only to include 
the whole army, but also the ships, which after the landing of the 
troops were drawn upon the dry land. It was customary to surround 
the camp with a wall or ramparts with towers and breast-works. Be- 
fore the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with pointed stakes. For 
the principal officers separate tents were erected, of wooden frames, 
covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed on 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 477 

guard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out 
from both parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other. 
" Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The an- 
cients, on desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept 
with no shelter but their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a 
blanket; when they remained long on a spot they hutted. Achilles' tent or 
hut was built of fir, and thatched with reeds ; and it seems to have had seve- 
ral apartments. (II. xxiv. 488. ix. 659)." Mitford. 

§ 49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in 
front and the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and 
support them by the chariots from behind. The whole army was 
drawn into close array, although arranged in distinct divisions. On 
the commencement of battle they implored the aid of the gods, and 
made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals exhorted the sol- 
diers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset was usu- 
ally accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other 
and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having 
nursing and medicine; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, 
or their corpses even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed 
upon in some express stipulation. 

§ 50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which 
the captor either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, 
and partly in other utensils and precious articles, which, together with 
their owners, became the property of the victor. By means of a ran- 
som, however, the spoils, as well as the prisoners, could be redeemed. 
After battle, the remaining booty was often divided among the sol- 
diers by lot; the general, however, always received his portion first 
and without lot. Those who had distinguished themselves by valor, 
also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the gene- 
rals often stimulated their troops before the action. 

" We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved consid- 
erably upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, 
who yet have prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. 
Several terms used by the poet, together with his description of marches, indi- 
cate that orders of battle were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. 
Steadiness in the soldier, that foundation of all those powers which distinguish 
an army from a mob, and which to this day forms the highest praise of the best 
troops, we find in great perfection in the Iliad. ' The Grecian phalanges,' 
says the poet (iv. 427), 'marched in close order, the leaders directing each 
his own band. The rest were mute : insomuch that you would say, in so great 
a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they re- 
spectively watched for the word of command from their officers.' 

Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been 
very well armed, both for offence and defence. Their defensive armor con- 
sisted of a helmet, a breastplate, and greaves, all of brass; and a shield, com- 
monly of bull's hide, but often strengthened with brass. The breastplate ap- 
pears to have met the belt, which was a considerable defence to the belly and 
groin : and with an appendant skirt guarded also the thighs. All together 
covered the forepart of the soldier from the throat to the ancle ; and the shield 
was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian troops 
were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep. 
Any body, iormed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a spe- 
cific number of either ranks or files, was generally termed a phalanx (II. iv. 332. 
vi.83j. But the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed; bows were 
their principal weapons, and they never engaged in close fight (ayxH ia X Ql ) m 

Puding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appears to have been 
not unknown (II. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was 



478 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

generally applied in Greece to military purposes ; the mountainous ruggedness 
of the country prevented any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thes- 
salians, whose territory was a large plain. [Cf. Sallier, cited §133.] But in the 
Homeric armies no chief was without his chariot, drawn generally by two, 
sometimes by three horses; and these chariots of war make a principal figure 
in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action, composes the first line 
of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the infantry in which he 
has least confidence ; and then forms a third line, or reserve, of the most ap- 
proved troops. 

The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to 
engage singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader 
with an appearance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the 
use of fire-arms that practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at 
the greatest perfection. Caesar himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43), with evi- 
dent satisfaction, a very particular account of a remarkable advanced combat, 
in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions of his army engaged. The 
Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times of chivalry, had 
armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers ; and this, with the 
additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid un- 
bounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on 
first consideration it may appear." — Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 3. 

" Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defen- 
sible, but on the contrary marks great barbarism; that of stopping in the heat 
of action to strip the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil 
of the enemy superseded all other, even the most important and most deeply 
interesting objects of battle. The poet himself (II. v. 48. vi. 67) was not una- 
ware of the danger and inconvenience of the practice, and seems even to have 
aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in Homer's warfare, a remark- 
able mixture of barbarism with regularity. Though the art of forming an army 
in phalanx was known and commonly practiced, yet the business of a general, 
in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it fashion, 
of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill 
in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252), 
excel only in the character of fighting soldiers : as generals and directors of 
the war, they are inferior to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles de- 
pended so much on the skirmishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the 
prejudice should obtain which set the able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the 
able head. But the poet obviously means to expose the absurdity and mis- 
chievous consequences of that prejudice, where he makes Hector (If. xxii.99), 
in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polydamas. Yet 
Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very exten- 
sive and very accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of 
his own age, was still very imperfect." — lb. 

§51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted wholly 
to the dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made up- 
on certain conditions. This was effected through legates, fully com- 
missioned for the purpose. In forming a treaty of peace, various cere- 
monies were observed, partly of a religious character. A victim was 
slain, of which however no meal was made, but its flesh was cast aside ; 
libations were poured out; the parties joined hands in pledge of good 
faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their covenant, and as 
avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose thunderbolts 
were an object of terror to the perjured. The restoration of plunder 
was generally a preliminary requisition ; and the conquered party was 
often compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnification. 
— Sometimes the whole war was terminated by a single combat, the 
parties agreeing to abide by its issue. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 479 



(4) Domestic Affairs, 

§52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it 
is not to be expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refine- 
ment in what pertains to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages 
their mode of living was nearly as rude as their morals. Their prin- 
cipal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, and deer, which 
they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and fish was more 
seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vegetables, 
The first and most common drink was water ; wine, however, was in 
frequent use; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinking* 
vessels were employed at their repasts. Ordinarily they had two meals 
a day, at mid-day and evening, and in the earlier times it was the 
Greek custom to sit at table, not to recline. The number of persons 
at one table was seldom greater than ten. 

It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (P. II. §31), that the persons at a so- 
cial repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the 
Muses. — The Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respecting the 
proper number at a repast (Gell. xiii. 11). Adam. 

" Homer mentions three different sorts of seats : (I) SUpqog, which contained 
two persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank ; (2) &(jovoc, on which 
they sat upright, having under their feet a footstool termed Sqfjwg ; (3) y.liaubc, 
on which they sat leaning a little backwards." Robinson. — Cf. Horn. Odys. i. 
130, 131. 

§ 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned 
by public solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and 
the like. Sometimes they were made at the common expense of the 
guests (tijuroc, cf. Odi/ss. i. 226) ; such entertainments, however, were 
viewed as of inferior rank. The feasts upon victims offered in sacri- 
fice have been mentioned (§ 27). 

At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The begin- 
ning was made by washing the hands. In early times a separate 
board was placed for each guest, and his portion of food thus divided 
to him. Wine was brought by youthful attendants, and the guests 
often drank to each other, and reciprocally exchanged cups. They 
endeavored to heighten the joys of the banquet by conversation and 
wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P. I. § 68. 

§ 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, 
and more completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next 
to the body they wore a long robe or frock (^irwr), which was kept in 
place by a girdle, and over this a cloak (yiaua) of thicker materials, 
to protect against the cold. Instead of the latter they sometimes had 
a mantle (cpaqog). The women wore also long cloaks or over-garments, 
called Ttf7i?.ot, often richly embroidered and ornamented. They like- 
wise covered their heads, while the men seem not to have done it in 
the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes or socks 
were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the men wore 
a sort of boot or greaves (§ 44). 

§ 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early 
Greeks practiced frequent bathing, and with it united the custom of 
anointing. In bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on ac- 



480 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

count of its purifying and strengthening properties. They also had 
warm baths in their houses. After taking the bath they anointed the 
body with oil ; costly ointments, expressly prepared for the purpose, 
were of later invention. They cultivated in every way the growth of 
the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal beauty 
and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown. 
They were also pleased with frizzled or curled locks, and employed 
artificial means to secure such forms to their hair. 

§ 56. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in 
the earlier periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions 
of Homer, which, aside from their poetical character, relate only to the 
palaces or dwellings of distinguished personages. (Cf. P. I. § 232.) 
Respecting these we may remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded 
by some kind of a wall, not very high ; between the wall and the house 
itself was the fore-court, in which an altar usually stood. Then fol- 
lowed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main building or house, often 
highly ornamented without and within ; although the art of building 
at this time had not reached by far the perfection, which Greek archi- 
tecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the 
dining-hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment. The 
roofs were flat, as in oriental countries, and often served as places of 
resort both by day and by night. 

§57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, 
and the needy ; and the rights of hospitality were held sacred among 
them. Jupiter himself was considered as the god and rewarder of 
hospitality, and the avenger of all violations of its laws, and on that 
account was styled ^inog (P. III. § 25). They had no public inns 
(cf. § 168), but travelers found reception with those who stood related 
to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not only between 
particular persons, but also between whole cities and communities. 
Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each 
other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a 
welcome reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with 
a kiss. Sometimes this was accompanied with offering the bath and 
unction. On separating, it was common to unite in a friendly repast, 
and renew their pledge of mutual friendship over the wine. Valued 
gifts were sometimes bestowed on the departing guest. 

§ 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture 
may be first mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and 
means of living. The boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, 
which served to guard the cultivators against mutual encroachments. 
The culture of the vine and of trees was also an object of attention. 
The raising of cattle was a common employment, and a principal 
source of wealth. These employments were not considered in any way 
degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of eminence and 
even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be mentioned 
here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from 
depradation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the 
bow and arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and 
fishing were likewise a frequent employment. 

Jlmeilhon, sur la peche des Anciens, in the Mem. de I'Institut, Classe de Lit. et Beaut Arts, 
vol. v. p. 351). 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 481 

§ 59. The employments of women consisted partly in the care of the 
household, partly in spinning, weaving, and needle-work, not only for 
their own clothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, 
cooking and washing, were performed by the women. In general, the 
female sex among the Greeks was in a state of great, although not 
slavish subjection to the male. There was comparatively little inter- 
course between the sexes. The women lived chiefly by themselves 
in the apartment assigned to them, the rwaixav or rw axstcv , which 
was in the interior or upper part of the house (§ 56). Seldom were 
they allowed to go abroad. In later times this close discipline and 
confinement remained in force, and women shared even less than 
previously in the business and pleasures of men. 

On the ancient method of grinding, cf. Moncrcz, Sur les meules de moulin employees par les 
Anciens, in the Mem.de PInstitut, Xbtesse d' Hist, ct Lit. Anc. vol. nr. p. 441. — On the state 
of females, R. O. Lenz, Geschichte der Weiber im heroischen Zeitalter. Hanov. 1790. 8, — 
Rochefort, Les moeurs des siecles heroiques, Mem. Acad. laser, vol. xxxvi. p. 396. — Cf. § 181. 

§ 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were 
music and dancing. The former consisted of vocal and instrumental, 
which were always united ; and it was designed for instruction as 
well as gratification. Hence music, although in a more extended 
sense of the term (P. I. § 64), was an essential object in education. 
The lyre was the stringed instrument the most in use, and of wind 
instruments the flute was the most common. The former enjoyed 
the preference, because it was more easily accommodated* to song, 
and also left the performer at liberty to use his voice. — The subjects 
of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most gener- 
ally used at banquets amd religious festivals, which were also the 
most common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customa- 
ry to join various sports and exercises of the body, as leaping, run- 
ning, riding, wrestling, and the like. 

§ 61. Marriage and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in con- 
nection with the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the 
daughter was usually given by the father. It consisted of female or- 
naments, a portion of the flocks and herds, and the like. There were 
no degrees of consanguinity forbidden in marriage, except that be- 
tween parents and children ; yet is was considered as highly censur- 
able for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage the con- 
sent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, 
the bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who 
had previously, according to the common practice, built and made 
ready a new house. In this procession to the house, nuptial torches 
were borne before the newly married, and bridal hymns were sung 
by a retinue of youths and vi"gins. Dancing usually accompanied 
the music; and the whole was folic red by a nuptial feast. A widow 
seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not expressly 
forbidden. At least, it did not take place until five years or more 
after her widowhood. 

§ 62. Parents of the better class took special care of the educa- 
tion of their children, both physical and moral. The mother was 
accustomed to nurse her own children, and considered herself freed 
from this duty by no rank or condition. The aid of others in this 
respect was sought only in cases of absolute necessity. In subse- 
41 



482 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

quent years the children had particular teachers and overseers, who 
instructed them in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the art 
of war. Cf. P. I. §64, 71. 

On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, rev- 
erence, and obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benedic- 
tion, and considered his curse as the greatest of evils. They endeav- 
ored to repay to parents in old age the care experienced by them- 
selves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly required by law. They 
looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict vengeance on such as 
had injured their fathers. 

On respect paid to old age among the ancients, cf. Class. Journ. in. 142, 320 ; iv. 319. 

§ 63. The slaves (Sov?.oi) of the Greeks, male and female, were 
persons that had been taken prisoners in war (ai^uaP.urro?, avdqujiodov), 
or were purchased of others. Slaves of the latter class were not 
common in early times. The introduction of commerce or trade in 
slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the island of Chios, at a later 
period. The master had an almost unlimited power over his slave, 
extending even to the right of life and death. Sometimes the gift of 
liberty was bestowed. 

Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, who 
were accustomed to let their services for hire (dfjrsg, miurai), espe- 
cially in the agricultural and pastoral employments, which were orig- 
inally so common in Greece. A retinue of servants for mere display 
or luxury was not indulged in during the period of which we have 
thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99. 



II. — -O/* the later and more flourishing Ages. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the 
advancement of civilization ; although the mythology of the Greeks, 
in its elements, was chiefly of early origin, engendered and fostered 
by the ignorance, superstition, and sensuality of the first ages. The 
mythical fictions were enlarged, the modes of representing the gods 
were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacrifices, and all the solem- 
nities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. The pomp and 
splendor of their religion became very imposing, especially at the 
period distinguished for the flourishing state of all their affairs. At 
that time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the rep- 
resentation and illustration of religious story, and the ornamenting 
of religious edifices. (Cf. P. I. § 178, 197, 198, 234.) This circum- 
stance gives additional interest and importance to the study of this 
branch of antiquities. 

§ 65. The temples (vao'i, Ibqu) were still built in a simple taste, yet 
in greater number and splendor. The interior had commonly two 



PLATE XV 




z 



■ 



■I^^ 



484 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

parts, of which the innermost was the sanctuary (advrov), into which 
the priest only entered. The place where stood the statue or image 
of the god to whom the temple belonged, was in the middle of the 
temple, called riitsvog, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice 
work or the like, and therefore also termed atjy.bg. — The altars 
(|9<qu6i) were placed towards the east, and had various forms, round, 
square, or oblong. They were ornamented with horns, partly that 
the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that sup- 
plicants might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for ref- 
uge. Perhaps also they were considered as a symbol of dignity and 
power. The names of the deities, to whom the altars were sacred, 
were usually inscribed upon them. Altars, as well as temples, were 
consecrated to their proper use with solemn ceremonies, particularly 
by anointing. 

Originally the Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of 
mountains or hills, where they afterwards first erected their temples. When 
in the common creed the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, 
&c. as their appropriate provinces, temples were built in such spots as were 
supposed agreeable to the several gods. More than one deity, however, were 
sometimes worshiped in the same temple; they were then called ouwaoi or 
owoixiTaf, and when they had a common altar, ovufiwuo^. Different styles 
of architecture were used for different deities ; Doric pillars, e. g. for Jupiter 
or Mars; Ionic, for Bacchus, Apollo, Diana ; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. 

In the temple, some say at the door, others near the aSvrov, was placed a 
vessel of stone or brass (pvs^^Qavrtjqtov) filled with holy water for the purpose 
of sprinkling those admitted to the sacrifices. The part of the temple before 
the ar t xbg was called TCQodouog, that behind it oTtioQodouog. The outer porch 
was termed tcqotcvIcc or Tcqonv7.ata. — There also belonged to the temple a 
treasury (aQxeiov) for preserving its own property, or that of others entrusted 
to it. — For other particulars respecting the structure of the temples, see P. 
I. §234. 

Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter 
Olympus is said to have been 22 feet high. The altars of the terresfrial gods 
were lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were made 
in pits or trenches (§ 29) used instead of altars. The nymphs were worshiped 
in caves (avrya). Altars were formed of various materials; often of earth, 
or of ashes, as that at Thebes to Apollo 2no8iog ; sometimes of horn, as that 
at Delos ; sometimes of brick ; often of stone ; some were overlaid with gold 
(cf. § 26). 

The statues and offerings to the gods found in the temples have been spok- 
en of (§ 21, 28). Statues, called JiousTfj, fallen from Jupiter, were kept in 
the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed from the sight of all but 
the priests. 

§ 6Q. The practice of appropriating sacred groves for the honor 
and service of the gods was also retained in later times. Their 
agreeable shade, as well as the stillness reigning in them, was favor- 
able to pious meditation. Although the use of groves was dimin- 
ished by the multiplication of cities and villages, yet a grove once 
dedicated to the gods remained for ever sacred and inviolable. As 
well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, al- 
though this privilege was conferred upon them only by a special con- 
secration for the purpose, and did not belong to all the places of re- 
ligious worship as a matter of course. The privilege of being such 
asylums or places of refuge was sometimes awarded to the statues 
and tombs of heroes. — Certain portions of land and cultivated ground 
were also assigned to the gods, which were likewise called rtuivt^ the 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 485 

fruit of which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share of the 
priests. 

A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, was con- 
secrated to Ceres and Proserpine and called 'OQy'ug. — Trees were also set 
apart and with ceremony consecrated to some god (Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). 

The privileges of the sacred temples, as asylu, continued until the reign of 
Tiberius Csesar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged 
(Tac. Ann. iii. 60-63), on account of the abuse of them by worthless villains. 

Simon, Les asyles, Mem. Acad. laser, in. 35. — S. Pegge, History of the Asylum &c. in the 
Archmologia (as cited P. I. $243. 3.) vol. vm. p. 1. 

§ 67. The three principal duties of the priests (Uqsig, called also 
[eoovoyoi. &£ovQyol, &vrai) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. With 
these were united sometimes the declaration and interpretation of 
oracles. The requisite qualifications for the priesthood were a body 
free from all defects and blemishes (6Ux?.i)Qog xal iapeXfc), lawful birth 
(yviycrtoc), and an irreproachable course of life. Upon the rank of 
the god depended the number of the priests, who were employed to 
attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the various func- 
tions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, 
if not more (^^isQstg, UQoSiduvx&iot, tEQocpavtai), charged with the over- 
sight of the religious worship in general (an^ienojavi'tj). — The office 
of the parasites (iraouoiToi) was to collect the grain and fruits de- 
signed for sacrifices (nqoodSia i<s Y a?.a) into the store-house appropri- 
ated therefor {naqaalriov). — The heralds (x^qvxsg) were ranked among 
the sacred orders, and also the superintendents (veuxoqoi) whose busi- 
ness was to cleanse and adorn the temples. 

The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple 
robe, and their head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a 
fillet and a crown of the leaf sacred to their particular god. 

In our Plate XXII. fig. C, is a view of a priest and priestess, in their robes ; each has a 
thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of Bacchus, and a vessel in the other. 
The priestess is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monument from Pompeii. 

1. Priests holding their office by inheritance (§ 22) were called 6i Ix yevovc; 
those who received it by lot, xaijqotol ; those by election, uiqerol or itfjtjquo^ti- 
rot. Some of the Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by 
inheritance were the EviioItiiSccl, entrusted with the oversight of the Eleusi- 
nian mysteries ; Kt',qvx£g, descendants of Ceryx ; the 0av?.o>vl§ai, descendants 
of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at Argos also, called ' Ay.saroqiSui . 
Priestesses ([eqsiat, uoilrsioui , c\'j/ii<j£iai, liQacpurTidsc) were taken from noble 
families. Those of Ceres were termed JMiliaaui ; of Bacchus, Buxjnxi, Qvu- 
Seg, JMunudcQ. — Sometimes services connected with. the worship of the gods 
were performed by persons not properly belonging to the priesthood {y.B/wqio- 
fiivoi r^q Uq^ovv^g), as e. g. sacrificers (lsootvoiol), keepers of the temple and 
utensils (ruoipv/.uzsg), stewards or treasurers (raulai rav [sqwv xqi^uutujv). — 
Priests who were constantly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of 
the people at sacrifices, were called Tlovriuloi &s&v. — All who served the gods 
were maintained out of the sacrifices and offerings. — At Athens, those en- 
trusted with the care of religion were required to render and account of their 
doings to certain civil officers appointed for the purpose. The c l£Quuv>' t uwv 
seems to have oeen charged with keeping the sacred records. The priests 
had attendants called isqoSov/.oi.. 

On the priesthood of the Greeks, see J. Kreuser, Der Hellenen Priesterstaat mit vorziiglich 
Rucksicht auf die Hierodulen. Mainz. — Class. Juurn. xxxix. 350. — Bougainville, Des minis- 
tres des Dieux a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xvm. 6U ; xxm. 51.°— Letronne, Sur les 
functions des Hieromnemons &c. in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'Hist. ct Lit. Anc. vol. 
vi. 221. 

2. Purification has already been mentioned ($23) as a rite of great impor~ 
tance among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priest- 

41* 



486 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

esses were obliged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every per- 
son attending the solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or 
sprinkled with the water in the TteQiooavri'^iov (§ 65). This water was conse- 
crated by putting into it a burning torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel 
(dutpvtj) or olive. Purification was also sometimes made by drawing round the 
person a sea-onion or squill (ayAXla), or a young dog (ey.vAa'i) ; sometimes 
eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a pig. Some of the 
terms employed to designate purifying are nsQi(j(>odveiv, ntoiuuTTso&at, y.a&ui- 
Qsir, uyvilitv, [katiubg, ayviouog, rs/.er^, &c. — Sometimes in purifications not 
only the hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. 

§ 68. The sacrifices had different names according to the occa- 
sions of them. The thank-offering { X aqiar,]qia} was in recognition 
of some favor received, often in fulfilment of some vow made ; the 
sin-offering (naoriy.u) was in order to propitiate an offended deity; 
the {invocation-offering (airtjriy.u) was presented in case of seeking 
some particular favor. There were other particular sacrifices, which 
were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god 

The beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the liba- 
tion (o7tovd/ h § 34) ; then followed the incense, the burning of some- 
thing fragrant (&vuLccua) ; and at length the sacrifice itself properly 
speaking, or the slaying of the victim (uq^ov). The principal cere- 
monies have already been mentioned (§ 27). — Persons who had the 
right of being present at a sacrifice were termed hptfrfioi, and those 
who had not, ptprj.oi. The latter were called upon by the heralds to 
retire before the ceremonies commenced. 

Different animals were offered in sacrifice to different gods as has been 
mentioned in treating of the ancient mythology. One of the principal vic- 
tims, however, was the ox (povg) ; hence the term ^ov6vrsiv,to sacrifice oxen : 
those assistants who slew the victims were called (fov&vTai. Bulls (rav(Jot), 
sheep (oisg), and goats (aiysg) were often offered. The bringing of the vic- 
tims to the altar was expressed by such phrases as nooouysiv rw (tumio, or na- 
QaOTTjoai -d-vaiav roig (icouoig ', they were often brought adorned with garlands 
(oriuuuTcc), and were always required to be free from blemishes (ri?.sioi). 
After the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails 
(onlay xvooy.oTciu) was made by the soothsayer (onZay /voayojiog) , to ascertain 
the presages of the future. 

Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed 
to offer cakes of coarse flour (jidjiava). 

§ 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oaths of the Greeks, 
in which they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge 
falsehood or injury. They distinguished between the solemn or 
great oath (6 utyag oQxog) and affirmations in ordinary cases. Jupiter 
was considered as especially the god and guardian of oaths, and 
avenger of perjury, although oaths were taken in the name of other 
gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great supe- 
rior gods (uu dcodsy.a -9£ovg). Sometimes they swore by the gods, in- 
definitely and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, 
weapons, or any article of which they made use. Not unfrequently 
the oath was in the name of living or deceased men, such especially 
as had been highly esteemed and loved. The oath was usually joined 
with a distinct imprecation of vengeance on the swearer himself in 
case of falsehood ; and was sometimes confirmed by a sacrifice, the 
flesh of which, however, could not be eaten. Severe punishments 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 487 

were decreed against perjury (tTiioQxla). Yet the Greeks, especially 
the Thessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. At 
least mutual distrust was characteristic of the corrupt Greeks of later 
times, and among the Romans the phrase Grceca Jides was synony- 
mous with perfidy. 

Leagues and covenants were confirmed by making oaths and slaying sacri- 
fices ; hence oqxia riuvsi-v signifies to enter into covenant. Notwithstanding 
the ffreat perfidiousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath 
(tvooy.og) as of course a pious person (svos^tjg). : ' Axti-/.^ moriq signifies hon- 
est faith. 

Massieu, Sur les Serments des Anciens, in the Hist, de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol. i. p, 191 ; vol. 
iv. p. 1. 

§ 70. The Greek oracles (§ 32) probably took their origin from 
the opinion very early entertained, that the gods honored certain men 
especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. There were sup- 
posed to be two modes of revelation ; one immediate, by direct in- 
spiration ; and the other mediate or artificial, which was considered 
as the fruit of great knowledge, experience, and observation. Ora- 
cles {xo^ortoia, uavTaia) were of the first kind. From these the Greeks 
were accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and undertak- 
ings, predictions of the result (^r^ot, ?.6yia, uarrsi'uara). It is obvi- 
ous that they could be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, 
to whose artifice their existence and support is in great measure to 
be ascribed. The oracular answers were not given in any one uni- 
form manner, but sometimes immediately, as was pretended, from the 
gods (zor t auoi avr6yuvoi), sometimes through an interpreter fooi^ot 
inoipi-Tiy.oi), or by a pretended dream, or by lot. 

Persons who consulted the oracles were termed -d-soTrqarroi, Ssatool, yj}y]Ouo- 
(poooi; the interpreters, yq^auoluyoi. Presents and sacrifices were always 
requisite before consulting an oracle, which could be done only on appointed 
days. 

Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. II. sect. 2. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was 
designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of oracles. " We found at the foot 
of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious telltale remains yet discovered among the 
vestiges of pagan priestcraft ; it was nothing less than one of the oracular shrines of Argos al- 
luded to by Pausanias, laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he 
may see the contrivance, whereby it was made to speak. A more interesting sight for modern 
curiosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Grecian city. In its origin- 
al state, it had been a temple ; the farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an 
excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet re- 
mains, and part of the fictile superstructure ; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a 
secret subterraneous passage, terminating behind the altar; its entrance being at a considera- 
ble distance toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to 
have a small aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was bare- 
ly large enough to admit the entrance of a single person ; who, having descended into the nar- 
row passage, might creep along until he arrived immediately behind the centre of the altar; 
where, being hid by some colossaL^tatue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce 
a most imposing effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneath, who were listening in 
silence upon the floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeav- 
oring to mimic the sort of solemn farce acted upon these occasions ; and as we delivered a 
mock oracle, ore rotunda, from the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by 
the sides of the rock, afforded a tolerable specimen of the ' will of the gods,' as it was formerly 
made known to the credulous votaries of this now forgotten shrinef There were not fewer 
than twentij-fivc of these juggling places in Peloponnesus, and as many in the single province of 
Bwotia; and surely it will never again become a question among learned men, whether the 
answers in them were given by the inspiration of evil spirits, or whether they proceeded from 
the imposture of priests ; neither can it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ : be- 
cause Pausanias bears testimony to their existence at Argos in the second centurv. Pausan. 
in Corinth, c. 24, p. 165. ed Kuhnii." 

§ 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished 
of the ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Do- 
dona, a city of the Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. 
Before this time, however, this oracle, ofPelasgic origin (cf. P.I. §41), 



488 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

seems to have existed in that place. There was a grove of oaks, sa- 
cred to Jupiter, and superstition ascribed the actual exercise of the 
gift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, which were thence 
called uavny.al $Qv*g. The priests, called h-no^-tai and 2sl?.oi, con- 
cealed themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the 
pretended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, 
placed near the temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A foun- 
tain in the place was likewise celebrated as possessing the wonderful 
power, not only of extinguishing a torch, but of kindling it again. — 
Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter in Crete, in a cave of Mt. Ida; 
and that of Jupiter Ammon in a desert and almost inaccessible region 
of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the 
Great. 

1. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves, 
which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes an 
nounced them, were called in the Thessalian language niiaai, and neZsiudsg. 
— From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase , Jojdojvaiov xodztiov, 
applied to talkative persons. 

Sallier, &. De Brosses, L'Oracle de Dodona, in the Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. v. p. 35. xxxv. p. 89. 

2. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Amnion was discovered by 
the English traveler Browne in 1792, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. Rennell's 
Geogr. Syst. of Herod, sect. 21.) Near it was the famous fountain of the sun. 
The spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. The ruins of the temple indicate an 
Egyptian origin. — Herodotus speaks of four oracles of Jupiter : at Egyptian 
Thebes ; at Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia ; and says 
that the one at Thebes was the original. 

§ 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were con- 
sidered to belong properly, had numerous oracles. The most re- 
nowned was that at Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a tem- 
ple illustrious beyond all others on account of its treasures, the abun- 
dance and costliness of the gifts bestowed there. The spot where the 
answer was given, was called Pythium (nv&iov), and the priestess, 
who uttered it, Pythia (msla), from the surname which Apollo re- 
ceived in consequence of killing the serpent Python ( iivduv). This 
spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhab- 
ited earth (duyaUg yf,g). According to common tradition this oracle 
was first disclosed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an ori- 
fice on Mt. Parnassus, were seized with singular paroxysms of shiver- 
ing and jumping. The same happened to men, who approached this 
opening. This oracle was very ancient, being celebrated more than 
a hundred years before the Trojan war. 

1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the 
word nv6ioQai, to inquire, or learn; but ZZV$co appears to have been originally 
the name of the city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and 
other splendid works of art. Its walls were inscribed with salutary moral pre- 
cepts; among them the celebrated one rroi&i osavrov. (P. II. § 169). Costly 
tripods were among the gifts consecrated to Apollo here. One of the most fa- 
mous was the golden one presented by the Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. 
This was removed by Constantine and placed in the Hippodrome of Constan- 
tinople, upon the ' triple heads' of three brazen serpents twisted into one pillar. 

The pillar still remains {Gibbon, ch. 17. p. 80. vol. ii. N. Yk. 1822).— The three heads are said 
to have been in good preservation when Constantinople was taken by the Turks ; Mahomet II 
then rode into the Hippodrome and shattered one of them with his battle-axe ; two were re- 
maining in 1700 ; but they were stolen about that time by some unknown depredator. (Cf. Lond. 
Quart. Rev. ix. 169.) On the origin of the Delphic oracle, cf. Mitford's Greece, ch. 3. sect. 2. 

2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf. § 28), and the celebrity of 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 489 

the oracle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the 
chief authority over it, occasioned much jealousy among the Grecian states ; 
in two instances particularly they were involved thereby in actual hostilities, 
in the wars commonly called Sacred. 

Mitford's Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxvii-xlii. — De Valois, Guerres Sacrees, in the Mem. Acad* 
Inscr. vii. 201. ix. 97. xn. 177. 

§ 73. The tripod (rqlrcovg ^o-t^ios), upon which the priestess sat 
in uttering the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable 
things pertaining to the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the 
seven wise men of Greece, and has been viewed as having a three- 
fold reference, to the past, the present, and the future. The nv&ia 
herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity, and was 
obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many ceremonies. 
In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ecstacy 
and convulsion. In early times, the oracular response was commonly 
clothed in the form of hexameter verse ; often by a poet employed for 
the purpose. Originally the oracle was consulted but on a single day 
in the year, in a month of the spring, called Bvaiog or iivatog ; after- 
wards inquiry could be made on a certain day of every month. Who- 
ever wished to consult the oracle was required to make large presents 
and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and to propose his ques- 
tions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified for receiving 
the answer by many mystic rites. The answer was commonly so 
enigmatical and ambiguous (?.o£6g, hence Jo^iag), that it would apply 
to any result that might happen ; and whenever it was clear and defi- 
nite, the priests had informed themselves of all the preliminary cir- 
cumstances and the probabilities respecting the issue. — The Delphic 
oracle was suspended at various times, and became finally silent soon 
after the death of the emperor Julian. 

Originally, there was one Pythia only at Delphi ; hut after the oracle he- 
came more frequented, the number was increased to three, chosen from among 
the uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance 
and chastity. They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost their lives in the 
paroxysms of the inspiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences 
their incoherent exclamations, three in number, were called nQoyiirai ; who 
always took care to ascertain previously much about the history and characters 
of those consulting the oracle. The prophets were aided in the sacrifices and 
ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pythia on the tripod, by Jive 
priests called ooiot, who were under a chief called ooiwtIq. — The ntQiJiyy}Tal 
were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in pointing 
out to them its curiosities. A great number of persons were required for the 
various services of the temple and oracle. 

See Hardion, Oracle de Delphes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. in, p. 137. 

§ 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. 
The more important of them were the following : the oracle of Apol- 
lo at Didyma, which was called also the oracle of the Branchidse ; 
those of Delos, Abae, Claros, Larissa, Tegyrae and other minor cities; 
where answers were also given from Apoilo ; the oracle of Tropho- 
nius at Lebadea in Bceotia, in a subterranean cave, said to have been 
the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers descended, after 
performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of the 
future by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vi- 
cinity of Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the 
initiated by dreams. The number of the ancient oracles amounted 
to two hundred and sixty. 



490 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

On the subject of oracles, see Van Dale de Oraculis Vet. Ethnic. Dissertat.— Fontenelle's His- 
toire des Oracles.— Cf. Rollin, bk. x. ch. 3. (p. 391, vol. i, ed. cited § 13.) 

§ 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediately (cf. § 70), 
or by means of some system or art of divination (uavnv.l), was effected 
in various ways. The most important was by theomancy (-diouavreia), 
an art possessed by a class of persons who were called &souuvrsic, and 
claimed to be under divine inspiration. This class comprised three 
varieties; some were considered as interpreters of the daemons by 
whom they were possessed, and called Satuovohjnroi or nv&avsg ; others 
were called iv&ovoiaorai or h&suony.oi, and enjoyed only the intima- 
tions of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed 
iy.arany.oi, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during a wholly 
supernatural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by 
the pretext of a long trance, insensibility, or sleep. 

Besides what was termed in general theomancy, there were several methods 
of divination, of which the following - were the principal. — (1) By dreams. 
The Greeks ascribed very much to dreams as supernatural (a), and viewed 
them either as revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as 
pictures and images of future events. The expounders of dreams were called 
ovsiooxoirai, dvsiQooxoTcoi, or 6vsiqotto?.oi. Three varieties of the dream are 
named ; yQiiuanoubg, when a god or spirit conversed with one in his sleep ; 
oQaua, when one saw a vision of future occurrences; ovtiQog, in which the 
future was set forth by types and figures (aU.tjyoQix.cog). Two other varieties 
are also mentioned, ivvnvtov and ipuvraaua, but are not considered as affording 
much help in divination ; tcpiulrtjg, incubus, night-mare, was supposed some- 
times to indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to be sent from the god 
of sleep (P. III. § 113). A goddess called Brizo (PqIlsiv, to sleep) was thought 
to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particularly 
in Delos. Dreams which occurred in the morning were most regarded in di- 
vination. (2) By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy ([sQouavrsia) 

or Hieroscopy (hQooxonia). It comprehended the observations of many par- 
ticulars connected with the offering of a victim, as portending good or ill. 
One of the principal things was the inspection of the entrails, especially the 
liver (^TtaTooy.onia), and the heart. The fire of the sacrifice was also noticed 
(nvQouuvTiia) ; likewise the smoke (y.anvouavTt la) , the wine (dirouvtvTsLa), and 
the water vSfJofietvrsiu, Tvyjyouavrsia). There were, in short, various kinds or 
forms of this divination according to the different victims or materials of 
the sacrifices and the different rites; e. g. there was a?.svQouavrela, by the 
flour or meal used ; ly&vouavrsia, by the entrails of fishes ; wooxoniu, by eggs. 

(3) By Birds. Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, 

were called dovsooxoTtoi, oQviQouuvTEig. Some birds were observed in respect 
to their flight (TuwnTiQvyeg) ; others in respect to their singing (cod ixai). 
Unlucky birds, or those of ill omen, were called izculaiuoi, pernicious, and 
y.wl.vTtxai, hindering from designed undertakings, and by similar epithets; 
among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and except at Athens, the owl; 
the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered as lucky birds; and 
the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of the flight of 
birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appearances 
in the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable ; hence the 
use of Sstwg, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from in- 
sects and reptiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents, and boars were of 

ill omen. Bees and ants were often thought to foretoken good. (4) By 

signs in the heavens and other physical phenomena. Comets, eclipses, and 
earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and lightning were lucky if 
observed on the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck with 
thunder (poovTtjTbc) was unlucky; in places thus struck, altars were erected 
and oblations made to appease the gods, after which none dared to approach 

them. (5) By lots. The two principal modes were those termed 0x170- 

ucxvrsiu and yJ.tjQo t uavraia: in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 



491 



lines (rnri/oc) written upon them, were drawn from an urn, and were sup- 
posed to indicate the prospects of the person by or for whom they were drawn 
out; in the other, various small articles, as beans black and white, pebbles, 
dice, and the like, which were all called yj.ijqoi, and were considered as being 
of different significancy, were drawn from an urn or other vessel. — Other 
modes were Q'a^Souavreia, by rods, and (SeAoitavTetct, by arrows, in which the 
lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posture or 
from the quiver. Another was by the use of the itiva^ ayvqn-xog, on which 
certain prophetic verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the 

verse on which the dice fell. -(6) By magical arts. These were said to 

have originated in Persia (b) among the Magi, uuyoi. The degree of atten- 
tion given among the Greeks to these arts (nsqii-Qya) is evinced by a striking 
fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which seems to imply that a great 
number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the various 
modes need be named ; vszaouavrtla, ay.iouavrsla, and ij-'v^ouavrsia, in which 
the dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yaorqouavTaia, in which demons 
were imagined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from 
the appearances of water in the middle part (ytcorqij) of certain glass vessels 
surrounded with lighted torches; y.^qoyarrsla, in which the performers ob- 
served the forms assumed by drops of melted wax; there were numerous oth- 
er modes. — It is proper to mention here some of the magical arts, by which 
mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought; as, e. g., ipunuuxsia, in 
which medicated herbs, minerals, and the like (cpunuay.a) were used; and pao~ 
y.ariu, which was a sort of fascination or malign influence which certain per- 
sons were supposed to exert. (7) Finally divination was also made from 

various things included under the general name of omens (avufiol.a). One 
class of these consisted of such as were drawn from the person himself, as 
Tta/.uol, palpitations of some part of the system ; pouftog, a ringing of the ears ; 
Tvraouoi, sneezings, &c. Another class consisted of those drawn from objects 
external to the person ; as the meeting of certain objects or animals on the 
road (eruSta ovupo/.u), or certain occurrences at home (to ory.oay.onty.hv). Cer- 
tain words were also ominous ; such were called orrat, y.XijSurag, ipf-ucu. The 
Greeks, especially the Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, carefully 
substituting others: as, e. g. ^Evuevidsg instead of ^Eqivvvsg, and (pilaris in- 
stead of y./.ircTijg. 

(a) Cf. Artemidorus, cited P. II. §287. — Burigny, Songez &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. 

xxxviii. p. 74. (b) See Bonaniy and Le Blond, as cited $227. — On divination by the cup, 

Cf. Class. Jour a. x. 232. 

§ 76. The festivals formed an important part of the religions wor- 
ship of the Greeks. Their establishment and support was partly for 
the sake of honoring and supplicating the gods, and commemorating 
persons of merit, and partly for the sake of rest, recreation, union, 
and harmony of social feeling. Their number greatly increased with 
the multiplication of the gods and the progress of luxury and wealth ; 
the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremonies increased 
in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at Athens. 
They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn 
from various sources. 

See M. G. Hermann, Die Feste von Kellas historisch — philosophisch bearbeitet und zum er- 
Etentual nach ihrem Sinn und Zweck eil'autert. Berlin, 1803. 2. Th. 8. 

§ 77 t. Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned 
(P. III.) in the history of particular gods, under the head of Myth- 
ology. A slight notice of them here must suffice. The principal 
out of an almost countless multitude, will be named in alphabetical 
order, and then some particulars added respecting a few of these. 

1 u. 'iyoiwna, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. ■ 

3 A b to v i u, dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis. ' A 7. 65 a, to 

Bacchus and Ceres. 'A v & s or i] q ia, observed at Athens three days, also 

in honor of Bacchus. 3 A n a r o v q i a, at Athens, in commemoration of a 



492 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES* 

victory obtained by Melanthus, through stratagem, over the Boeotian king 

Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other gods. 3 A ip o o d L a i a, 

a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of Cyprus. 

Bqavqwvia, sacred to Diana, in Attiea, celebrated every fifth year. * 

J a cp v tj (f 6 q i a, to Apollo in Boeotia, onlv every ninth year. J >\).t a, al- 
so to Apollo, on the island of Delos, every fifth year. . J tj u i] to i«, sa- 
cred to Demeter or Ceres. J i'in o ?.e ta, an Athenian festival, instituted 

in honor of Jupiter, as tutelary god of the city (IIo?.isvg). A i ov v a i a, 

to Dionysus or Bacchus ; a greater and more solemn festival in the cities ; 
and a lesser one in the country ; the same that was called by the Romans 

Bacchanalia. There were innumerable forms of this festival. C E x ar 6 u- 

(5 a i a, dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom they sacrificed a hecatomb 
on the first day of this festival. 'E I sv o i v i «, the most celebrated festi- 
val of Ceres, a greater and smaller, connected with the well known myste- 
ries. "E q a a i a, & festival of Mercury, in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete. • 

*E cp l o i a, & festival of Diana at Ephesus. r 'Hq a i a, a festival of Juno at 

Argos. C 7I (p a io t s i a, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, accompanied by 

races with torches. s a u o cp 6 q i a, the festival of legislation in honor 

of Ceres, at Athens and other Greek cities. Kuqv s i a, sacred to Jupiter 

and Apollo, almost throughout all Greece, for nine days. — < — A v /. a i a, an 
Arcadian festival in honor of Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. [But this term 
usually designates a festival of Pan corresponding to the Roman LupercaL 

Cf. P. III. § 80.] 'O oxoyoqia, a festival of the Athenians instituted 

by Theseus, and so called from the custom of carrying branches about on the 

occasion. ITavaQ rjv <x ta, one of the most solemn festivals at Athens, 

dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated annually ; the greater every 

fifth year. Both were connected with various contests and games. TTs- 

2. oj q i «, a Thessaiian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance 
to the. Saturnalia of the Romans. - c S2q at a, a general name applied to sol- 
emn sacrifices, which were brought to the gods in the different seasons, with 
a view to secure good weather. 

For a more complete enumeration, cf. Potter, Archaeol. Graca. • — Cf. LarcJier, on certain 
Greek festivals, in the Mem. Acad. Inscn vol. xlv. p. 412 5 an, i xlviii. P- 252 « 

2. " The festival called 'ASwvta was celebrated in most of the cities of 
Greece. The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or 
pictures of Adonis and Venus were brought forth with all the pomp and cere- 
monies used at funerals ; the women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and 
counterfeited other actions usual in lamenting the dead. This lamentation 
was called aSwvtaoubg or aSwviu, and hence adovlav ccysiv signifies the same as 
^ASwviv x/.aisiv, to weep for Adonis ; and the songs on this occasion were de- 
nominated adoviSia. With the images were also carried shells filled with 
earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces; in memory 
that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called v.yjnoi, gar- 
dens ; and hence 3 AdwviSog y.ijTcot were proverbially applied to things unfruit- 
ful and fading, because those herbs were sown only so long before the festi- 
val as to be green at that time, and were presently cast out into the water. 
The flutes used on this day were called yiyyqiai from yiyyqy]?, the Phoenician 
name of Adonis ; the music, yiyyqaaubq ; and the songs were called yiyyqavru. 
The sacrifice was denominated xadiSqu, because the days of mourning were 
called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible demonstrations 
of joy and merriment; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, Venus 
obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her one half of 
every year. This fable is applied to the sun which produced the vicissitudes 
of summer and winter." 

Cf. P. III. § 47. — Banier, Culte d' Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. m. p. 98. 

3. " The J i ov v a i a were sometimes % called by the general name of "Oq- 
yia, which, though sometimes applied to* the mysteries of other gods, more 
particularly belonged to those of" Bacchus. They were also sometimes de- 
nominated Bax/sia. They were observed at Athens with greater splendor, 
and with more ceremonious superstition, than in any other part of Greece ; 
the years were numbered by them ; the chief archon had a share in their 
management ; and the priests who officiated were honored with the first seats 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 493 

at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without splendor, 
being days set apart for public mirth, and observed only with the following 
ceremonies: — a vessel of wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought 
forth ; next followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs; and after all, 
the phalli. — At some of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions 
imitated the poetical fictions concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, 
fine linen, and mitres; carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; 
crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, and other trees sacred to 
Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and exhibited them- 
selves in comic dresses and antic motions; some rode upon asses ; and others 
drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about 
the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men deranged in their 
intellects, and crying aloud, Evol 2u@oi, Evoi Bu/./e, oj ^lazyt, 'Jo/Stfjf^s, or 
>Iw Bu/.yz. 

The great festival, Jtovvaia utyula, was sometimes called aoxry.a, or xa v.ax* 
I'tOTv, because celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, 
in the month ^ElayrfioliMV. It was sometimes by way of eminence called 
J 10 tv a i a, because it was the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at 
Athens, and was probably the same as Jiovvaia an/aioxEoa. 

The less, Jion'oia uiy.oa, was sometimes called xa y.ax' ayQovg, because it 
was observed in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the farmer and 
greater festival, and was celebrated in autumn, in the month UooeiSecot or 
rauj;/.i(oT. Some are of opinion, that it was the same as Jiovvaia l^vaia, 
which received its name from lyvog, a wine-press." 

Cf. Scholl, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. 11. p. 5, as cited P. II. $7. 9. — On festivals of Bacchus, 
see also P. III. $ 59 ; P. L $ 66. 2. 

4. " The 'Elsvalvia was a solemnity observed by theCeleans and Phli- 
asians every fourth year ; by the Pheneatoe, the Lacedaemonians, Parrha- 
sians, and Cretans, but more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at 
Elev.sis, a borough town of Attica. It was the most celebrated solemnity in 
Greece, and was, therefore, by way of eminence, called xa. uvox)\oia, the mys- 
teries, and rslerif. It is said by some to have been instituted by Ceres her- 
self, when she had supplied the Athenians with corn in a time of famine. 
Some say that it was instituted by king Erectheus ; and others, by Eumolpus. 

It was divided into the inxqa and iisyula uvaxt]qia, lesser and greater myste- 
ries ; and then the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her 
daughter Proserpine. Mr/.qa iivavt'iqia, the lesser mysteries, were observed 
in the month ^AtQeoxtiOkot at Agra?, a place near the river Ilissus ; and the 
uEyas.u uvoxilQia, greater mysteries, were celebrated in the month BoijSqouigjv, 
at Eleusis, a borough-town of Attica, from which Ceres was called Eleusinia. 
In later ages the lesser festival was used as a preparation to the greater, in 
which they could not be initiated till they had been purified at the former. 

About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ce- 
res, and were admitted to the greater myteries, the secret rites of which (with 
the exception of a few known only to the priests) were openly revealed to 
them ; and hence they were called fyoooi and tnonxai, inspectors. Persons 
of both sexes and of all ages were initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the 
initiation into these mysteries was considered a crime of a very heinous na- 
ture, and formed a part of the accusation for which Socrates was condemned 
to death. — All the Greeks might claim initiation into the mysteries ; but the 
people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ; and persons 
convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they had 
committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred from these 
mysteries. 

The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned 
with myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called avaxiy.bg atjxbg, the 
mystical temple, or i/vaxoSbyog doi/bc, which was an edifice very capacious 
(P. III. § 63). At their entrance they washed their hands in holy Avater, and 
at the same time were admonished to present themselves with minds pure 
and undefined, without which the external cleanness of the body would not 
be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to them out of a book 
called Tcixqwua, frem Ttirq-oc, a stone, because the book was only two stones ce„ 

42 



494 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

merited together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was Called 
isfjoipuvrtjg, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned an-* 
swers. Soon after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the 
place, in which they were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and ra- 
diant fire, and instantly was covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hol- 
low sound was heard, and the earth seemed to groan beneath their feet. The 
being present at these sights was called avroU'la, intuition. They were then 
dismissed in these words, Kdy't, ^Oinrat. The garments in which they were 
initiated ware deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting evils and incan- 
tations. 

The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called dadov/og, torch- 
bearer, to whom it was permitted to marry ; the second, zfjqv^, the crier; and 
the third, 6 inl (iunico, from his ministering at the altar. r IsQOipuvnjg is said 
to have been a type of the Great Creator of all things; dadov^og, of the sun ; 
r.tjQv'i, of Mercury ; and 6 Inl (iwiioZ, of the moon. 

There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing 
that all things were performed according to custom. Of these was (SaoiJ.svg, 
the king, who was one of the archons, and who was obliged to offer prayers 
and sacrifices at this solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregu- 
larity was committed during the festival ; four In iiisktjral, curators, who were 
elected by the people; and ten persons who assisted at this and some other 
solemnities, and who were called Uqonoiol, from their offering sacrifices. 

This festival continued nine days, from the fifteenth to the twenty-third 
day of the month BoijSqouiojv. During this time it was unlawful to arrest 
any man, or to present any petition ; and they who were found guilty of such 
practices were fined one thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death. 

On the fourth day of the festival, they made a solemn procession, in which 
the y.alu&tov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds 
of persons shouting as they went, XaiQs, JtjuijrsQ (Hail, Ceres). After 
these, followed certain women called y.iorcxpuQoi, who carried baskets in which 
were contained carded wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy 
boughs, a sort of cakes called cp&utg, poppies, &c. — The fifth was called C J£ 
Tbiv ?.aunudojv ^idga, the torch-day ; because, the night following, the men 
and women ran about with torches in their hands. It was also customary to 
dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present the largest ; and 
this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Proserpine 
with a torch lighted at the flames of JEtna. — The sixth day was called 3 7«x- 
%og, from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand 
accompanied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned 
with myrtle, and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, 
in a solemn procession called " lay/og. — On the seventh day were sports, in 
which the victors were rewarded with a measure of barley, which was the 
first grain sown in Eleusis." 

Robinson, Archasol. Grseca. — Cf. the references given P. III. § 63. 

5. The s o u o ip 6 q i a was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed ^aouo" 
ipuQog (legifera or lawgiver), because she was said to have first taught man- 
kind the use of laws. It was celebrated in many Grecian cities ; by the Spar- 
tans, the Thebans in Boeotia, the Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — ''But 
the Athenians observed this festival with the greatest show of devotion ; the 
worshipers were freeborn women (it being unlawful for any of servile condi- 
tion to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the charges; and 
were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three talents. 
These women were assisted by a priest called ^T£(p(xnj(p6()og, because his head 
Was adorned with a crown ; and by certain virgins, who were kept under se- 
vere discipline, being maintained at the public charge in a place called 6so- 
fiocpoQsi'ov. The women were clad in white apparel. — Three days at least 
were spent in making preparations. Upon the eleventh of Pyanepsion, the 
women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein the laws were contained., 
went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept; whence this day was called 
" N AvoSog, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and lasted until 
the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a, fast, sitting upon the ground 
in token of humiliation ; whence the day was called Nijoreia, a fast." 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 495 

Potter, Boyd's ed. p. 378. — On the fasts of the ancients, Morin, L'Usage du Jeune, chez les 
Anciens &,c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 

6. " The II a v a 6 i] v a ta was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, 
the protectress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius, who called 
it 'Adt'jvaia ; and it was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united 
into one city all the Athenian people, and by him was denominated IlavaQij 
rata. Some are of opinion that it was the same as the Roman Quinquatria 
At first it continued only one day ; but it was afterwards prolonged several 
days, and celebrated with great magnificence. 

There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called l&syala 
Uara&t'jvaia, the Great Panathenaea, and was celebrated once in five years, 
beginning on the twenty-second of Hecatombreon ; the other was denominat- 
ed Miy.oa IlavaQijvuia, the Less Panathensea, and was observed every third 
year, or, as some think, every year, beginning on the twentieth or twenty- 
first of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, managed by ten presi- 
dents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who continued in 
office four years. On the first day was a race with torches, in which first foot- 
men and afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the 
greater festival. The second contention was svavdQlag aywv, a gymnastic ex- 
ercise in which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The 
place of these games was near the river, and was called from the festival Tlav- 
aShjva'Cxov. The third was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the 
subject proposed was the eulogiumof Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of 
Thrasybulus, who had rescued the republic from the yoke of the tyrants by 
which it was oppressed. The poets also contended in four plaj's, which from 
their number were called rirqa/.uy'ia. Besides these there was a contention 
at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 55. — Pausan. i. 27. 
§ 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil 
and with a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were 
called uoo'iai from uuQog, death, or from uiqog, a part. There was likewise a 
dance called Pyrrhichia, performed by boys in armor, who represented to the 
sound of the flute the battle of Minerva with the Titans. No man was per- 
mitted to be present at these games in dyed garments, under a penalty to be 
imposed by the aycuvo^r/;?, president of the games. Lastly a sumptuous sac- 
rifice was offered, to which every Athenian borough contributed an ox ; of the 
flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole assembly; 
and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. 

In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were ob- 
served, but with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some 
other matters. In particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which 
was carried the sacred ninXoc, garment of Minerva. This ntrclog was woven 
by a select number of virgins, who were called ioyaoTiy.al, from tQyov, a work, 
and who were superintended by two of the uooijipoooi, and commenced their 
employment at the festival Xa/.zsia, which was on the thirtieth of Pyanepsion. 
The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered with gold: upon it 
were described the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of Jupiter, 
of the heroes, and of men renowed for valor and great exploits ; and hence 
men of courage and bravery were said to be uziol ntnlov, worthy of being 
portrayed on the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the pro- 
cession with the 7iiic?.og were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, 
was an engine built for the purpose in the form of a ship, upon which the 
TtiTc/.og was hung in the manner of a sail, which was put in motion by con- 
cealed machinery. The ntnlog was thus conveyed to the temple of Ceres 
Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was placed upon Minerva's 
statue, which was layed on a bed strewed with flowers, and called nlav.'ig. 
This procession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, 
and of all ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, 
by old women, carrying olive branches in their hands ; and hence they were 
called &a?.?.o(p6(Joi, bearers of green boughs. After these came middle-aged 
men, who, armed with lances and bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and 
who were accompanied by the ithoiy.oi, sojourners, carrying little boats as 
emblems of their being foreigners, and therefore called cy.ayijipoqoi, boat- 



496 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' wives, who 
were called vdqiayoqoi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. These 
were followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and 
who were crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, 
whose features, shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were 
called y.uvtj(p6ooi, from their carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, 
cakes, and all things necessary for the sacrifices. These utensils were in the 
custody of one who, because he was chief manager of the public processions, 
was called aq/i&twqog. The virgins were attended by the sojourners' daugh- 
ters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were thence denomi- 
nated ay.iaSijcpoQoi, umbrella-carriers, and ditpqcxpuooi, seat-carriers. It is prob- 
able that that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at 
processions, and were called TtavdauixoL The necessaries for this and other 
processions were prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between 
the Pirsean gate and the temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole 
business belonged to the vouo(pv?.azsg, who were appointed to see that the an- 
cient customs were observed." 

Robinson. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv.517. — i— Among the monuments of ancient art still 
in preservation are certain vases called Panathenaic Vases, as they are supposed from inscrip- 
tions on them to have been actually employed to contain the sacred oil bestowed upon victors 
in these games as a part of their prize. — See P. O. Bronsted, on the Panathenaic Vases ; in 
the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. u. p. 102. Lond. 1834. — De Caylus, Vases 
dont les anciens faisoient usage dans les festives, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxm. 342. 

§ 78. The great public games of the Greeks were also a part of 
their religious customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were 
originally established in honor of the gods. They were always be- 
gun and ended with sacrifices. It also entered into their design, and 
was their effect to render religion more attractive by association with 
sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact the several portions of 
Greece, and to stimulate and publicly reward superior talents. — The 
exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore the 
common name nivra&iov. They were running, leaping, wrestling, 
throwing the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing, which some 
put in the place of the contest with the javelin. 

See Burette, on these exercises, (la Lutte des anciens — Pugilat, Course, Disque &c.) in the 
Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. in. p. 222 ss. 

§ 79. The race (Sqouog) was between fixed boundaries, the start- 
ing place (acpaoig, pazpic), and the goal or end (oxonig, riqua), on a 
piece of ground measured off for the purpose (avttg, drudior), 125 
paces in extent. The racers were sometimes clad in full armor 
(oTvXiTodqouoi). — There were also chariot-races and horse-races. 

Those who only ran once over the stadium were called oradioSquiioi ; those 
who ran over the space doubled (Siavlog), that is, both to the goal and back, 
were called SiavXodqouoi ; those who ran over the space 12 times in going and 
returning, i. e. 24 stadia, or according to others only 7 stadia (§u?.ij(og), were 
termed do?.izod()6uoL. — The prize (aQ?.ov, pqafiuov) was commonly merely a 

crown of olive, pine, or parsley. The term y.i?.r t rsg was applied to horses 

which performed in the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon 
one of which the performer (avuparrjs) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon 
the other. In the chariot-race, two, three, four, or more horses were em- 
ployed to draw the chariot (aqua); hence the terms Svwqoi, rityncnoi, tstquio- 
qoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the course 12 times (Svw- 
SsxaSquuot). It was an object of emulation among the wealthy to send char- 
iots for the race to the public games of Greece. 

Gcdoyn, Les Courses de Chevaux et de chars dans les jeux Olympiques, in the Mem. Acad. 
Inscr. vin. 314, 330; ix. 360.— Quatrim. de Quincy, Sur la Course armee et les ophtodromes, 

in the Mem. de Vlastitut, Classe d'Histet Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 165, with figures. On the 

Olympic Stadium, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 277. 

§ 80. For the leap (a?.ua) also boundaries were marked, the place 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 497 

from which (partlq), and the place to which (oxuuua), it was made. 
This exercise was performed sometimes with the hands empty, but 
oftener with metallic weights in them, usually of an oval shape 
(a?.TijQig), sometimes with weights attached to the head or the. 
shoulders. 

The distance leaped over was called y.avlov. The point to which the per- 
formers were to leap was marked by digging the earth ; hence its name from 
oy.uTtToj. The phrase ntjdclv VTtiq ru ioy.auuiva, applied to signify excess or ex- 
travagance, was taken from this exercise. 

§ 81. Wrestling (tvuI.tj, y.arap.r^iy.1) was commonly performed in a 
covered portico (iuarig), the combatants being naked, and making 
the most violent exertions to throw each other to the ground. When 
one had done this with his adversary three times (o TQiatag), he re- 
ceived the prize. There were two modes of this exercise, one in 
the erect posture (doCiorcu/.ij), the other in the lying posture in which 
the parties contended rolling on the ground (uvayMvonu).!}). — When 
wrestling was united with boxing, it was called nayy^riov or Hau- 

ua%iov. 

After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they 
were matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as 
many balls as there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two 
balls, and those who drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In 
case of an odd number, he who drew the odd lot was called tysdQog, and re- 
quired to contend with those who conquered. A competitor confessed his 
defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger ; hence aiqe 6uy.rv?.ov became 
proverbial to signify confess that you are conquered. 

In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was it proper 
for the competitor to throw his antagonist; but in the Pancratium, both 
modes were practiced. 

§ 82. The quoit or discus (dioxog, o6?.og) was made of stone, brass, 
or iron, of a roundish form, and about 3 inches thick. It was thrown 
by means of a thong {y.al^Siov) passing through a hole in the centre. 
He who threw the farthest took the prize. The hurling the jav- 
elin (oixi'ig, ay.uvTioig) was practiced either with the hand alone, or by 
means of a thong attached to the shaft. (Cf. Plate xiv. fig. y.) 

Some state that the Siay.og was of stone, and the ou?.og of iron ; others that 
the former was carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron; 
the difference may have been wholly in their form or shape. — The exercise 
is said to have originated with the Lacedaemonians. 

§ 83. Boxing (nvyul) was performed with clenched fists, around 
which they sometimes bound the cestus ((««$), i. e. a thong or piece 
of hide loaded with iron or lead. The chief art in this game was 
to parry the blows of the antagonist, which were usually aimed at 
the face. 

The combatant was called Ili'y.ryjg, from ni"c, a. fist. The cestus, originally 
reaching no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbow and 
sometimes to the shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and 
attack. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often lost 
their lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows 
were called vtimttiu. 

Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the 
public games of the Greeks contests in music, poetry, and rhetoric, of which 
mention has already been made (P. I. § 65, 66). 

§ 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were 

42* 



498 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by 
way of eminence Sacred games (ay&vcg teQoi). 

The first and most distinguished were the Olympic, named from 
the place Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. 
By some, Jupiter was considered as their founder ; by others, an 
earlier Hercules belonging to the Idsean Dactyli ; by others Pelops; 
by most Hercules the hero, who was the first victor in all the exer- 
cises, except in wrestling. They were renewed by Iphitus, a con- 
temporary of Lycurgus, about B. C. 888, and afterwards by Choroe- 
bus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were an object of special care to 
the people of Elis. Several inspectors (uXi'rui, (jaSSov^oi) had charge 
of the external arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspec- 
tor \a).VTuQX r l?)' 

1 u. Those, who wished to appear as combatants, were obliged to spend ten 
months at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing the games and various prepara- 
tory exercises under the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic 
games especially termed f E/.?.avodly.cu. The order in which they successively 
engaged in the contests was decided by lot. The prize was a crown or wreath 
of olive (xoTitoc). — Among the Olympic victors, Alcibiades was one of the 
most celebrated > the names of thirteen others Pindar has preserved to pos- 
terity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the conquerors in 
the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely on account of 
the vast multitudes of spectators, that nocked to the games from every part 
of Greece, and from Asia, Africa, and Sicily. Originally females were not 

allowed to attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the 

month c Ey.aroupaicov, answering partly to July, and continued five days. 
They gave rise to the custom of reckoning time and dating events by Olym- 
piads. Each Olympiad consisted of four years. The first Olympiad is gen- 
erally considered in Chronology as corresponding with the year 776 B. C. 

2. One judge at first presided over the games ; afterwards two ; subsequent- 
ly there were 12; then 8, one from each tribe of the Eleans. The place, 
where these assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (rrfjoyvu- 
ruauara) of the combatants, was called ' EU.^voSr/.atov. They took the most 
solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes impartially. Although women were strict- 
ly excluded from witnessing these games at first, they were afterwards al- 
lowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. 

3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which 
these games exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and 
harmony between the different sections and states, as they drew together 
spectators from every quarter, who thus constituted the great assembly {Tlav- 
VYVQ's) °f Greece. Olympia was in fact called nuyxoivog xwqa, the common 
country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery are also mentioned 
as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. They 
could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, histo- 
rians and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. 

Bancroft's Heeren, p. 129.— G. West's Diss, on the Olymyic games, in his Transl. of Pin- 
dar, cited P. II. § 60. 5. — Cf. Sidzer's Allg. Theorie, close of article Pindar. 

§ 85. The Pythian games were celebrated upon the Crisssean 
plains, in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from 
the surname of Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and 
were a commemoration of his victory over the Pythian serpent. 
They were instituted either by himself, or by Amphictyon or Diome- 
des. Originally they were held at the beginning of every ninth year 
(ivvsaTrjQig), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning of every 
fifth year (Ttsrrasryjfilg). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era 
in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned 
from the 3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 499 

prize the victors received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also 
a crown of laurel. 

1m. The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have 
been rewarded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called 
Hv&ixbg vouog, which was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory 
of Apollo over the serpent ; it consisted of five or six distinct portions, which 
represented so many separate parts and steps in the undertaking and achieve- 
ment. Of the same import was the customary solemn dance, composed of 
five parts. 

2u. All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually intro- 
duced into the Pythian. The Amphictyons had the oversight of them ; to 
these the candidates were required to present themselves. Nine conquerors 
are especially celebrated in the Pythian odes of Pindar. The spot where 
these games were held was a plain between Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to 
Apollo. 

§ S6. The Nemean games derived their name from Nemea, a city 
in Argolis between Cleonse and Phlius, in the vicinity of which they 
were celebrated. They were held every third year, so as to fall on 
every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to 
compute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges were 
selected from the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonae, 
and were persons distinguished particularly for their love of justice. 
Their dress was black, because the games were first instituted as a 
funeral solemnity («^ imruipio?) in honor of Opheltes, or Anchem- 
orus ; although others state, that they were instituted and dedicated 
to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaving the Nemean lion. The prize 
of the victor was a crown of parsley. Ten conquerors in the Neme- 
an games are celebrated by Pindar. 

Villoison, Les jeux Nemeans, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxvm. p. 29. 

§ 87. The Isthmian games were so called from the place of their 
celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Pelo- 
ponnesus with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Me- 
licertes, a son of Ino and Athamas, who under the name of Palcemon 
was received -by Neptune into the number of sea gods. Others rep- 
resent Theseus as the founder of the games, and Neptune as the god 
to whom they were consecrated. With the Corinthians, all the other 
states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were excluded by some 
dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. They were 
held at the beginning of every third year (to^t^izoI), and were at- 
tended with the musical contests as well as those in all the athletic 
evercises. The prize was originally, and also in later times again, a 
crown of pine ; for a period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. 
The judges were at first selected from the Corinthians, afterwards 
from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his Isthmian odes yet extant, has 
sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancratiasts, who gained the 
prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. 

In our Plate XIII., are seen various form? of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8. repre- 
sents the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. 

§ 88. On account of the great estimation in which Athletics were 
held among the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion 
and the interests of the state, the subject deserves a few additional 
remarks. 

lu. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as 



500 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

bodily exercises, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it was commonly 
used to signify those more frequent and violent bodily exercises, which were 
so much practiced in Greece, especially at the games already described, and 
which were viewed as an essential part of education, and constituted a great 
object of the Gymnastic system. Many of those who had enjoyed full in- 
struction therein, made these exercises the main business of their life. Such 
were called a(51r t Tui and aytoviorai. The teacher of the system or art was 
called yvuvaar^g and ^varuq^tjg, superintendent of a tvarog, which was a cov- 
ered gallery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called 
from the floor being made smooth and level. Although the Athletse were not 
strictly in the service of the state, yet they received great honor. Their 
whole mode of .life was conducted with reference to augmenting their bodily 
strength, and they submitted to many rigid precepts. In most of the exer- 
cises they were naked ; in casting the quoit and the javelin they wore a light 
covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, they rendered their 
bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered 
themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hold of 
each other, and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the 
ground, or surface of the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 

2u. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an ex- 
amination and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges (a&Xo&irai, aywvo- 
Qirai, c E?J.avoSixat) were appointed, whose number was not always the same, 
who decided concerning the prize, and excited the combatants by animated 
exhortations. The rewards of the conquerors were the applause and admira- 
tion of the people, the public proclamation of their names, the laudatory song 
of the poet, the crown of victory, statues, solemn processions, banquets, and 
other privileges and advantages. 

Cf. P. I. § 64. — C. F. Jl. Hockheimer's Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der Griechen, as 
cited P. II. § 1. a work very instructive on this topic and on Grecian education generally. — 
Jahri's Treatise on Gymnastics! Northampt. 1828. 8. — jimer. Quart. Rev. vol. in. p. 125. — Bu- 
rette, Histoire des Athletes, in the Hist, de VAcad. des laser, vol. l. p. 211. 

§ 89. It has been already stated (P. I. § 66), that dramatic representations 
or theatrical performances, among the Greeks, belonged appropriately to relig- 
ious festivals ; and had their origin, in fact, in religious ceremonies (P. II. 
§ 36, 37, Al), particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus 
at Athens. Some account of the Greek theatres has also been given (P. I. 
§ 235J. Besides what has been said in the sections referred to, a few remarks 
may be added properly in this place. 

1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical 
contrivances. Among these were the following : the 0£o?.oysiov, a platform 
concealed by clouds and supporting the gods in conversation; the Mtj^av)} 
and the rtoavog, instruments employed to bring a god or other personage sud- 
denly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him into the skies; the Auo^ai, 
ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air; Bqovtslov and the Keoav- 
voay.oTiBiQv, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 

2. The number of actors (vjioxoltui) in the whole of a play was of course 
various ; but no more than three at once appeared on the stage (oxtjr^) in the 
part appropriated to speakers (?.oytiov). Although the author of the piece rep- 
resented was sometimes obliged to be one of the actors, yet those who were 
actors by profession were, as a class, of low character and loose morals. In 
order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and the sound spread over 
the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed; among these were 
the brazen vessels (i^yiia) resembling bells, which were placed in different 
parts of the structure. In the rude state of the art the features of the actor 
were concealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some 
rude disguise. iEschylus (P. II. § 39, 61), introduced the regular mask (nooo- 
om si ov persona,) ; which, ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous 
metal, or at least had a mouth so prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. 
There was a vast variety in the form, color, and appendages of the masks, so 
as to represent every age, sex, character, and condition ; no less than twenty- 
six classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius Pollux. The tragic mask 
often had a great elevation of the head and hair (called oy/.og) to heighten the 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 501 

stature of the actor. For the same purpose, the tragic actor wore a very thick- 
soled boot (y.u&oovoc, iiipac). 

On masques &c. cf. § 238. — Pompeii (as cited P. I. § 226) p. 211. — Schlegel, on the Drama, lect. 
iii.— Monger, sur les masques des Anciens, in the Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. 
vol. i. 256? vii. 85. — Same, (on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice) in the Mem. 
de Plnst., Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89. 

3. The Choir (yoqoo) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the 
actors ; yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. We have before 
alluded to the vast expense of maintaining the Chorus ; one great source of 
this expense was the dresses and decorations, which were of the most splendid 
kind. See P. II. $37, and the references there given. 

§ 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, 
the spectators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as 
the edifices were built at the public expense, were at first free for every per- 
son. In consequence of the contest for places, which this occasioned, a law 
was passed at Athens, under which a fee for admission was demanded. This 
was fixed, for a time at least, at two oboli. But under the influence of Pericles, 
another law was also enacted requiring the proper magistrate to furnish from 
the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one, who applied fofit that 
he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was termed 
QevjqixIx /Qiluara, and the magistrate, Tauiag xStv QeaiQiy.cJv. The number of 
spectators was often very great (P. I. § 235). Barthelcmy has given a vivid 
description of their crowding to the theatre. 

Travels of Anacharsis (as cited P. II. § 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also ch. lxx. — Barthelemy, Nomhre 
des pieces qu'on representoient en un jour a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxix. 172. — 
On Greek theatrical performances, cf. P. II. § 36-47. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xn. 119. — J. Proudfit, 
in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Series, p. 449. 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§ 91. After what has been already said (§ 33 ss) of the original 
circumstances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine 
ourselves now to their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. 
The account of the various changes of their constitution and the 
consequences thereof belongs to history rather than antiquities. 
The latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the civil regula- 
tions of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking 
those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who 
were distinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, al- 
though they had also many points of resemblance. 

§ 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned 
(§ 39). After the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by 
the chiefs of noble families, and of whom Codrus was the seven- 
teenth and last (1068 B. C), the chief magistrates were the Archons. 
When these became despotic, Draco (624 B. C.) introduced a code 
of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by their severity. Re- 
course was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished all the 
laws of Draco, except the one respecting murder. Solon changed 
the form of government in many points, diminished very much the 
authority and power of the Archons, gave the people a share and 
voice in judicial inquiries, and thus transformed the aristocracy pre- 
viously existing into a mixed and moderate democracy. 

§ 93. Originally the people had been divided into 4 tribes ( ( pv?.ui), 
and also divided, according to their places of residence, into a num- 
ber of boroughs or wards (Sf;uoi). Each tribe likewise was subdivided 
into three curice (qiqarqiai, edvt}) according to their consanguinity, and 
each of the curiae into families (yirtj, roiaxudag). But Solon divided 



502 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the citizens according to their wealth into 4 classes ; 1. mrraxoaio- 
fiiSiurot, those who gathered from their fields in moist and dry crops, 
at least 500 i,lSiuvot ; 2. 'innttg, those whose grounds yielded 300 
fddifivoi, and who were able to maintain a war-horse {'innog rco?.fuiorr r 
Qiog) ; 3. Zruyirai, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) iddiuvot, 
and who owned the space of one acre or ttvyog ; 4. 6,-jreg, those who 
had any less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly 
of the people (§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes 
shared in the burdens and expenses of the state, and therefore they 
alone could receive offices, and from them alone the senate (/Sou;.;,, 
§ 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted of 400. Solon also 
advanced the authority of the Areopagus (§ 108), as he gave it juris- 
diction of the most criminal cases. 

§ 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about 34 
years. Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became 
sole master of the state, and notwithstanding all opposition, contin- 
ued such until his death, 528 B. C. His two sons, Hippias and Hip- 
parchus, succeeded him, These were soon stripped of their power; 
Hipparchus being slain by Harmodius, who was offended on account 
of his sister (Thuc. vi. 544) and was aided by his friend Aristo- 
giton : and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. 
After this, the constitution received a new form under the influence 
of Clisthenes. 

The number of the tribes (cpv?.al) was now increased to ten. From 
each of these, 50 senators (povievral) were yearly elected, so that the 
Senate consisted of 500. After this the power of the people was still 
more increased. Aristides effected the abolition of the law of Solon, 
which excluded from offices the lowest of the four classes of citizens. 
Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes, deprived the Areopagus 
of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many important 
changes in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower class- 
es, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, 
and the way was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed. 

§ 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken 
by Lysander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the 
thirty tyrants, who were, however, deprived of their authority after 
three years, by Thrasybulus, and banished. In their stead decemviri 
(dexaSovxoi) were instituted, who likewise abused their power, and 
were exiled, after the former democracy was restored. This form 
was retained unto the death of Alexander the Great, when it was 
overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain 
number of nobles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassan- 
der committed the republic to a lieutenant, and under Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes it enjoyed again freedom and popular power. With some 
changes, this state of things continued until the time of Sulla, who 
in the Mithridatic war conquered Athens and subjected her to the 
Romans. The final destruction of the city happened towards the 
end of the 4th century by the hands of Alaric, king of the West- 
goths. 

§ 96. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. 
Its circuit was about one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. One 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 503 

part of it was the citadel, which lay upon a steep rock; this at first 
constituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia, and was af» 
terwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the 
Acropolis were the Hqonvlaia, Propylcea, the jtaq&tvmv, or temple of 
Minerva with the famous statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the 
joint temple of Neptune Erectheus and Minerva Polias. In the oth- 
er portion of the city, the temples of Vulcan,, Venus Urania, The- 
seus, Jupiter Olympus, and the Pantheon sacred to all the gods, were 
among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, 
the PcBcile (P. I. § 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with 
the most magnificent paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, built 
by Pericles and devoted to musical and literary exercises, has been 
before mentioned (P. I. § 235). The name of Ceramicus was* given 
to two extensive spaces, one within and the other without the city, 
the former enriched with beautiful edifices, the latter used as a burial 
ground. There were several market places (ayoqal), with different 
names according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia also, and the 
Baths, the Stadium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the 
Cynosarges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the re- 
markable and interesting works which adorned the city of Athens. 
The three harbors, Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, should like- 
wise be mentioned here. 

Some further account of the buildings and monuments of the city of Athens will be found 
in the portion of this work which gives an Epitome of Classical Geography. Cf. P. V. §104- 
116. — For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XVI. fig. 1 ; in the same Plate, fig. 2. is the 
temple of the Winds ; fig.- 3, the temple of Theseus. — For a Plan of Athens, see Plate XXIX. 

§ 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were 
either Ttolirai, free citizens, iiiroixoi, free commoners, resident aliens or 
sojourners, or Sov?.oi, slaves. The first class was the most rsspecta- 
ble, the last the most numerous. The number of resident foreigners, 
however, was not insignificant. The right of citizenship was, in 
the flourishing times of tk I republic, a high privilege, which was con- 
ferred only upon men of honorable descent and distinguished merit, 
and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement ofosix 
thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were 
those whose parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose 
parents was born there; and those of the latter class held a lower 
rank, and privileges in some respects less than the former. 

lu. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided in four tribes (cf. § 93) as fol- 
lows ; 1. Kexnonlg, from his own name ; 2. > Avt6/&u>v ; 3. ^Ay.rala ) 4. JJa- 
qa/.ia. To each of these tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards 
(Stjuoi), of which'there were at length 174 in Attica, and which differed from 
each other in various points of manners and customs. The names of the 
tribes were afterwards changed, and the number increased to ten (§ 94), fi- 
nally to twelve. The number of citizens, nolirai, in the time of Pericles 
amounted to 14,040 ; and in the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a 
census taken by his direction, B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. 

2. From the census of Demetrius, the whole population of Attica, includ- 
ing aliens (§ 98), women, children, and slaves (§ 99), has been estimated at 
500,000. 

See Amer. Quart. Register, on populousness of Ancient Nations, vol. ix. p. 143. — Saintc 
Croix, Sur la population de l'Attique, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 147. —And Le- 
tronnc, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 165.—— On the 4i t uoi of 
Attica, see W. M. Leake, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature ; a full account, 
with a good map. 



£04 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 98. The uiToiy.oi were those foreigners, or persons not natives of 
Attica, who became residents in the city or territory. They took no 
part in the government, being admitted neither to the assemblies of 
the people nor to public offices, but were subject to all the laws and 
usages of the land. They were obliged to select from the free citi- 
zens a patron or guardian (TtQooruTtjg), in whose name they could 
manage business and maintain actions in the civil courts, and to 
whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the state 
were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (ubto'l- 
xiov) was exacted, ten or. twelves drachms for each man, and six for 
each woman without sons, mothers with sons that paid being free 
from the tax. Sometimes exemption from taxation {hrU.Eia) was 
conferred upon individuals as a reward for meritorious services. 
Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the class of foreign res- 
idents. 

The term %lvoi was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country 
for a short time only ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who were 
mutually pledged, by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each 
other with hospitality. — If a metic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was 
liable to be sold for a slave. Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because 
he had not the means of paying it ; but was redeemed by Demetrius. 

Cf. Sainte Croix, Sur les Metoeques &c. ih the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 176. 

§ 99. The slaves (SotiZoi) were of different sorts, those belonging 
to the public (SovXoi <%ooioi), and those belonging to private citizens 
(oiyJrai). The latter were completely in the power of the master, 
and were often treated with great severity. Yet they sometimes pur- 
chased freedom by their own earnings, or received it by gift as a re- 
ward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at liberty, when 
they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen very 
seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed 
tiovloi. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and 
miserable as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, 
than in other states of Greece, especially in Lacedaemon. The slaves 
of Attica amounted to 400,000 in the time of Demetrius. 

At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their 
dress or the cut of their hair ; their coats must be with one sleeve only (£tc- 
qouao %aloi) and the hair cut in the servile form (dqll ctvdQaTvodwSijg). They 
could not properly bear the names of Athenian citizens, but must be called 
by some foreign or low name. They were allowed to bear arms only in ex- 
treme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ; for common offences 
they were whipped (j.iaOTiyiata) ; for theft or running away they were bound 
to a wheel and beaten (Ini rqo/ov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to 
grind in the mills (uvJ.Mvsg) ; sometimes they received, upon their forehead 
or some other part, the brand with hot iron (oriyua). In giving testimony in 
court they were also subject to torture (fiuaavog). — Yet at Athens the slaves 
could bring civil actions against their masters and others for violation of chas- 
tity and for unlawful severity (v^twg dizt] and aty.iag diy.j]). When greatly 
oppressed, they could also flee to the temple of Theseus, from which it was 

held as sacrilege to force them. Slaves carried on the whole business of 

the Athenians ; even the poorer citizens depended on them. There was a 
sale of slaves on the first day of every month by merchants (avSoaTtodoxuTrtj* 
?.oi) ; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's 
stone (nfjar^Q ?.l&og). The price varied according to their abilities. Many 
were skillful in the elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only 
qualified to toil in the mines. 



PLATE XVI. 




: ■— i — jj ■ ♦ 

• t-i. L " iii^Tiiii-a • 




43 



506 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

See Reitemeier, Geschichte und Zustand der Sclaverey &c. (History of Slavery and Villa- 
nage in Greece.) Berl. 1789. — Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Observer, No. xvii. p. 138. 

§100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the 
mode of their appointment to office, into three classes, the ^eiQorovrjrol, 
the yj.tjoojToi, and the Uiqiroi. The first named were chosen by the 
whole people raising the hand ; the second were appointed by lot by 
the Thesmothetse in the the temple of Theseus; and the last were 
chosen by particular portions of the people, by the tribes and the dis- 
tricts, from among their own number. — The magistrates were re- 
quired, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of 
their administration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten ac- 
countants (?.oyiarat) and ten directors or judges (ivOvvoi, called also 
intraoral). 

In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method 
was to put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (jtivuxia), 
into an urn with black and white beans (y.vaiioi) ; and those whose tablets 
were drawn out with white beans were elected. 

On Athenian magistrates, cf. Blanchard, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Liscr. vn. 51. 

§101. The most important magistrates were the Archons (ao^orrac). 
There were usually nine Archons, chosen by lot (xIijowtoi), but sub- 
jected to an examination as to their qualifications, before they were 
admitted to take the oath and enter their office. 

1. The examinations of the Archons was twofold; one in the senate called 
= \Avay.Qioic, the other in the forum, called Joxiiiaaia, before the Heliastce (JJ.i- 
aarai § 110). Among the points of examination were, whether their ances- 
tors for three generations had been Athenian citizens, whether they had a 
competent estate, and whether they were free from bodily defects (acpsZtig). 

2u. The first of the nine in rank was styled Archon by way of eminence, 6 
*^1qxwv ; sometimes "' Aqx wv irciowiiog, because the year was named from him. 
He attended to the domestic affairs of citizens, decided differences which 
arose between relatives, had the care of widows, appointed guardians, and 
took the oversight of certain festivals and solemnities, and also of theatres. 
— The second was called King, or archon king, uoywv (laau.tvc. To him were 
assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, which were originally 
performed by kings exclusively ; he was, in general, overseer of religious af- 
fairs. The third, named Polemarch, no?.huaq/oc, attended to the domestic af- 
fairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same duties in reference to 
them, which the first archon did for the citizens. In the time of the Persian 
war, he had an important share in managing military affairs. The six re- 
maining archons were called Thesmothetm (-dsauo&irui), and were chiefly oc- 
cupied with legislative affairs; they also took cognizance of such judicial 
matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction. 

3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called 
nuQsdQoi, assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been sub- 
jected to the same examinations with other magistrates, and being required 
to render in the same way an account (iv&vrrj) of their office. 

§ 102. Another magistracy at Athens, was that of the Eleven, 6l 
"Evdsy.a, ten of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, 
and the other was their secretary ( y qauuarevg). They were properly 
overseers of the prisons, and directed in the execution of capital 
punishments. In later times they were also called vouoyvi.axag. — 
These were different from the Phylarchi (^? ; ;:ao /0( ), who were orig- 
inally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards commanders in 
war. The Dernarchi (s^uao/oi) performed similar duties in relation 
to the districts (dfjuoi). — The jr^iaQ/ot had the care of the public 
register (?.evxuua), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and collected 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 507 

fines of those not present. They were six in number ; but were 
aided by the To^orai, who were a sort of bailiffs or deputy sheriffs, to 
the amount of 1000. — The NoiioBirai were also 1000 in number, and 
were charged with the examination of past laws to see if any were 
injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of police. 

Besides the magistrates above named there were many others connected 
with the treasury, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of 
justice ; the most important of them will be noticed in connection with those 
topics. There were also various other public functionaries, who were not, 
strictly speaking, magistrates, but ought perhaps some of them to be named 
here. — The c F>',Toosg, orators, were ten in number, appointed by lot to plead 
public causes in the senate and assembly ; they were sometimes called ovvi' r 
yoooi, and were a different body from the ovvdixoi, who were appointed by the 
people. — The nqsofisic, ambassadors, were chosen usually by the people, 
sometimes by the senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full 
power, they were called Hqha^sig avroy.QuroQsg ; generally their power was 
limited (§ 143,). They were usually attended by heralds {y.^Qvxtg) ; this name 
however was sometimes given to the persons sent on an embassy. — We may 
also mention the notaries, yqaiiuartig; besides the great number employed by 
the various magistrates, there were three publicly chosen ; one by the assem- 
bly of the people, to recite before them ; and two by the senate, one to keep 
the laws, and the other the records in general. The office was not at Athens 
very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educated slaves, called Jr r 
iiooioi (§ 99). 

§ 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts: (1) t*;.*/, rents 
from public domains and other public property, and duties paid on 
articles of commerce and on certain pursuits and persons ; (2) q>6qoi, 
tributes, or annual payments exacted from allied or subjected cities 
and states ; (3) Tiiu' t uara,Jines, which all went to the public treasury, 
except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and one fif- 
teenth appropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were pat- 
rons of the city; (4) Jsirovoyiai. iyy.i'y.iioi, periodical liturgies, or ser- 
vices, in which individuals were required, for a time, to perform cer- 
tain duties or maintain certain public establishments at their own 
expense. — Besides the ordinary, the necessities of the state some- 
times required an extraordinary revenue ; and then special taxes 
(hocpooii) laid upon citizens and residents formed an important re- 
source. 

Under riiu' h uara or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (Tvyvraveta), 
which were demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court ; these 
deposites were large in proportion to the sum brought into question by the 
trial. To the same head must be referred also the proceeds of confiscated 
property {8r t uio7VQara). 

Under the Liturgies Q.iirovqyiai) were included chiefly three, ^opr/yia, Y v l il ' 
raoianyia, and [.oriuoig. Those, who rendered the first named service, (x°Q } l- 
yoi.,) were required to pay the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the 
public festivals and theatrical exhibitions (cf. § 89. 3). Those to whom the 
second was assigned were obliged to furnish the oil and the various necessa- 
ries for the wrestlers and other combatants in the public games. In the third 
service mentioned, certain persons (zOTturoQeg twv ipv7.6iv) provided entertain- 
ment or banquets, on the public festivals, for a whole tribe. — These services 
were always assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the time of Demos- 
thenes there was the following system : each of the ten tribes pointed out 120 
of the wealthiest citizens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were divid- 
ed into two portions according to their wealth, the n<xw nlovoioi and the 
ijrrov nlovoioi ; these two parts were each formed into ten classes or compa- 
nies, called ovuuo<)iai ; from the ten ovtiiioqiai of the more wealthy, 300 of 



508 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the wealthiest rhen were selected, who were required to furnish the republic 
with the necessary supplies of money and with the rest of the 1200 to per- 
form all extraordinary duties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could name 
a person more wealthy than himself, he was excused. The residents (uiroi- 
y.oi) sometimes performed these services. — Besides the ordinary keirovoyiai 
above mentioned, there were some extraordinary ; particularly two in a time 
of war, TQitiQaQx'ia and eiocpoqa. The tqi^quq^ol were obliged to provide nec- 
essaries for the fleet and building of ships. The £L(Hpiqovrsg were required to 

contribute money according to their ability for different purposes. The 

manner in which they performed such of these services as were assigned to 
them, and the degree of expense and splendor to which they went, became 
sometimes a subject of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians. 

On the whole subject of the Athenian revenues and expenditures, see Aug. B'6ckh?s Staats- 
haushaltung der Athener. Mit 21 Inschriften. Bed. J817. 2 vols. 8. Same, Eng. Transl. Public 
Economy of Athens. — Cf. Bancroft's Heeren, ch. viii. — Milford, ch. xxi. sect. 1. — Xenophon 
On the Revenues of Attica (cf. P. II. § 186. 2). 

§ 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged 
to the people, and their administration and management to the sen- 
ate. But a particular officer was at the head of the treasury, called 
rauiag rijg v.oivrjg nqoovdov, because he had charge of the public reve- 
nue, and also rauiag ri]g Sioixt',asiog, as having charge likewise of the 
public expenditures. He was chosen by the people (^uqorovia) for 
four years. 

1 u. There were many subordinate officers in the department of finance. 
One class consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and 
to the previous arrangements. To this class belonged the juaXtjrai, ten in 
number, one from each tribe, having the care of whatever the state sold or 
leased; the nqay.roqsg, who received all fines imposed; the Iniyquipstg, wild 
assessed the imposts and tributes ; the Siayqayzig, who enrolled the names of 
families and individuals, and assessed to them their part in raising an extra- 
ordinary revenue ; the txloyug, who collected the taxes, duties, rents, &c. 
Te?.a)Tai were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public 
lands or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers. — A second 
class consisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed 
them for public uses. Of this class were the ajr.o8iy.rai, ten in number, chos- 
en by lot ; and the raulai rcdv Isq&v yq^uuron-, who had the care of the treas- 
ures in the temples (§ 28). — Such officers as were employed in keeping or 
examining the multifarious accounts of the department may be considered as 
a third class, including the yqaiuiarsig, clerks, and vnoyquuuartig, under -clerks, 
and the avrtyqaipsig, checking-clerks or auditors. Among the latter may be 
named particularly the uvriyqayevg ri^g dioiy.i' i oao)g, controller of the expen- 
diture. 

2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be 
noted here. The public edifices and other works were built only at a very 
great expense, and could be preserved in order only at a great annual cost. 
Pericles expended many thousands of talents upon works of architecture in 
Athens. The festivals were another source of expense ; when we consid- 
er their number, and think of the cost of the sacrificial victims and offerings, 
the banquets, the processions (noiucal), the theatrical, musical, and gymnas- 
tic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that 
immense sums must have been expended in maintaining them. — Much was 
expended also in distributions or donations to the populace (diavoual, diadoosig)] 
the most important expenditure in this way was by the 8i(o^o7.i.a, or distribu- 
tion of the oboli to each poor citizen as theoric money (dauqr/.u, §90). — 
Means of support j or poor and disabled citizens (aSvvaroi), and also for chil- 
dren whose fathers had fallen in battle, were likewise furnished from • the 
public treasury, and formed another item of expense. — In addition to these, 
we must mention the expenses of the government, including the salaries of all 
the various magistrates and officers of different grades, and the wages of the 
senators (uioBbg (i ovlsvny.bg), and of those who attended the assembly (tuo&bg 
v/.y.h]0 iaoriy.bg). — The support of the army and navy required also large sums 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 509 

of money, even in time of peace. In time of war, the expenses, not only of 

this class, but of many others also, must have been greatly increased. It 

may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate of the amount of these 
various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious metals in an- 
cient and modern times must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least, 
three times as valuable then as now. 

§ 105. Among the public assemblies of the Greeks, which took 
into consideration the affairs of the whole state, the council of the 
Amphictyons (oiroSog Ji^izn'ovwr, ^uyiy.Tvovla) is especially worthy of 
notice. According to common opinion, it was first instituted by 
Amphictyon, son of Deucalion ; according to some, by Acrisius, 
king of Argos. The twelve people or states united in this council 
(to t<5v c E).7.>]vuv avrtSoiov) used to meet by their delegates, two from 
each city ordinarily, at Thermopylae ; from this circumstance the 
delegates were called nviayoqai, and the council itself Hviaia. Some- 
times they met at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in 
spring and autumn, unless on some extraordinary occasion. Th 
design of the council was to adjust and settle public national disputes 
or difficulties, and the delegates had full power to make salutary 
changes and regulations. Some very important disputes, as e. g. be- 
tween the Platseans and Lacedaemonians, and between the Thebans 
and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued 
to some time in the first century after Christ. 

Some writers have taken a different view of the origin and design of this 
council. They assert that the Amphictyons were only an association of per- 
sons residing about or near Delphi, or some other place ; aucpmrvorag being 
nearly equivalent to ainpiy.rlortg ; and that the assembly was originally held 
simply for purposes of mutual gratification and religious festivity, having no 
precisely definite common object, and being different from a confederation for 
mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations. 

This is the view of Hermann, cited $ 33. — Similar is that of Sainte Croix, Des Anciens Gou- 
vernemens Federatifs. Par. 1799. — The political character and design of the council is main- 
tained by F. W. Titlmann, Ueber den Bund der Amphictyonen. Berl. 1812. 8. — Cf. also Mit- 
ford, Hist, of Greece, ch. iii. sect. 3. — De Valois, Sur les Amphictyons, in the Mem. ale VJlcad. 
des Inscr. &c. vol. in. p. 191 ; and v. p. 405. — T. Leland, Discourse pref. to his Life of Philip 
of Macedon. 

§ 106. Assemblies of the people (ixx?.tiaiai) were very frequent at 
Athens, and had an important influence. In these the acts of the 
senate were canvassed, laws were proposed and approved or rejected, 
magistrates appointed, war declared, and the like. The place where 
they met was either the market-place (ayoou), or a broad space near 
the mountain called the Pnyx (zz™£), or the theatre of Bacchus. 
The ordinary assemblies [ixxKrialai xvolut) were held monthly on es- 
tablished days; the extraordinary (ixxXtjalai ciyy.i.rjoi) were called on 
pressing and important emergencies. 

1 u. These meetings were managed and conducted by the Uovruvsig, the 
UcusSooi, and the 'ErcLorur^g. Before entering upon business a sacrifice, 
usually of a young pig, was offered. Then the herald ordered silence, offered 
a prayer to the gods, and stated, on the direction of the JJoobSqol, the subject 
to be discussed by the assembly, and those above fifty years of age were first 
invited to speak ; after which any one above thirty, of fair character, had the 
liberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been discussed in 
the senate, whose decision upon it (rcoo^ovlsviia, ipi]ifioua ri/g (Jov?.fjg) received 
its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called em- 
phatically a decree, un^pioua. Often, however, a decision of the senate with- 
out the confirmation of the assembly was in force for a year ; at least it was 

43* 



510 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

so in those cases in which, in order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people 
had granted an independent validity. 

2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (/siQorovia), and some- 
times by a mode of balloting in which beans (y.vuuoi) and stones (y.'tj(poi) 
were cast into vessels prepared for the purpose (y.udoi). — When the business 
was completed, the IlQvruvsig dismissed the assembly. 

6. F. Schomann, De Comitiis Atheniensium lib. III. Grypliisw. 1819. 8. 

§ 107. The senate or higher council (>, «rco povi>) consisted, ac- 
cording to the arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500 ; and was there- 
fore styled the senate or council of the 500 (i } p>ovV ti rwv nwraxoaLtav)* 
In earlier times it consisted of 400, and in later of 600 members. 

1m. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished 
a ready division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these divisions, 
containing 50 members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, 
in an order of rotation decided by lot; and the members of the division hav- 
ing this charge at any one period were called IlQvruvsig for the time, and the 
period itself was called IlQvravsia. The 50 IlQvruviig were subdivided into 
5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to their business in rota- 
tion, each for a period of 7 days, and the members were called 77(jo£<5Vjoi for 
that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding 
officers. From the TZjoosJooi was elected the ' E7ci(nurr l c, who was at their 
head, and of course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a 
single day. — It was the business of the JJqvruvBig to assemble the senate, 
and propose the subjects of deliberation. They also conducted the meetings 
of the people, in which however they only presided in connection with nine 
JjQutdQot, who were chosen out of the other divisions of the senate and had 
an ^ETcioraTtjg at their head. The HovTuveig had a common hall, where they 
passed most of their time daily, called the Prytaneum (novraraiuv), near the 
senate-house (Bov).ziov). 

2u. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which 
the votes were taken. They 1 received a drachma (pyuyul) per day for every 
day's attendance. The powe^ of the senate was very great. 

3. The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days 
considered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was 
called the senatorial oath (rov 8ov?.svtlx6v oqxov) to do nothing contrary to the 
laws. In voting, they cast each a black or white bean into the box or chest 
for the purpose : if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the de- 
cree or resolution was affirmed ; otherwise rejected. 

§ 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than 
the Areopagus at Athens. Its name, "Aqsionayog, signifies Hill of 
Mars, and was derived from the circumstance, that the court was 
held on a hill so called, near the citadel Others derive the name 
from the tradition, that the god Mars was the first criminal tried be- 
fore this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain, but 
was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but 
enlarged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body 
( y AqeioTtaytTat) were originally the most upright and judicious citi- 
zens of every condition, but after the modifications made by Solon, 
only such as had been elected Archons. Their office was held for 
life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination, poisoning, ar- 
son, and offences against religion, came before this court, which in- 
flicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on 
the last three days of each month ; but afterwards they were more 
frequent, and at last daily ; they were always in the open air, and at 
night. 

1 u. The sitting was opened with a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser 
and the accused took an oath with direful imprecations. Then, either per- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 511 

sonally or by attorneys, they urged their cause ; but no ornaments of rheto- 
ric, no attempts to move the passions, were ever allowed. After this the 
judges gave their decision by means of white or black stones. As the court 
always sat in the dark, the white pebbles were distinguished by holes bored 
in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive the white stones, 
which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to receive the 
black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen- 
tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and pu- 
rity of this tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the 
general corruption of morals. 

2. In their oath (diwuooia) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the furies 
(aural &Eai). In the trial they were placed upon what were called the silver 
stones (uoyvoovg ?.i6ovg), the plaintiff on that of Injury (vfiqig), and the de- 
fendant on that of Impudence (avaideia), or of Innocence (avairia). — The bra- 
zen urn stood in front of the other, and was called 6 'i/uTtQoadsv, also 6 y.vfjiog, 
because votes cast into it declared the accusation valid ; and 6 Savuxov, as it 
decreed death. The wooden was termed d onlow, 6 uy.vqog, or 6 i?.iov. 

Respecting the pebbles used in decisions, cf. Jlnthon's Note to Potter, p. 71. On the Are- 
opagus and the other courts of Athens, see A. W.Heffter, Die Athen'aische Gerichtsverfassung. 

Coeln, 1822. 8. M. H. E. Meir und O. F. Schomann, Der Attische Process. Vier Bucher, 

Halle, 1824. 8. Shbe Canaye, L'Areopagus, in the Mem. Acad. laser, vn. 174. 

§ 109. The 'Eipirai were also persons of distinguished merit, who 
constituted the court called >Enl na?.?.a§[oj from the statue of Miner- 
va (said by some to have been brought from Troy) in the temple, 
where it was held. Its origin is ascribed to Demophoon, a son of 
Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he did not first institute it, 
certainly modified it anew. The judges were Jifty-one, selected from 
noble families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all 
over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court ; 
but referred to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leav- 
ing to the 'EifiTcu jurisdiction only over homicide, injuries followed 
by death, and the like. 

There were three other less important courts belonging to the 
class which had cognizance of actions concerning blood (ijil rSv <po- 
ny.Mv). — The court "Eni Js?.(pivio) was held in the temple of Apollo 
Delphinius, and took cognizance of cases where the defendants con- 
fessed the fiact but pleaded some justification. — The court y Ev iiov- 
ranico was held at the Prytaneum (§ 107) and investigated cases of 
deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had escaped. 
— The court >Ev <i>qeuttoi was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, 
and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own 
country. — In all these courts the 3 E(pirai presided and pronounced 
the sentence. 

§ 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another 
class having jurisdiction only in civil cases {inl nov Stjuoriydiv), of 
which there were six. The most important was the c miaia. Its 
name was either from ulLa, multitude, on account of the throng at- 
tending it, or from p.iog, sun, on account of its being held in the 
open air. The number of its judges ({haarhi Siy.aarui) was not al- 
ways the same ; the whole number amounted to 6000, who were 
chosen for one year by lot; out of these were taken the number 
requisite in each particular trial or action. The least number that 
sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000 were assembled ; the more 
usual number was 200 or 500. It was the province of the ■dtouo&irai 
(§ 101) to introduce the action into court {hauyuv di-^v hg to diy.Lxar>' r 



512 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

qiov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate 
and decide the case. 

lu. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction (naoayqaipi) or request 
a delay (vnouoaia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the 
parties deposited a sura of money as security (rcqvTavaia), and proceeded to 
bring forward the cause. In doing this they were limited to a definite time, 
measured by a water-clock (y.?.s-ipvdQa). The decision was given in the same 
way as in the Areopagus (§ 108J ; and the defendant, in case of a sentence 
of death, was given over to the c 'Evdexa (§ 102), and in case of fine, to the 
HquxToqeg or Ey./.oy tig (§ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was cast into 
prison; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- 
ment also, fell upon his son. 

2. The bailiff or deputy employed to summon (nooGxal.ilo&ai) the defend- 
ant before the Thesmothetse, or witnesses before the court, was termed y.h' r 
twq ; the oath of the plaintiff before the opening of the trial was called 7100- 
wuoola, that of the defendant avrwiioaia ; a name for both was diio/Lioaia. Door- 
keepers (y.iyyJ.idsg) were appointed by a magistrate to guard the court from a 
crowd. The amount of the security-money was, as has been hinted (§ 103), 
in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it was a 
drachm and called naqaoruoig ; the deposite made by one who sued for goods 
confiscated by the state, or for inheritances of a certain kind, was termed rca- 
()axaTa(}oX)j. If the plaintiff (dtcoy.wv) failed of proving the indictment (atria) 
against the defendant ((psuywv), he paid a fine called InofSsXia. While the 
action (Siw^ig) was proceeding or was in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on 
a brazen tablet, was hung up (iy.y.sio&ai) in one of the most public places of 
the city. The witnesses (uaqrvqag) were all put under a solemn oath, which 
they took together at the altar erected in the court-room. Their testimony 
was called for by the advocates (ovvilyopoi) as they wanted it in proceeding 
with their pleas. — See Sir Wm. Jones's Preface to Issus (cf. P. II. § 104. 3). 

The office of the judges, Siy.aaral, resembled that of our jurymen; they 
were usually paid three oboli a day. The number of prosecutions and trials 
was very great. There were many in Athens who seem to have made it their 
business to discover grounds of accusation against the wealthy. These men 
gained the name of ovy.oyurrui, a term which was first applied to such as pros- 
ecuted persons that exported figs (hub rov ovy.a cpalvsiv), a law prohibiting 
such exportation having been enacted at a time when their was a great scarc- 
ity of that fruit. Cf. Mitford, ch. xxxi. sect. 1. 

The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The 
other civil courts besides the Heli(ea,weve those called IIaQu(SvoTov, Toiywvov^ 
T6 ICaivbv, Tb tni Auxov, and To Mtjrixov. 

§ 111. In addition to the ten public courts, there was also a judi- 
cial body, called 6i rsaaaqay.ovra, consisting of 40 persons chosen by 
lot, who held their courts successively in the several districts of At- 
tica having cognizance of cases where the sum or value at stake did 
not exceed 10 drachmas. There was likewise a body of Arbitrators, 
JiaiTtjral, consisting of 440 aged men, 44 from each tribe, holding 
office for a year, and authorized to settle minor controversies within 
their respective tribes, but subject to appeal. These were called 
yj.tjQuToi, being chosen by lot. Disputing parties were allowed to 
choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called diaUayrtjqioi or 
y.ar } Ittitoott^ Jiair^ral. Minor causes could not be entered in the 
superior courts, until they had been heard before some court of ar- 
bitrators. 

The number is stated by some at 40, and 4 from each tribe, by a different 
reading of the passage in Ulpian upon Demosthenes. 

Class. Journ. xxxix. 350. — M. H. Hudswalcker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Di'ateten in Athen, 
und den Process von demselben. Jena, 1812. 

§ 112. Actions or suits were divided into two classes, public (dl- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 513 

xai $t;u6oiai, y.arr^ooiai), such as concerned the whole state, and pri- 
vate (Siy.aL idiai, and diy.ai simply), which concerned only individuals. 
Of the former class were the following : r^ay^, an action for the 
highest crimes, as e. g. murder (yovog), poiso?i ((paqpaxov), arson (nva- 
y.aia), sacrilege ([sqoovUa), and many others esteemed less heinous ; 
&uoig, an action for the crime of embezzling or in some way squan- 
dering public property ; "EvSei&g, an action against persons usurping 
prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing trial although con- 
fessing guilt ; 'AjTaytay^ an action against a criminal taken in the 
act; 'Ecpt-y^oig, against a criminal found in concealment and there 
visited by a magistrate; i Av8qo?.tpiJia, against such as concealed a 
murderer, which allowed the relatives of the murdered person to 
seize three persons connected with the concealing party and retain 
them until further satisfaction ; *Eioayy£?.La, and action for a public 
offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against the Aw 
Tt-Tal when one was dissatisfied with their decisions. — Actions be- 
longing to the class called private were far more numerous, and 
were named according to their various occasions. 

Some of the public actions included under the general denomination of 
yqaipi], and not named above, were the following: ryavua ix noovoiag, a 
wound given by design ; (ioi'?.evoig, conspiracy ; icoifeia, impiety ; ttqoSooiu, 
treachery; desertion, whether from the army, Ibittootoutiov, or the fleet, ?.si- 
TTorairior, or from a particular station, /.sitiotu^iov ; frivolous prosecution, av- 
y.o(favria; bribery both against the giver, dtxaoiibg, and against the receiver, 
daiQodoy.icc. 

Some of the private actions or suits were the following : y.axyy oolag §ly.r h 
an action of slander ; yqiovg Siyij, an action for usury ; aixiag dixr;, an action 
of battery; p.u^tig, of trespass; yJ.oTtijg, of theft; if.<svdouaqTv<)iov, for perjury. 

§ 113. The kinds of punishment were various according to the 
nature and degree of the offence, for which they were inflicted. Of 
those not capital, the following were the principal: (1) T/u»><rr«, 
pecuniary fine, called also Zt}ula ; this was sometimes aggravated by 
corporeal punishment : (2) "Ariuia, disgrace, which was of three 
kinds ; first, the loss of some privilege but not of possessions ; sec- 
ond, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property; 
third, the loss of all privileges civil and sacred, both by the criminal 
himself and his whole posterity for ever: (3) JovXeia, slavery; this 
however, by Solon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, so- 
journers, and such as had been disgraced (unuoi) : (4) ^rlyuara, 
brand-marks, by a hot iron on the forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly 
on run-away slaves or freedmen : (5) Srp.ijj in which the name of 
the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar, exposed to 
public view : (6) Jtoubc, bonds ; of which there were several kinds; 
as the y.vcpviv (also y.',.oibg), a w T ooden collar, which bent down the head 
and neck; the /onu, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were 
made fast; the oarlg, a piece of wood to which the offender was 
bound as to a pillory ; and the tqo/oc, a sort of wheel, applied to 
slaves who were bound to it and tortured: (7) <Pvyl n uncpvyla, banish- 
ment, with confiscation of goods. 

§ 114. The Ostracism, oorquyiouog, was not, properly speaking, a 
a judicial punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such 
persons as were thought to be dangerous to the state. The votes 



514 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

were given by shells, oarqaxa ; each man marked upon his oarqaxov 
the name of the person he would banish ; if the same name was up- 
on the majority of 6000 shells, the person was sentenced to banish- 
ment. The most upright and most distinguised citizens fell under 
this sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracu- 
sans did a similar custom among them. The Syracusan punish- 
ment was called mrcdioubg, because the name were written on leaves, 

7Ttra?.a. 

The ostracism is said by some to have been instituted by Hippias, son of 
Hipparchus ; others say by Clisthenes, B. C. about 510, who was first ban- 
ished by it. It continued about 100 years; it was abolished B. C. about 412, 
and because it was then degraded by being employed on a very contemptible 
person by the name of Hyperbolus. Among the illustrious Athenians, who 
were driven from the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thu- 
cydides, Cimon, and Aristides. 

Oeinoz, L'Ostracism, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145. 

§ 115. The punishment of death, Qavarog, was inflicted in several 
modes; as by the sword, JZLyog, beheading; by the rope, Bq6xog, 
strangling or hanging; by poison, (puquaxov, drinking hemlock (xo>- 
vnov) usually ; by the precipice, Kqrj^vbg, casting from a rock or 
height ; by the Karanovria^bg, drowning. 

Other modes of inflicting death were, by the 2ravqbg, crucifying, a mode 
used by the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, 
Tvunavcc, or beating, in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throw- 
ing into a pit, BaqaQqov, which was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the 
top and bottom (called also " Oqvyu a) ; by stoning, Ai6o(io?.ia ; and by burning, 

IIvq. The punishment of death could not be lawfully inflicted upon any 

citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley (?; 7taqa7.og Tjm^*;?) 
which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. 

§ 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious 
persons. Among these, were the following ; (1) i7oo£<3oi«, the front 
or first seat, in the theatres, at the festivals and on all public occa- 
sions ; (2) >Eixa)v, a statue, erected in a public place ; (3) zriyavot, 
crowns, conferred by the senate, or the people, or by particular tribes 
and boroughs upon their own members ; these were most frequently 
a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) "AxkUm, exemption from 
taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the con- 
tributions required for war and for the navy ; (5) zinioig h nQvrtxrsiw, 
entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally 
limited to a single day ; but afterwards daily and permanent in the 
case of some (asioiroi) ; it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy 
men, sometimes upon whole families, and was viewed as a high dis- 
tinction. After the death of such as had received special honors, 
their children and descendants enjoyed in some measure the benefit 
of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty in the bet- 
ter times of the republic, but became quite common afterwards, and 
lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. 

§ 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the 
wisdom of their laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece 
is ascribed to Ceres and Triptolemus (P. III. § 61). Afterwards, 
Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes, and Demetrius Phalereus, were 
the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted by the Atheni- 
ans. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 515 

the changing circumstances of the state. It was commonly the prov- 
ince of the iiQvrursig to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the 
assembly was called either a decree, tptfowiia, when it had only some 
specific application, or a law, vouog, when its obligation was univer- 
sal and unchanging. An ordinance of Solon required an annual 
revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or additions might 
be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood (cf. 
P. I. § 53). 

If one wished to introduce a law, be named it to the Uqvtuv sic, who brought 
it before the senate ; if the senate approved, it was called a IlQo(iov?.svua ; it 
was written by the LTovruveig upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at 
the statues of the ^Enwvvuoi, some days before the meeting of the assembly 3 
from this circumstance, it was also called TTQoyqaiiua. 

It will not comport with the limits of this sketch to detail particular Athenian laws. ~ 
These may he found in Sam. Petiti ad leges Atticas Commentar. (Cf. P. II. § 55. 3), and in 
Jurisprudentia Romanna et Attica, T. iii. — Comp. Jo. Meursii Themis Attica, L. B. 1624. 4. — 
See also Potter's Archseologia Grseca, bk. i. ph. xxvi. 

The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally are exhibited by Kopke in JViisc/t's Be- 
schreibung &c. cited § 13. 

§ 1 18. Next to Athens, Lacedeemon was the most flourishing of 
the Grecian states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be 
briefly noticed (§ 40). The province in which this city lay bore the 
same name, but was called also Lelegia, CEbalia, Laconia or Laconi- 
ca, and was the largest part of the Peloponnesus. The city of Lae- 
edaemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken plain, on the river 
Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction of Ly- 
curgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and 
its edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a 
just idea of the power and resources of the state. 

On the civil constitution of this state, we may refer to /. K. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch 
zur Aufklaeiung der Geschichte und Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800-1805. 3 vols. 8. — 
Jfitsch, Beschreibung &c. as cited § 13. — Miiller, History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. 
Transl. by Tufacll $ Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. — W. JDrummond, Review of the Governments 
of Sparta and Athens. — On the topography of Sparta, see P. V. § 126. 

§ 119. In Lacedaemon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had 
received the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, 
and such as had acquired them personally. They were together di- 
vided into 6 tribes, of which that of the Heraclidae was the first. 
Each of these was again sub-divided into five classes, called J } pal, 
making 30 in all. The presidents or leaders of these were called 

rtooay.rai. 

The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied 
with all the Spartan discipline, were called the ouoioi, or equals; while the 
other class were termed vrrofisiuvsc, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of 
freedmen, and all such as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline. 

The division into 6 tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some 
state 5 as the number, not considering the Heraclidae as a separate tribe. The 
others were the Auivurai, so called from their residing near the marsh or mo- 
rass (/. uirtj) on the north side of the city; the KvvooovQSLg, so called from 
their vicinity to a branch of mount Taygetus termed Kvrooovqa (dog's-tail) 
on account of its figure; the Tlnaraiai ; the Msoooutou ; and the Atysidou, 
who received this name because they resided near the tomb of iEgeus, Ai- 

yei'g. Miiller asserts, that in every Doric state there were three tribes, Hyl- 

leis, Dymanes, Pamphyli, or Hyllean, Dymanatan, and Pamphylian ; and says, 
we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of any other than these genuine 
Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into 10 <b(iui, and adds, 
that two and probably more, yet not all, of the wficci of the Hyllean tribe must 



518 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

?iave been Heraclidce. (Hist, and Ant. of Dor. Race, as above cited, vol. If, 
p. 76, 79, 80.) 

There was another division of the Spartans, into 6 uoQat, consisting only 
of such as were of a proper age for military service. — Robinson's Archseol. 
Gra!C. p. 138. 

§ 120. It is known, that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth 
of their children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vigor 
and soundness of constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the 
presidents of the 3,pai, or clans, whether they were suitable to be 
preserved and raised ; a regulation designed to prevent a population 
of weak and sickly citizens. The education of the children was 
treated with the greatest care. All the citizens not only had equal 
rights, but also a community of goods and privileges. The lands 
were, by the laws of Lycurgus, equally apportioned among them. 

As soon as a child was born, it was carried to a place called Lesche (Jia/tj) 
to be examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having 
an imperfect frame or a weak constitution, it was cast into a gulf, called 
* Anobixai, near mount Taygetus. If approved, a share of the public lands 
was assigned to it, and it was taken back to the father's house and laid on a 
shield with a spear placed near it. The whole education was entrusted to the 
parent until the child reached the age of seven ; then the regular public edu- 
cation (ayajy)/) commenced. The boys at this age were enrolled in the classes 
termed Agelce. (hyilai or (}ovai, herds) ; such as refused this lost the rights of 
citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ; the 
other sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the mas- 
ter (JJaiSovouoQ). The discipline was more strict after the age of twelve. At 
about sixteen they were called oiSevvat. At eighteen they entered the class- 
es termed t(pij(joi, and about two years after received the appellation ofsiQsvs?, 
and were admitted to the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as 
men, sfyflot, and were allowed to undertake public offices. — Midler, as cited 
§ 118, vol. ii. p 313. 

§ 121. The slaves among the Lacedaemonians were treated with 
great cruelty (cf. § 99). There appears to have been but one class, 
viz. the Helots {'Etltoteg), who according to the common account 
were derived from the maritime town Helos ( c, jB;.oc) captured by the 
Spartans. Others consider the name as derived from the verb V/.w, 
and signifying prisoners. The unhappy Messenians taken in the 
second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots. 

lu. The Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most 
laborious and dangerous services in war. They were exposed to every sort 
of abuse, and even to the murderous attack of the young Spartans, especially 
in the custom termed Kovrcrsla, which was an annual legalized hunt against 
these degraded subjects. Yet some among them, as a reward of distinguished 
merit, obtained liberty and citizenship, on occasion of receiving which they 
were crowned with garlands and led about the temples. They then were 
called iTisvvay.Toi, or ucpirai, or vzodaiKodeic. The last epithet seems to have 
designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights, than the common freedmen, 
whose rank was far below that of the free-born. The number of slaves in 
this state was very large. 

2. There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Lacedsemon, 
who although not slaves were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spar- 
tans. They were the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary 
and dependent state ; they were called Pericsci (JIsqIoixoi). 

Respecting these and the Helots, see Mtiller, vol. if. p. 17, 30. — Capperonien, Sur I'esclavage 
des Hilotes, in the Mem. Acad Inscr. xxm. 271. 

§ 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders 
(ao/«}'iT«i), who must be certainly descended from the Heraclida?, 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 517 

and possess an unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the 
full regal authority (naupaaitei*), but a power limited by the laws, to 
which they were accustomed every month to swear obedience. In 
war their power was greatest. They had also the oversight of the 
worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the office of priests. 

In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and pro- 
pose the subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any ques- 
tion. In war the Spartan kings had unlimited command (arQari^bc avroy.Qu- , 
twq), and could even put to death without trial (iv /iiQug ruucu). Many dis- 
cussions grew out of the double monarchy (Sta(j/i t ). The royal revenue was 
very great. Cf. Millie?', n. p. 106. 

§ 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 28 men, of blameless 
character, and upwards of 60 years old, which was called yegovaia, or 
yeQjfivia. The members had an equal right of voting with the two 
kings, and rendered no account of the manner of discharging their 
office. — There were also 5 Ephori (fyogoi), who had an oversight of 
the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the rights 
of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the 
people, without reference to condition. — The BttSuxioi were a class 
of officers, who were placed over the fylfot, between the age of 18 
and 20. 

The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called laorrqawoc, and were not 
required to give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appoint- 
ed only for one year. Their tribunal (t<po<jsio>) was in the forum. — The Bsi- 
Siccloi were rive in number, with a sixth as their Tcyltrfivg. They had the in- 
spection of the gymnastic exercises, called nlurunara, because performed in 
a spot surrounded with plane trees; it was their province to decide disputes 
arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place of council also in 
the forum. The common name for the council-halls of these and other mag- 
istrates was uo/^ia. 

§ 124. The Spartans had other magistrates; as the Nouocpi'l.axeg, 
who saw that the laws were maintained and executed ; the r i ? «^ww, 
to whom was entrusted the oversight of the women, to observe their 
lives and manners and direct their exercises ; the "EimiXo^oi, who 
preserved order and decorum in assemblies of the people, and at- 
tended in general to the police of the forum or market; the m'-Qtoi, 
four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult 
oracles; the nouUroi, who were also appointed by the kings, and 
had charge of the reception of strangers; the nn63iy.oi, who had the 
care of the young kings as tutors; the naiSor6uoi, whose office was 
to oversee and manage the boys put under their care at the age of 7 ; 
the 'Aouooral, who were a sort of sheriffs in the city and province ; 
the noUuuo/oi, who under the kings superintended the affairs of war, 
and also attended to some matters of police in the city; the 'jmxay- 
t?*T«t, three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 
horsemen. 

§ 125. The assemblies (ixyj^aiai) of the people were similar to 
those at Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta 
met ; in others there were also delegates from the towns and cities 
belonging to the province Laconia ; in assemblies of the latter class 
were discussed all affairs of common interest and importance to the 
whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the power of con- 
vening the assemblies; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, who 
44 



518 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. x 

also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice 
(^o»; y.al ov -ip>i(pco) } and the majority decided by the loudest acclama- 
tion, or by a subsequent division and counting of the two parties. 

The assembly composed only of the citizens of Sparta was called uixqa. ix- 
zZijcia, and usually met once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing 
'Vms might attend, and, if above the age of 30, might speak. The meetings! 
were originally in the open air, but at a later period were held in an edifice 
called ay.iag erected for the purpose. — The other assembly was called simply, 
or by way of eminence, ExxltjoLa. It consisted of the kings, the senators, the 
magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia. 

§ 126. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and 
common meals and termed avaatrla, cpeiS'ina, and <p a in a, was designed 
for the purpose of speaking upon matters of public importance. 

In this assembly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in 
certain halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No 
new member could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of 
all belonging to the same. Every member contributed to the provisions from 
his own stores; a specified quantity of barley meal or cakes (uatui), wine, 
cheesy, and figs, and a small sum of money for meat, was expected from each. 
A close union was formed between those of the same table. The regular meal 
was termed aixXov ; after this was a desert called Inuixlov. The men only 
Were admitted ; small children were allowed to sit on stools near their fathers 
and receive a half share without vegetables (aftmiti (tuxevoTut) ; the youth and 
boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard 

oak. T$ie chief dish was the black broth (ui?.ag lvuuc). — Muller, n. 289. 

The Spartans had also another kind of solemn feast, called xonig, to which 
foreigners and boys were admitted along with the citizens. — Robinson, p. 159. 

The reader may be amused by the following passage from Sir Henry Blount, who traveled 
in Turkey, in 1634. " The Turks have a drink, called cauphe, made of a berry as big as a 
small bean, dried in a furnace and beat to powder, of a sooty color, in taste a little bitterish, 
that they sethe and drink, hot as may be endured ; it is good at all hours of the day, but espe- 
cially morning and evening, when to that purpose they entertain themselves two or three 
hours in cauphe-houses, which in Turkey abound more than inns and ale-houses with us. It 
is thought to be the old black broth used so much bij the Lacedcemunians. It drieth ill humours in 
the stomach, comforteth the brain, never causeth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a 
harmless entertainment of good fellowship." 

§ 127. Judicial actions were very summary among the Spartans, 
Eloquence found no place in them ; no advocates were employed; 
every one was obliged to plead his own cause. There were three 
distinct jurisdictions, that of the kings, the senate, and the Ephori, 
each of which formed a tribunal for the decision of a certain class 
of questions. The most important questions and particularly all of 
a capital nature belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- 
ties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. 

Cf. Robinson, bk. ii. ch. xxii. — On the authority of the Ephori, M'uller, bk. iii. ch. vii. and 
bk. iii. ch. ii. $2 on the Spartan Courts, 

§ 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those 
at Athens. The most common mode of inflicting death was by 
strangling or suffocation. — Stealing was punished not so much for 
the theft committed, as for the want of shrewdness and dexterity be- 
trayed by the offender in allowing himself to be detected. 

There were, on the other hand, various rewards and distinctions 
bestowed on persons of merit, both while living and after death. 

Strangling was effected by means of a rope (Pqv/oc, PQuy/og) ; it was al- 
ways done in the night and in a room in the public prison called Jexitg. Death 
was also inflicted by casting the malefactor into the pit called KatuSug ; this 
was always done likewise by night. Aristomenes the Messenian was cast 
into this, but survived the fall and effected an escape, which was considered 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 519 

as very wonderful. Cf. Mitford, ch. iv. sect. 4. Besides the punish- 
ments Ztifi'tUj 'Atui'ux, and Ki'ipwv or y.loiog, mentioned among Athenian pen- 
alties (§ 113), the Spartans had MaaxLyiaoig, whipping, which the offender re- 
ceived as he was driven through the city, and Kivrtjaig, goading, which was 
a similar punishment. Banishment, *I>vy> n seems not to have been a regular 
punishment inflicted by sentence ; but was voluntary, and chosen in order to 
escape death or infamy (axiuia). — Cf. Midler, n. 235. 

Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the IIqoi§qa, first seat 
in a public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached to the 
olive-croicn, ^E/.ahjs oriyurog, as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, Bsii- 
?.07isg, with which victors in the contests were bound. But it was one of the 
highest honors of the city to be elected into the number of the three hundred 
constituting the three chosen bands of horsemen f§ 124J, termed Aoyudeg. 

To commemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs (xsvoruyia), and other 

monuments were erected. 

§ 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its au- 
thor, and was marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of 
government was distinguished from that of all the other states by its 
union of monarchical with aristocratical and democratical traits. 
There were in Sparta no written laws; they were transmitted orally 
from one generation to another; on this account Lycurgus styled 
them q^roai. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed 
to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and volup- 
tuousness. Although they underwent many alterations in minor 
points, they retained their authority through a period of above 800 
years. (Cf. Mueller, n. p. 97, 235.) 

§ 130. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of 
Crete presents a constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has 
been stated (§ 38), that we find the origin of the institutions of Ly- 
curgus. During the republican government which succeeded the 
monarchical, it was customary to elect ten officers annually as chief 
magistrates. These were called Cosmi, y.ooiwi, and were taken only 
from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which was con- 
sulted only on important questions ; it consisted of 28 members, who 
for the most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There 
was also an order of knights, who were required to keep horses at 
their own expense for the public use, and to serve in time of war. 
The power of popular assemblies was not great; they usually did 
nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. (Cf. 
Mueller, n. 99, 134.) 

§ 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from 
some traces of them found in different writers. — Like the Spartans, 
the citizens of Crete had public meals, which they called avdqeia. — 
Slaves were treated with comparative mildness. 

1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, "by that system of laws which, 
in an age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding 
nations, inforced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; 
which was not only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well 
known to us through the fame of Lacedaemon, but appears to have been the 
general fountain of Grecian legislation and jurisprudence ; and which con- 
tinued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest sages and politicians, in the 
brighest periods of literature and philosophy. 

See Sainte Croix, Des Anciens gouvernements federatifs, et legislation de Crete. Par. 1776. 

2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island; the public 
bondmen, called by the Cretans fivoiix; the slaves of individual citizens, 



520 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

/ 

icyautcoTcu ; and the tributaries, vni'^.ooi. Perhaps there wa&no Grecian state 
in which the dependent classes were so little oppressed as in Crete. In gen- 
eral, every employment and profession, with the exception of the gymnasia 
and the military service, was permitted to them. — Mutler, as cited § 118, u. 5. 
The name avS^iia is supposed to have been given to the public meals, be- 
cause, as at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, how- 
ever had the care of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distin- 
guished by their great hospitality ; with every two tables for citizens there 
was one for foreigners. — Midler, n. 225. 

§ 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Boeotia, a monarchical 
government existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a re- 
publican. Yet this state did not rise to any great celebrity, at least 
not for a long time ; the cause was perhaps the whole national char- 
acter of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, there were in Thebes 
Baeotarchs, BoioruQ^ai, and Polemarchs, noi^iaQ/ot ; the former had 
the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Boeotia 
was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees 
guided all the other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were 
adopted as citizens, but never raised to any magistracy. The expo- 
sure of infants was not permitted, but if their parents were unable to 
maintain them,, it was done by the state. Pausanias has recorded in 
his description of Boeotia many remarkable features of the later con- 
dition of the Theban state. 

Cf. Mitford, ch. v_sect.l. — Raoul-Rochette, .Administration de PEtat Federatif des Bosotiens, 
in the Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vm. p. 214. 

§ 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinth but little is known. 
It was at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphids and Bac- 
ehiadae were the most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristo- 
cratical form was introduced, one chief magistrate was chosen yearly 
called n^vravlg. He was supported by a senate, r^ovala. The as- 
sembly of the people never had equal authority; their power was 
often very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and enjoyed a 
favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two 
harbors so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It 
was destroyed by the Romans B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt 
by Csesar, and became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Cor-. 
cyra were colonies of Corinth. The last city is specially remarka- 
ble, from the fact, that a dispute between itself and Corinth was the 
occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a long time 
governed by 600 of the oldest men, called Y so^6qol ; but afterwards 
became enterely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. 
— - Cf. Mueller, as before cited, it, p. 156. 

§ 134. Argos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its 
kings. In later times, it was governed by the people divided into 
four tribes. It had its senate, and another body of magistrates con- 
sisting of 89 members, and a class of public officers called tyrwou 
— Cf Mueller, u. 144. 147. 

In the history of Mtolia we may mention as chiefly remarkable 
the league or confederacy between the cities of that district. This 
confederacy was called the Pancntolium. It had at Thermus an annual 
assembly or meeting, in which the magistrates were elected, and also 
a president of the confederacy, who was called o-To«T» ; y6?, and was at 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 521 

the same time chief military commander. This officer was subject 
to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti {uxby.hiroi) was a dif- 
ferent body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- 
gencies. 

The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held 
their common assemblies, twice a year at ./Egium. In these origin- 
ally presided one rqecuiiarsyg, with two ^ar^oi ; and at a later pe- 
riod, one ^TQartjyo:, besides whom there were ten jtjiuovQybi to attend 
to the public affairs of the confederacy. 

(3) Military Affairs. 

§ 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), 
was a main trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was 
also conspicuous in their descendants of a later period. This is true 
of the Athenians, and more emphatically so of the Spartans, who 
were inured to hardship by their education, bound by their laws and 
their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by their whole national 
system with a love of war. These republics were accordingly the 
refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. The 
Thebans likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of 
distinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the 
rivals in this respect ; and although in the war with Xerxes they 
agreed, that Athens should command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta 
the land forces, yet they soon again fell into dissension, and the Spar- 
tans stripped the Athenians, for a time, of that naval superiority, for 
which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest advantages. 

§ 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, 
who were early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at 
Athens the twentieth year, were subject to actual service in war. 
From this duty, they were released only by the approaching weak- 
ness of age. At Athens the citizens were exempted from military 
service at the age of 40, except in cases of extreme danger. Some 
were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employment. 
Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made 
out, from which circumstance the levying was termed zarayQucpl,, or 
xaTuloyoc. The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citi- 
zen considered it a disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of 
victory were, in some degree, a substitute. Pericles, however, intro^ 
duced the payment of a stipend, which was raised, when necessary, 
by means of a tax on the commonwealth. 

At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; afterwards four ; whence 
TETQoipu/.ov (j'tog signified a soldier's life, and TiTyoipollitiv, to serve in war. 
The pay of a soldier in the cavalry, termed y.aruaraaig, was a drachm a day ; 
a seaman received the same, with an allowance for a servant. 

On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expenses, see $ 103, 104. , 

On the military regulations, cf. Gamier, Sur les loix militaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. 
Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 239. — Cf. $42. 

§ 137. It has already been remarked (§ 48), that the Grecian sol- 
diers were of three classes; footsoldiers or infantry, to mtty.bv; the 
cavalry, %b Uf 'itttcwv ; and such as were borne in chariots, rb i<p> d^tj-- 
,h«tuv. The infantry comprised three kinds ; the bnUrai, heavy 
44* 



PLATE XVII. 




MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 523 

armed, who carried a complete and full armor, and were distinguish- 
ed particularly by a large shield (Znlor) ; the 77 iiruarui, targeteers 7 
who bore light arms, particularly a small shield (niXTtj) ; and the 
uitol, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. 

— The war chariots were not much used alter the introduction of 
cavalry. 

The chariots, termed fytnavTjipoQoi, were sometimes terribly destructive, be- 
ing armed with scythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes 
cut down. 

In Plate XIV. fig. K, one of these chariots is presented, drawn by two horses which are pro- 
tected by a covering of mail. It may be worthy of remark here, that such chariots were 

used by the ancient Britons and Belgians, and are designated in the Roman writers by the 
terms r.ovini and essedm (Lucan. Phars. i. 4-26. — Tac Agric. xxxvi. — Cws. Bell. Gall. iv. 33. — 
Mela, iii. 61. " The covinus was a terrible instrument of destruction, being armed with sharp 
scythes and hooks for cutting and tearing all who were so unhappy as to come within its 
reach." R. Henry, History of Great Britain, (first ed.) Lond. 1771-93. 6 vols. 4. 

§ 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consist- 
ed only of citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were 
able (of. § 93) to maintain their horses. The i^nttq y therefore, at 
Athens as well as Sparta, held a high rank. Those, who wished to 
attain this rank, were first examined in respect to their bodily strength 
and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch or Phularch 
(r/r;Tuo 7 ,;c, cpv?.-cQxi, ? ) appointed for the purpose. They were called 
by various names according to the weapons of armor they used; as y 
e. g., ity.oopoi.iaTlu, who threw missiles; SonaTO(p6on,, who carried spears 
or lances ; inTioro'zorai, 'ivorcxfuQot, y.oTTocpvooi, ■Sioseyuoot, etc. The fol- 
lowing articles constituted their principal armor ; a helmet, broad 
plated girdle, breastplate, a large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. 

The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished into the Aea?;7/- 
armcd, xuT^((Quy.Toi, and light-armed, i. ?/ yuruipQaxroi. The former not only 
were defended by armor themselves, but also had their horses protected by 
plates of brass or other metal, which were named, from the parts of the horse 
covered by them, TrooiiEToirrldiu, 7i*JoaT£Qrt3ia, nuQujuijoidux, TTuQunltvolSiu, na- 
vay.rvui&'m, etc. The trappings of the horses were termed (pu?.aoa; various 
and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered cloths were 
often used. — The /iiuUyai were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, 
designed to serve either or horseback or on foot. — The 3 ' Jiup\7t7ioi were such 
as had two horses; called also iTt7iayo)yoi i because they led one of their 
horses. — After the time of Alexander, elephants were introduced from the 
east ; but they were after a short period laid aside, as they were found too un- 
manageable to be relied upon with much confidence. When used, they car- 
ried into battle large towers, containing from ten to thirty soldiers, who could 
greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, while they were themselves in com- 
parative safety. 

Sallicr and Freret, Orig. de l'equitation dans la Grece, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. vn. 33, 286. 

— De Matter oy, La Cavalerie Grecque, in the same Mem. &c. xli.242. — Larcher, L'ordre 
equestre chez les Grecs, in same Mem. &.c. xlviii. 83. 

§ 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been 
already described (§44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, 
that in later times there were many changes, as to the forms of the 
articles, and the manner of using them. 

The breast-plate (dwnuz) consisted of two parts, one a defence for the back, 
the other for the breast, united at the sides by a sort of buttons. When made 
of two continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called 
■dwhu; ar^hog ; when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connect- 
ed as in a chain, it was called -di-ina'z a/.vaiSonbc ; if guarded with plates like 
the scales of a fish, it was called So,ou': ?.s7ttSwrbg. The ^ui&ttiqaxiov protected 
only the front part of the body ; Alexander allowed only this to his soldiers. 
See Plate XVII. fig. r, and fig. 7. — Within the #w»u$, and next to the skin 



524 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the Greeks also wore often a defensive armor of brass lined with wool, which 
was termed /nirqt}. Cf. Horn. II. iv. 137, 187. 

The shield (aOTclg) when of wood was made of the lightest kind, as willow, 
beach, poplar, &c. When made of hide (aonldtg ftusiat), there were usually 
several thicknesses covered with a plate or plates of metal. Its chief parts 
were the outer edge or circumference, avrv'i, I'rvg, xvxXog, nsqupiqeia ; the 
boss or prominent part in the middle, binpaXbg, fisaoiKpu/.iov ; the thong of 
leather by which it was attached to the shoulders, mlaucov ; the rings by 
which it was held in the hands, nbq rcaxsg, for which the handle, b/avov, con- 
sisting of two small bars placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Little 
bells were sometimes hung upon the shields to increase the terror occasioned 
by shaking them. Suyiia was the name of a covering, designed to protect 
the shield from injury when not in actual use. Various epithets are applied 
to shields ; as uiupifiqurog, avSqoui'jXrjg, nodijvijxlc, indicative of size ; ~ivy.vy.loi, 
tcuvtotc I'aai, of shape. The FiSoov was in the shape of a rhombus, and first 
used by the Persians ; the Qvqsbg was oblong and bent inward ; the Aaot\iov 
was composed of hides with the hair on, and was very light ; the lH?.rt\ was 
small and light, and, according to some, shaped like a half moon. — Several 
forms of shields are seen in our Plate XVII. 

Besides the offensive weapons which have already been named (see § 45, 
and Plate XIV. j, we may mention the poniard, called naqazupidiov, iyyuqi' 
Slot, and uu/aiqa; it answered the purpose of a knife. In later ages, the ax- 
ivaxtjg, something like a scimitar, was borrowed from the Persians. The xo- 
Ttig or falchion (ensis falcatus) was also used in battle; as was likewise the 
battle-ax, ativt], and the nllsxvg. The Macedonians had a peculiar kind of 
long spear, called ouoi.ooa. The club of wood or iron, y.oqvrt], was a weapon 
of early times. — We may mention among the offensive weapons the nvqo^u- 
P.oi A i& 01, fire-balls ; one kind (axvrulia) were made of wood and armed with 
spikes of iron, under which were fixed hemp, pitch, and other combustibles; 
these, beinjr set on fire, were hurled into the ranks of the enenrv. 

§ 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the 
kings themselves, although at the same time certain men, eminently 
brave, were appointed to be pohmarchs or generals. Subsequently 
each tribe chose its own commander, who was called arqartjybg. At 
Athens it became customary to appoint ten, who had equal power, 
and who held the chief command one day each in regular rotation, 
when they took the field together. Over these was a polemarch, 
whose opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an 
equal division among them ; at a later period, however, this officer 
(rvoPJuaozog) had no share in military affairs (§ 10.1). — There were 
also ten taxiarchs, ra^Luq/oi, subordinate to the arqaryjyoL ; their duty 
was to put the army in array for battle, mark out the camp, regulate 
the order of march, and in general attend to the preservation of dis- 
cipline. Subordinate also to the Strategi were the two generals of 
the horse, YuTva.q^oi, who had under them ten cpv?.aq/o,i, one nominated 
by each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as loyayoi, xiliaq- 
X oi, sxaTovTaQyoi, day.udaqxoi, nat.inu8aqxoi, the names being derived from 
the number of men commanded by them. 

§ 141. The whole army was called orqana', the front, uirwnov or 
TCQwrog ivyog ; the wings, yjqaru ; the rear, ovqu or sayarog tvyog. The 
smallest division, consisting of five men, was called a Taimug ; a lb%og 
contained from ten to a hundred men, according to different circum- 
stances ; and a rul-ig, a hundred, or a hundred and twenty-eight. 

The ru'^ig was also called fxarorraq/ia. Each division of this sort had five 
attendants, who (sy.Tay.roi) did not serve in the ranks; viz. the orqarox/ t qv^ } 
who reported the officer's commands to the soldiers; the oijusiocpbqog, who 
conveyed the ensigns, signals, or watchwords; the oaXniyxTtfi, a trumpeter; 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 525* 

the vntjQ!T>jc, who supplied the members of the division with necessaries, and 
the ovouyvg, whose business was to see that none of the number were left 
behind. 

Some of the larger divisions; ovvrayiia, consisting of two Tuzsig, or 256 
men; TctrTuxoniuQ/'iu, two avrrayiiuTu, or 512 men; jri?.ian/itx, two of the 
last, or 1024 men; iMeQuo/ia, or Ti-'.og, twice the preceding, or 2048 men; 
<t>u?.ayyuo^iu, or ^tqutiiy'lu sometimes, twice the Tt'/oc, or 4996 men; the 

commander of the latter was called arQar>,yog. The term (p^kuyc, signifies 

sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers ; sometimes a body of 4000, as just 
mentioned ; and sometimes any number of troops in general. Yet it is said, 
that a full or complete Phalanx contained four times the number included in 
the (fuZuyyuQz'ux, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. 

§ 142. While the term ipuiuy'i is often used in a general sense for 
any number of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a. peculiar order 
of arrangement in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength 
to resist a great shock ; the Macedonians were especially celebrated 
for using it to advantage. — The siipoXov was the same with the Ro- 
man cuneus, an arrangement in the form of a wedge, in order to 
force a way more easily and further into the midst of an enemy. — - 
Wheeling, turning, or facing, was called yj.[a,c ; to the right, ini Svqv, 
the spear being in the right hand ; to the left, in' tfaittfo, the shield 
being held in the left. Turning completely about was termed astu- 
po%i r — The Greeks possessed great skill and readiness in manoeu- 
vres, and had teachers of the art, raxxntbi, who instructed the youth 
in the practice. 

Various forms were given to the (pu?.ayz, some of which were not rectangu- 
lar; as the iniy.aun)^ </>u/.uy£, which presented the form of a half moon, and 
was also called xvqti] and y.o'0.i\ ; QoufioBidi^ yix/.ayl, which was in the figure 
of a diamond. In the phalanx, ivyoi signified the ranks, taken according to 
its length, uiy.oc ; ari/oi (also ?.6/ui) the files taken according to its depth, 
(JaQog. Another order of array for battle was the nZh-Qiov, brick, a rectangu- 
lar presenting its length to the enemy. The nryyog, tower, was the same form, 
with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. The nlaiatov 
seems to have been an exact square or nearly so. The y.oisJuftoZuv was a fig- 
ure like the letter V, with the open part toward the enemy. The l'?.tj was in 
the form of an egg, according to which the Thessalians usually arranged their 
cavalry. The term is, however, generally used to signify simply a troop of 
horses ; sometimes a troop of 64. Two such troops constituted the ijii'/.uoyia, 
128 men, and eight of them the itcttuq^Iu, 512 men; four of the last named 
formed the TD.og of the cavalry, or 2048 men. 

Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add only the 
following; Qtltyubg, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching 
after another, changed the front for the rear, or one flank for another ; 8m- 
y.uoiuciiiug, an enlarging of the body, either by adding men or by extending the 

same number over a great space. It maybe remarked that among the 

Lacedaemonians, the whole army was divided into uoqai which contained orig- 
inally only 400 men each, but afterwards a larger number and variable. Each 
fionu consisted of 4 lu/oi. The nsvrqzoritvg was one half of the Au/oc ; and 
one half of the Tievryxoarvg was termed ivo\uoriu, including 25 men ; the lat- 
ter body is said by some to have contained thirty. two or thirty-six men. 

§ 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand made 
by the injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or 
satisfaction. Unexpected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous 
warfare; it was justified only by great and wanton injuries. The 
most respectable men were selected for the ambassadors and heralds, 
and their persons were regarded as sacred and inviolable. 

1m. The heralds (zfyvzsg) carried a staff wound with two serpents (y.rjovx- 



526 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tiov,) and were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the am- 
bassadors or deputies (rcQiopstg) were accustomed also to threaten and to an- 
nounce war. The power of ambassadors was limited in different degrees at 

different times (§ 102). The leagues or agreements entered into were 

either (1) aitov$i' h a treaty of peace or mutual cessation from injuries, called 
also avrQtjy.ri, si^vt] ; (2) Innutyia, a treaty of rr.utual defence ; or (3) ovuua- 
%ia, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to 
aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves com- 
menced the war. Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, 
written upon tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties ex- 
changed certain tokens or evidences (orufioXa) of the compact. 

2 m. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. 
The war was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention 
was also paid by the Greeks to omens and seasons. 

3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not 
march before the seventh day, hrbg spdoiirjg, nor the Lacedaemonians until 
full moon. 

§ 144. In addition to what has already been said (§48) on the 
construction of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of 
them was often changed according to circumstances. The Lacedae- 
monians, however, always adhered to the circular form in their camps, 
as well as their cities. The bravest troops were usually placed on 
the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre or interior. 
A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship of 
the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The 
guards were divided into the day-watches, yviaxai foisQtvai, and the 
night-watches, yvlaxm rvxrsoivai. The advanced posts, or outer 
guards, were called nqotpviaxai. The nightly round of visiting the 
watch was called }<pode'ia, and those who performed it, ntfjinoXot, and 
the guard-house, TtsQmoi.tiov. 

§ 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating 
and drinking, immediately after which the commanders ordered them 
to action. — When very near the point of engaging, the generals 
addressed the army in animating speeches, which often produced 
great effects. Then followed the sacrifice, the vow, and the war- 
song {itaiav itipaTi'iyioc), a hymn to Mars. — The signs, used in the 
field were either atjutia, regular ensigns and standards, or orupofa, 
particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon for 
the occasion. 

1 u. The special signals, oi'ufiola, were either audible (ytavixa), such aa 
watch- words (avr&i'uaru) ; or visible (oQarix), such as nodding the head, waving 
the hand, shaking the armor, and the like (naQaovr&^uaTa.) The at,utia or 
standards were of various kinds ; some being merely a red or purple coat 
upon the top of a spear; others having an image of a bird, animal, or other 
object. The raising of the standard was a signal to commence battle, and the 
lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal for battle was given by lighted 
torches being hurled by the persons appointed (nvqipo^oi). Afterwards it was 
done by blasts of sound, for which shells (y.6/?.oi) were first used, and then 
brazen trumpets (oulmyytg) of several different kinds. 

2u. The Lacedaemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the 
flute ; yet we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as 
regular and as conformable to music, as the modern. Most of them were 
rather in the habit of rushing to battle with impetuosity and clamor (a).a7.ay- 
fiog, avrl). 

§ 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, 
because the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 527 

wet e the later Greeks, especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in 
the habit of laying regular sieges. The two principal points of pro- 
ceeding in the siege of a city, were the construction of the entrench- 
ment around it, and the gathering and use of military engines about 
it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls of the city 
by ladders (titip'uSftai, xXtftaxeg) and to undermine their foundations. — 
An entrenchment around the city was called TctaiTsi/iauhq,, or cctzo- 
rsix«iuog, and consisted usually Of a double wall of stone or turf. In 
the space between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the 
sentinels. Above the walls were turrets or pinnacles, and after every 
tenth pinnacle a large tower was constructed, extending across from 
one wall 10 the other. The parapet of the wall was termed doyquxior. 
§ 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (uuyara, utjxa- 
vai) were of a comparatively late invention, and seems to have been 
introduced first about the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of 
the principal was the x^-™ vy h tne testudo or tortoise ; so called because 
the soldiers were covered by it as a tortoise by its shell. 

lu. The testudo was of several kinds. The xs?.cortj arqaribniov was formed by 
the soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over their heads 
in such a manner as to form a compact covering. It was also formed of boards, 
united and covered with metals; this was either of a square form, as the 
yzltovi] xwotqlc, which served to protect the soldiers, while they were prepar- 
ing the ground in order to bring up their military engines, or of a triangular 
form, as the /sAwr^ oqvz, for the protection of such as were undermining the 
walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was called the yiooov, made 
of twigs of willow like the Roman vinece, and held by the soldiers over the 
head. 

2 m. The 7«,im was a mound composed of various materials and raised very 
high, often above the besieged walls. — There were also moveable towers tivp- 
yoi), made of wood and usually placed upon the ^«jaa; they were rolled on 
wheels and had often several stories, containing soldiers and engines. — The 
battering-ram (y.Qiog) was a strong beam with an iron head (iufio?.),) in front 
resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers thrust against the enemy's Avails ; 
it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that it could be thrust with 
greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered with a^j/.wvi?. 
The y.aTarci/.rai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like upon 
the enemy; those which discharged arrows, being termed d^vfielstg, and those 
which cast stones, ?.i6opii?.oi or ntr(Jo^<j?.oi. 

3. The f E?.f7zo?.ig was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of 
greater size and force, driven with ropes and wheels. It was invented by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. — The Tqi'tcuvu were long irons with sharp ends, and 
were the instruments chiefly used in earlier periods for demolishing the walls 
of a city. 

§ 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the 
things most worthy of remark. Soldiers, armed with various means 
of defending themselves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on 
the walls of the city. The greater military engines were planted 
within the walls, and hurled arrows, stones, and pieces of timber 
upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers were opposed by 
counter-mines, and their entrenchments and mounds were under- 
mined. Their various engines were broken, set on fire, or embar- 
rassed in operation by different contrivances on the part of the 
besieged. 

§ 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always treat 
the citizens and the property in the same way. Sometimes the build- 



528 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ings were demolished, and all the inhabitants put to death, or at least 
those in arms, while the rest {aiyjiixiwroi, Soqvu'/.mxoi) were reduced to 
slavery. But sometimes favor was shown, and nothing but the pay- 
ment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new settlers were planted in 
the conquered city. Whenever the city was demolished, it was cus- 
tomary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even cultivate 
the soil. 

§ 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, 
consisted partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, 
which were the property of the conquered party. These, when taken 
from the slain, were termed o*vlv ; if from the living, lutppqp. The 
whole (haoa) was brought to the commander-in-chief, who first took 
a large portion for himself, then assigned rewards to such as had dis- 
tinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards distributed the 
remainder equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, a por- 
tion was set apart for the service of the gods, which was called hxoo- 
&ivia. The armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the 
gods, and hung up in their temples ; this was the case sometimes even 
with the weapons of the victors, when they designed to terminate 
their military career. Thank-offerings were also presented, and tro- 
phies (rQOTruia) erected, which were likewise dedicated to the gods ; 
statues also and other monuments were raised to commemorate vic- 
tories. 

An inscription (iTciyqauiia) was often attached to the trophy, or offering 
presented to the god, or other monument, containing the names of the con- 
querors and the conquered, an account of the spoils, and sometimes of the 
occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especially an olive, was often 
ussd for the purpose of a trophy, the emblems of victory being hung upon it. 
See Plate XVII. fig. 4. — Alexander the Great, abiding by a law of the Mac- 
edonians, never raised a trophy; yet he erected other monuments of his suc- 
cesses ; among them were altars to the gods, very broad and lofty. 

§ 151. There was a careful regard to order and discipline in the 
Greek armies, and various rewards and punishments were established. 
Among the rewards were promotion to higher rank, 'conferring of 
garlands or other distinctions, and also the funeral honors and the 
encomiums, which were bestowed on the brave warrior. At Athens 
public provision was made for the widows and children of those slain 
in battle, and also for those who were injured by wounds (udrraxoi). 
The children of such as valiantly died were also honored sometimes 
with the first seats {nqo^iai) at the theatres. — The severest of the 
punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, avxouaXou 
Such as refused to serve, &afQuxsvxot, such as quitted their ranks, 
J.sLTcoruy.Tai, and such as threw away their shields, ^.-arm/foe, were 
subjected to civil degradation. At Athens they were not permitted 
to enter the temples or public assemblies, and were also fined in the. 
court Helissa. In Sparta they were exposed to still deeper disgrace, 
which extended even to their whole family ; it was so great that their 
mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afterwards. 

§ 152. The Greeks employed various means for conveying intelligence. 
They had a class of messengers or runners, called i^uefjodQuuoi, who carried 
news and official commands ; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much 
celebrated was the Lacedaemonian axvru?.tj. This was a roll of white parch- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 529 

ment or leather (S*oua, fuac), wrapped round a black stick, about four cubits 
in length. The general always received a stick of this sort, of the same size 
With another kept by the magistrates or government. When any command 
or intelligence was to be conveyed, a strip of parchment was rolled on the 
staff, and on this was written what the person wished to communicate ; the 
strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own stick, and thus 
could read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible. 

§ 153. Before proceeding now to notice the naval affairs of the 
Greeks, we may allude to their method of passing rivers with their 
armies. It was usually by means of boats or small vessels joined to- 
gether so as to form a sort of bridge, like that which the Persians 
under the command of Xerxes threw over the Hellespont. In order 
to hold these vessels fast, large baskets or boxes, filled with stone, 
were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the purpose of an- 
chors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the great- 
est emergencies that they carried forward with them these boats, 
having taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by 
means of large casks and leathern bottles. 

§ 154. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been al- 
ready mentioned (§ 47). Vessels of war (iniy.ojTtot, xcu7r»;§»;) differed 
in their structure from the other kinds, especially from ships of 
burden (6?.y.*$eg, ipoqrr^oi) which were of an oval form, with broader 
bottoms. They were usually such as had three benches of rowers, 
called rqu]qa? (triremes § 304. 3), and hence this term is often used to 
signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched, it was 
purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, individual ves- 
sels, sometimes a whole fleet, were committed to the protection of a 
particular god. The ensign or standard (TtaQdoyuov), by which one 
ship was distinguished from another, was placed in the fore part. 
Each vessel had its own name, which was usually taken from its 
ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow. 

§ 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to 
the different parts of a ship and the tackling. (The Arabic numerals attached 
to some of the terms are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our 
Plate XVIII, indicating the place of the parts named, according to Holwell's 
plan of a hexireme.) 

1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the proio or front, 7vqojQ(x, idxta- 
Ttov; the middle, or body, uto6y.oi?.og, ydoxya; and the stern, 7iqvi.iva (7), 
6voa. — The prow was more or less adorned, not only by the figures and ima- 
ges placed on it, but by the colors painted on it, from which were derived such 
epithets as uiXxottuqijoi, y.vaviu(io?.oi, &c. The sides of it were termed nxsoa 
and TtaqstaL The oxo'/.og was a long plank at the head of the prow, at the ex- 
tremity of which some of the principal ornaments (axyovia, ay.Qoajo7.ia, 8) 
were fixed. The tcxv/'^ (10) was a round piece of wood also attached to the 
prow, on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was sometimes called 
vcpda/.ubg. The /rplaxog was the figure of a goose upon the prow; near the 
water, according to the opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher 
part. The Ivfiol.ov (13) was the lower portion of the prow, which projected 
forward, and in war gallies was fitted to strike into the ships of the enemy. 
Behind this, and just below the ox6?.oc, was the naQuar^iov or ensign, some 

image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the following parts ; the 

xQomg (1) or OTtiotj, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut 
the waves, with the /ultvouuxa, wedges or bilgeways^ attached to it, for guard- 
ing the ship's bottom ; (pd?.xig, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out 
by the pump, avrkiu ; the y.oih], hold ^called also y.vxog, and ydaxgu), sur- 
rounded by ribs or planks rising from the keel, vouaig or iyy.oUiu; the iwaxfjotg, 

45 



530 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

or vTvotcjitara, rafters extending on the sides (rtP.svQai, 3) of the ship from prow 
to stern ; the toi^oi and s6dj?.ia (4) seats for the rowers situated on the sides 
one above another; the rq^iiara or oybaluoi (5) openings through which the 
oars were' put out; the aowaua, a skin or the like, which lined the openings > 

sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, called rqdcpri^. — 

The stern had ornamental images, called axqovia, in common with those on 
the prow, but termed distinctively, aiplaora (9). To the stern was also attach- 
ed the lirirqoTci] (11), the tutela or safeguard of the ship. Its bow was termed 
tTiiOilwv, and the planks composing it, nsqirovsia. The middle of the stern 
was named, ceodvdiov. The decks, i'xqia, were covered parts at the prow and 
stern ; the tvya were the rowers' seats in the middle and open parts. 

2. Some of the principal instruments in navigating vessels may be men- 
tioned here. The Tvtjdd?.iov (12), rudder, fixed not directly in the stern, but 
on the side of the ship, and near the stern. In the later periods, two rud- 
ders were used, one being placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence vijss 
auyirvQvuvoi) ; sometimes there were four, one on each side of prow and stern. 
The parts of the rudder were oiat, ip&slq, nnqvytov, avyjp, xdu.a.%. — The 
ivvtj, ayxvqa, anchor; first a stone bored in the middle, or a basket filled with 
stones ; afterwards made of iron with teeth, ddovrsg, fastening it to the earth; 
the largest of a ship's anchors was called [tqa, and hence pdH.sivayxvqavieqctF 
obtained its proverbial sense, to resort to the last refuge. The cables attached 
to the anchors, were TZElouara, or xdutjXoi ; ropes for towing were termed 
qv/iiara, 6?.xoL; those for binding a vessel to the shore, nqviivtjaia. — The 
■xwnai and iqsTuoi, oars, having a broad part covered with metal (7rP.aT>;) T 
and hung upon pieces of wood called axaluoL, by leathern thongs, tqotcoi.—- 
The tarog(16),mast, fixed in a hole (usouSut}), in themiddle of the ship ; capa- 
ble of being taken down and put in a case (lOToSuxtj) ; having several parts, as 
Tcrtqva, rqd x r i^°?-> xaq/^aiov, &u>qdxiov, ixq'iov, ij.axdrt]. The xsqatoa, or 
yjqara (18), were the crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast. The [or la (17), 
sails (called also 666vai, aqusva), including particular ones distinctively nam- 
ed, as eTtiSqouog, mizen-sail ; axdrtov, main-sail ; dqTsuwv, top-sail ; oolwv, sprit- 
sail. — The c squa. -frsiUZias, ballast. — The fiolig, the lead for sounding. — 
The xovroi, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The aTtofid&qui, 
bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called 
also tnifid&qai and avdpd&qai). — The term oVr/.a was applied to the rigging 
generally. — The y.dl.oi and o/ovia were ropes, including inlrovoi, nvdeg (19), 
TCQoTtoSig, usaovqiai, tcqutovol (20^, made at first of leathern thongs, afterwards 
of flax, hemp, and the like. 

3 u. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the 
front part, was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks (13) 
Were long and high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to 
pierce the vessels of the enemy below the water. From each side of the 
front were planks or pieces of wood, iTtwrideg, jutting out, to protect the ship 
from the beaks of the enemy. The war-vessels usually had wooden decks or 
coverings {xaratpquyuara 14) on which the soldiers stood, and also coverings 
or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both sides {itsqufiqayua- 
T-a), to protect them from the waves and from the enemy's missiles. The usu- 
al sign of a war-vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the mast. 

4. The beaks are seen in fig. A. 13 ; and also in fig. b, which is a prow taken from a bass-re- 
lief at Rome, and which shows the ensign behind them, and the acrostolia above it. In fig. a, 
from an ancient coin, we have another prow, which has a trophy erected upon it. In fig. c, 
which is from the sculptures on the column of Antonine (cf.|P. I. § 188. 2), is a prow of another 
form. In fig. 4, we see a merchant vessel, managed by oars or sails ; in fig. 5, a war-vessel 
with oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. 

The names of the various parts of a ship may be found, with explanations of every thing 
relating to this subject, in J. Schefferi Diss, de Varietate navium, contained in T. Gronovii 
Thesaurus, &c. Vol. xi. as cited § 13.— See also, by the same, Comment: de militia navali vete- 
Tum. Ups. 1654. 4 — Leroy, La marine des anciens Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. Vol. xxxviii. 
p 542. — Potters Arch. Graec. bk ii. ch. 14. — Robinson's, bk. iv. ch. 14. | 

§ 156. Originally the employments of the rowers and the combat- 
ants were not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions 
of both. In later times there was a division into three classes; (1) 
the rowers or oarsmen, iqhai, xmnriiurai, who were also distinguished 



PLATE XVIII 




532 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

by specific names, according to the rank of their bench, and their 
work and pay; (2) the sailors, vavrai, who attended to all the other 
proper duties of the ship; (3) the marines, inipurat, who were armed 
like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable. 

Rowers in the upper tier of benches, or the portion of benches highest above 
the water (fyuvog) were called -dqarLTai ; those in the middle, tvyirai (from 
t,vya') ; those in the lower tier or portion, -3u?.auirai ; those near the prow, 

-■jtquxwtuoi ; near the stern, livixomoi. Of the sailors, some (uQusiLOTat) 

had the care of the sails ; others (a^oivo(iuTai) went aloft on the ropes to look 
out; others (jisaoravrai) were to supply the seamen with whatever was 
needed. 

There have been various theories to explain the manner in which the banks of rowers in the 
ancient gallies were arranged, in the different classes of ships termed Tou ( '§st$, TiTQi'/ntc, 
TievTt'iQsig, &,c. trireme, quadrireme, quinquireme, fyc. — The most common idea formerly was, 
that the benches were placed one above another. But there were gallies of seven, twelve, fif- 
teen and sixteen banks of oars ; Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty banks. If the benches 
were placed directly above each other, the oars in the upper benches must have been so long, 
as to be wholly useless. — Another solution is, that the banks were arranged in one continuous 
line along the side of the galley ; in a trireme, the first bank being in her bows, the second in 
her middle or waist, the third in her stern. But such an arrangement would require a huge 
length in the vessel of forty banks, or even twelve ; besides which, it is stated that the oars 
of a galley were not all of the same length. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the 
suggestion that the galley received its denomination from the number of men pulling at the 
same oar ; the trireme would have three at one oar 3 the quinquireme, five ; &c, — Another sug- 
gestion is, that the banks rose one over another to the number of five or seven ? the rowers in 
the higher banks being chequered in quincunx with those in the lower, and that if a galley 
was said to be of any greater number the rating was only by the number of men employed at 
an oar ; e. g. in the galley of forty banks there would be five tiers with twelve men at each oar 
of the highest bank, ten at the next, and so on until the lowest, which would have four men, 
to make forty in all. The engravings of fig. B, in our Plate XVIII. are two views, exhibiting 
such an arrangement ; the upper one is a front view, and the lower a sectional view. — Other 
schemes have been proposed which need not be mentioned. The latest is that of Mr Holwell, 
of Edinburgh, which is thought by many to have set the matter at rest. He supposes a vessel in 
the original form having one bank of ten oars arranged horizontally ; let these be divided into 
two banks of five oars each and arranged obliquely, and they will require but about half as 
much length ; this construction, according to his conjecture, is the bireme ; a trireme would 
tiave three of these oblique ascents or banks, each bank having five oars ; and thus a vessel 
might be built with any number of banks by only increasing its length, while no oar would be 
raised higher above the water, necessarily, than in a bireme. In Plate XVIII. fig. A, we have 
a view of a hexireme, or galley of sir banks of oars, on his scheme ; the Arabic numbers, 21,22, 
23, designate the portion of the banks occupied respectively by the three classes of rowers 

above mentioned. -See J, Holwell, Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients, Lond. 

1826. 8.— D. Le Roy, sur }es navies employes par les anciens &c. in the Mem. de P Institut, 
Classe'de Lit. et Beaux Jivts, vol, 1, 479, 11. 141, 152.— Of Boyd's ed. of Putter, p. 526, as cited 
$ 13. ' 

§ 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle 
were the following; Spqara rarua/a, very long spears; Sqinavov, apiece 
of iron, formed like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole, in or- 
der to cut the sail-ropes of the hostile ship ; X sIq adyiQu the grappling 
iron; %Qnqysg, large iron hooks attached to the mast of a vessel in such a 
manner t}iat being thrown into the enemy's ships they seized and raised 
them up into the air. An instrument, called from its form the dolphin 
(Stly'iv), was often used; it was made of iron or lead, and hung to 
the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violence into an 
adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink itr?— The means of defence 
against these instruments was to guard the ship by a strong covering 
of hides. 

§ 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care 
of what pertained to the ships alone, and such as had care of the 
marines ana 1 all that pertained to warlike action. (1) The chief of- 
ficer, qr admiral, was called vavaQxog, sometimes ar6XaQ X og, or axQart } ybg ; 
often there were several in equal command, often there was but a sin- 
gle one. The duration of his authority was decided by the people, 
who abridged it qr prolonged it at pleasure. Next to him were th§ 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 533 

commanders of individual ships, rQiy'iqaqxot ; the Lacedaemonians, 
however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called ImaroUvg, 
(2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the ships 
and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- 
ing : the aqx^^eqvi'irtiq, who had the care of the whole fleet ; the 
stujSe^vi/Tijff, who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept 
the helm ; and the -rcqio^g, or TVQwQaTtjg, the next in command, hav- 
ing the care of every thing belonging to the forepart of the ship. 

There were also, in the second class, the following : TQitjQavXtjg, the mu- 
sician, whose notes cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars; 
r.ilsvor^g, who gave the word of command to them ; xo^ya^yoq, who govern- 
ed the rowers on one side; vav(pv?.ax&g, employed in guarding the ship from 
rocks and other dangers; rauiag, who superintended the food; soxaqsvg, who 
attended to the fires ; P.oyiOT^g, who kept the ship's accounts. 

§ 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten 
the ship of all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render 
sails, mast and every thing which was exposed to the violence of 
wind, as fast and safe as possible. Then the most favorable posi- 
tion and order of battle was selected, according to time, place, and 
circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and the 
commanders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to ani- 
mate their men. The signal for the onset was now given ; usually 
done by hanging a shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bear- 
ing the vuvctQxog ; while this signal was hanging, the battle went on. 
The mode of attack was similar to that of a siege ; the ships being 
drawn up in the form of a circle or semicircle or letter V. 

§ 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured 
vessels. All the cities which were in alliance with the victorious 
party, honored the successful general with crowns and garlands. 
With these it was also customary to adorn his vessel. Sometimes 
the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for that purpose. These, 
as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards consecrated 
to the gods ; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the 
battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was some- 
times adorned with wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (uy.^via, 
Ity.n ok * niu,} of the captured ships. — The most common punishments 
in the naval service were whipping with cords, and submersion, the 
offender being dragged in the water by a rope even till drowned. 
Such as refused to serve at sea, avavfiuxoi, were, at Athens, punish- 
ed with disgrace (anuia) together with their posterity. Deserters, 
liLTvoravrai, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. 

(4) Affairs of Private Life. 

§ 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow 
the same order as in speaking of the earlier period (§51-60), and be* 
gin with the subject of food. In later times, when riches more abound- 
ed, the food was less simple than before; the Lacedasmonians main- 
tained longest their strictness and frugality, no professed cook being 
suffered among them. Among the other nations, and especially the 
inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more cultivated 
45* 



584 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

and practiced. The Athenians however lived to a great extent mod* 
erately, owing perhaps to the comparative unfruitfulraess of the Attic 
territory. Water was the common drink, with which they were ac- 
customed to mingle wine. The wine sometimes received an addi- 
tion of hiyrrh {oivo'giitq^ifi}^) or of barley meal (6ivog et7rti?.<piTu>ufvog). 
The term employed to designate a drinking cup, xQccrijQ, is commonly de- 
lived from xtqaauobai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing 
water with wirie. Potter states, that no certain proportion was observed in 
forming this mixture. A very common division of wines was into the 
7io?.v(poQoi or strong wines, bearing a large addition of water, and 6/ityoyo^ot, 
weak wines. To drink unmixed icine, axqaTonttTv, was described us synony- 
mous with 2v&iari mitt, to drink like a Scythian.-^-A common Homeric epi- 
thet for wine, is ai8(np>', sometimes yiQovoioQ. (C'f. Horn. II. i. 462, iv. 259.) — 
There were various sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the 
grape. Among the Greek wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have 
any distinct account, is the Maronean, probably produced on the coast of 
Thrace, a black sweet wine (Horn. Od. ix. 249). The Pramnian was another 
of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its name from a hill in the island 
of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the Lesbian f Chian, and 
Thasian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. The wines 
of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The 
Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The 
Greeks also used wines imported from diiferent places in Asia and Egypt J 
an excellent kind was brought from Byblos in Phoenicia ; the Alexandrian, 
from the vicinity of Alexandria in Egypt, was highly valued. 

See Henderson's History of Ancient and* Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4.— 'This work is 
adorned with several beautiful illustrations taken from antiques and relating to the use of 
wine. Cf. §331b. 

§ 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. a breakfast, 
axQurioua, aQioror, the time of which was not fixed, and a main meal, 
dEinvov, which was regularly towards evening. But they also partook 
of an evening meal, dei?arbv or ianiQioua, and an after-dish or supper, 

doQnog. 

Robinson remarks, that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do 
not consider the dsilivov as a separate meal from the doQnog ; while others think 
that the Greeks had but two meals a day, the gcqiotov and Svqnog. It seems 
certain, that aqiarov was finally used to denote the dinner, and dsircvov the 
supper, the latter being the principal meal. 

" There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of 
them rose at daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. 
Soon after six in the morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tri- 
bunal, and those employed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, en- 
gaged in their different occupations. At mid-day, the more wealthy citizens, 
who by that time had commonly finished their serious business, refreshed 
themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few hours in hunting, 
or in the exercise of the palajstra, or in walking through the delightful groves 
on the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing 
with each other in the forum (agora,) the interests of the state, the conduct of 
the magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, 
that the Athenians sometimes played y.vfit'ia and mm la ; two games, the 
first of which resembled hazard, and the other either backgammon or 
chess." — " During the day, the Athenians either took no food or only a slight 
repast in private. At sun-set they sat down to supper, and considering the 
business of the day as over, devoted the evening to society and amusement, 
and often continued to a late hour in the night." 

§ 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of 
the gods on festival days ; afterwards they became very common. 
They were of two sorts : the iiian'iyi\, given by a single person, and 
the tyavog, provided at the expense of the party present. Entertain- 



VLXTX XIX 



wM*M' 



n n n n 




536 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ments of the latter kind were generally the most frugal, orderly, and 
conducive to friendly feeling ; such as were invited free of expense, 
as poets, singers &,c, were called aavu^olor, the contribution of each, 
other guest was termed ovu^oXi h xarapoiii. — The marriage feast, y^ws, 
is sometimes considered as a third sort. — There were also public 
entertainments for a whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called ovoalria y 
ttccvdaioLai, delnva Stjuooia, (pqaTQixh, &c. furnished by contribution, by 
the liberality of rich persons, or by the state. 

§ 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always 
washed and anointed. The hands were also again washed (vlxpao&ai) 
between the successive courses, and at the close of the feast (hnoviq- 
aodai). In the early times the guests sat at the table (§52) ; in later 
times they reclined, but not always. The couches, prepared for the 
purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each one's taste 
and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a sin- 
gle couch. The guests took their places according to their proper 
rank, although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks at- 
tached a certain idea of sanctity to the table and the rights of the 
table. 

Three couches, xZivat, were usually placed round the table, rQuTtita, onfe 
on each side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated 
the word tqizUviov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, orocbuaraj 
and had pillows, nqooy.npulaia, for the guests ; they were often very costly, 
being highly ornamented with ivory and precious metals. Several persona 
usually reclining on the same couch, the first lay on the uppermost part, with 
his legs extended behind the back of the second, whose head was near the 
bosom of the first. — The tables were made of wood, highly polished (tsor) h 
svtoog) ; in the later periods, exceedingly costly, adorned with plates of silver 
and gold, and curiously carved images. 

§ 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the Ssltvvov), the first 
course, nqonoua, dsi/vvov nqoo'iiuov, consisted generally of pungent herbs 
with olives, eggs, oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (oh6ua?.i), and 
the like. Then came the chief dish, more substantial and costly, 
y.scpa?.'ij SbItcvov. Afterwards the desert, dsvrtQa. TQurcsta, consisting of 
various sweetmeats, furnished with great splendor in times of luxury, 
and called inlSauvva, iisraduQma, &/C. — In all entertainments it was 
customary first to offer some of the provisions to the gods, especially 
to make an oblation from the liquor. — On cheerful occasions, the 
guests were clothed in white, and crowned with garlands. 

At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands 
worn were formed of the leaf or flower sacred to the particular god honored 
on the occasion. At other entertainments they were composed of various 
sorts, according to the season of the year, and the taste and circumstances of 
the parties. The rose, being an emblem of silence, was often placed above 
the table, to signify that what was there said or done should be kept private ; 
hence the phrase vnb Qodov, sub rosa. 

§ 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as 
follows ; the 2vunooiaQx<>s> chief manager, who was either the maker 
of the feast (d *otiutvjq), or one appointed to that place, called also 
TQa7isto7ioibg, a^jir^i^.u'oc ,' the Bao0.ivg y whose business was to see 
that the laws and rules of such entertainments were preserved, and 
who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the Jarc^bg, who 
divided and distributed the food, of which the best and largest por- 



PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 537 

tions were given to the most honored guests ; and the 'ono^oo*, who 
distributed the drink, and wer^ heralds (y.^qvysg), youths [y.ovQot) oft- 
en of noble birth, or servants ($ov?.oi). 

In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beauti- 
ful slaves, to perform the last mentioned office ; for such ones extravagant 
prices were paid; and a distinction was made between the vS^oqwooi, who 
served the water, and the ono/uoi, who poured the wine, and were younger. 
When waiting at table, they were richly adorned in person and dress. 

§ 167 t. The drinking vessels or cups (*p«t>7osc, StTrara) were gen- 
erally large, often very rich and costly ; they were frequently crowned 
with garlands. 

1 1. It was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in 
the order of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the 
remainder to the person named, which was termed nqonivtiv; while the act 
of the person, who received the cup and drank the rest of its contents, was 
termed avrinqoTclvur. It was also customary to drink to the honor of the 
gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling them b}' name. Three 
■cups were usually drank to the gods, each one to a particular god, as Kqarl^ 
c Eouov, KqcctI^ Jwg JZwTi^Qog. — :Sometimes the guests contended, who should 
drink the most; and prizes were awarded to the conquerors. Some melan- 
choly excesses are recorded ; a&, for instance, the ease of Alexander, who in 

this way lost his life. Singing (uolnij, instrumental music, and dancing 

'(oo/yjOTug), were accompaniments of almost every feast. The songs were in 
«arly times chiefly hymns to gods or hemes ; subsequently songs and dances 
of a wanton character were introduced. The most remarkable of the various 
songs used were those termed ay.o7.ia. 

. Athenoeus, L. x. c. 9. 10. Cf. JElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41.— Respecting the oy.u7.ia, see P. 
II. $27. 

2. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate 
in various sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced ; but in 
the later ages, less violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among 
which playing at the y.orra^og seems to have been a favorite amusement. — 
Frequently there were entertainments or repasts, at which conversation and 
discourses were designed to form the principal amusement (cvimooia). Cf. 
P. I. ^ 69. 

Robinson, Arch. Graec. p. 524. — Land. Quart. 'Rev. vol. xxiv. p. 421. — Qedoyn, Plaisirs de la 
table chez les Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. veil. i. 54. 

§ 168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (§ 57) re- 
mained customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had 
the reputation of being hospitable ; the Athenians were termed ^ t - 
i.uUroi ; but .the Spartans were less courteous to strangers. Hospi- 
tality was viewed as a religious duty^ and several gods were supposed 
•to take strangers under special protection, and to avenge all injuries 
done to them. 

\u. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt {Ssiog c'dg) 
before the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alli- 
ance contracted by mutual hospitality (nQoitvia, to ouoroan itor) was as sa- 
cred as that of consanguinity. The parties often exchanged tokens of it 
(pi'iifiola) in friendly gifts (tina, oo>ya, Zsviy.'u), which were carefully preserved 
and handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly appointed, called ttqo'Z- 
trot, whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public errand, 
to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the pub- 
lic spectacles and festivals. 

2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. 
Cic. De Divin. ii. 68. 

Simon, on the hospitality of the ancient3, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. in. p. 41. 

§ 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergo any very impor- 
tant changes j at least the names used in the first period were still 



538 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

applied to the principal garments in later times. Their clothing was 
more commonly made of uncolored white wool, sometimes of linen 
and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to dress, purple was 
the most esteemed. 

1 u. Coverings for the feet (vTcodtjiiara, niSO.a) were used very early, but 
not universally ; they were of various forms. Hats (ntloi, TtOAa, nOAdia) 
were first introduced at. a later period, designed chiefly as a protection against 
the weather. 

2. The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet by thongs, luuvrtg ; hence 
the terms vtcoSslv and ynolvstv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The 
following were some of the varieties; aqfiv?. at, large and easy shoes, which 
came up to the ankle ; fiXavrat, shoes worn chiefly in the house ; Siu(ia&qcc f 
shoes common to men and women ; iu^urat, shoes used by comedians ; xo&oq- 
rot, shoes used by tragedians, buskins ; xaq^arlvai, coarse shoes worn by pea- 
sants ; xqsTitdsg, a kind of slipper; supposed by some to be used by soldiers) 
particularly; ?.axwvixai 1 auvx?.aiSsg, Spartan shoes of a red color; Tttqoixal, 
shoes of a white color, generally worn by courtezans; Ttsqifiaqidsg, shoes worn 
by women of rank; ouvdaXa, shoes anciently peculiar to heroines, consisting 
originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole of the foot. 

In our Plate XIX. are illustrations of various forms of ancient coverings for the feet and 
legs. Several, marked by the letter a, are from Mexican monuments ; those marked b, and c, 
are said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and t, are from Egyptian remains ; e, g, i, k, I, m, p, and q, are 
Greek and Roman sandals ; k and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them; 
q having sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army 
marching with them must make a confused noise ; cf. Rosenmuller, Schol. in Vet. Test. Isai. 
ix. 5.) ; /, m, o, are Dacian ; h, j, v, are Persian ; r is the Turkish slipper made of morocco. 

3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (§ 44J. A broad- 
brimmed hat, termed niraoog, was used by young men (cf. Plate XIX. fig. 3). 
Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of them 
were the following; ainivZ, a. fillet, with which the hair was tied ; xu'X.vnrqa^ 
a veil ; xqydsuvov, a covering which came down from the head to the should- 
ers ; y.sy.qv(pa?.og, a net inclosing the hair ; ulrqa, a sort of cap or turban. The 
term uirqa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the 
3-coqaL A form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed oxb- 
<pucvrj vxpt]?.ij. The Squog was a sort of necklace ; the women frequently had 
also ear-rings, squara, %XixEg, hcona. Among the Athenians, some of the men 
wore in their hair golden ornaments called rirriytg. 

4 u. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, an under gar- 
ment of wool, xirwv, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was 
trussed up by a rich girdle (lwv//) ; in some cases it was fastened from the 
shoulders by costly buckles or clasps (ntqovai, nuqnai). Over this garment 
the men wore a mantle or robe, which was long (yaqog, i t uuriov) as worn by 
the more respectable, while the lower classes used a snorter kind (/Xaiva). 
There was also another sort of short mantle, ^Xauig, worn chiefly by soldiers. 
The women generally wore over the tunic a robe (luuriov), rather short, and 
over this a broad veil or outer robe, ntnXog, with which they could cover alse 
the head. 

5. Of coverings for the body, called in general to&i^g, to&riua, and st/ncc, there 
were many varieties and forms, besides those named above ; as, /9«i't?;, dupQi- 
Qa, a shepherd's garment, of skins ; lyxbufioua, a cloak used by shepherds and 
servants ; inM^ig, a short garment for females, which was thrown over the 
shoulders; l^couig, a slave's garment, having only one sleeve (§ 99) ; itpsorqlg, 
a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats ; twarqor, a girdle appropriate for 
women; -dsqiarqiov, a thin garment for summer; y.arwvuxi], a slave's robe, 
bordered at the bottom with sheepskin ; l.ijdog, a garment common to both 
eexes, suitable for warm weather ; aroX) n a long robe reaching to the heels ; 
csrq6(piov, a kind of kerchief worn by women over the bosom (artj&oSsainog) ; 
rqL(ib)v, rqificjvtov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by philosophers and poor per- 
sons ; raivLa, a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast ; 
used also to signify an ornament for the head; (paivofojg, a cloak without 
sleeves for cold or rainy weather; j^P.avtg, a fine thin robe ; yllliov, an orna- 
ment worn by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands, a bracelet. Robin* 
son's Arch. Gr. p. 541-46. 



PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 539 

The following is an incidental remark of Chateaubriand respecting the materials of ancient 
Clothing. " My host laughed at the faces that I made at the wine and honey of Attica ; but, 
as some compensation for the disappointment, he desired me to take notice of the dress of the 
female who waited on us. It was the very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the 
horizontal and undulating folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpendic- 
ular folds which marked the skirt of the tunic. The coarse stuff, of which this woman ? s 
dress was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for, to judge from sculpture, the stuffs of 
the ancients were much thicker than ours. It would be impossible to form the large sweeps 
observable in antique draperies with the muslins and silks of modern female attire ; the gauze 
of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists denominated woven wind, were never imitated 
hy the chisel." Travels in Greece &c. p. 137 (N. Y. ed. 1814). 

Our Plate XX. contains several engravings illustrating ancient and Oriental female costume. 
In rig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the veil ; similar to it is the veil in fig. g, which 
is taken from the French work L'Egypte &c, and represents an Egyptian spinning; another 
form appears in fig. d, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of muf- 
fler ; in w, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern veil, but was at- 
tached to a riband or chain passing round the forehead and joined by a clasp above the eyes. 
In fig. m, is a Grecian lady with a peculiar head-dress, somewhat resembling the spiral curl of 
the murex shell from which Tyrian purple was said to be obtained. Other head-ornaments ap- 
pear in fig. h, a Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fig. 
i, another Grecian in a funeral dress. The net above mentioned is seen in fig. 4, of Plate 
XIX. ; in fig. 7, of the same plate, is a form of the turban, like the cresent-shaped tiara or dia- 
dem sometimes seen on representations of Juno. In these figures we also see the tunic fastened 
to the shoulders by clasps ; in fig. 4, it is without sleeves, as in fig. h, Plate XX. This figure 
shows also the robe called peplos ; which is seen also in fig. k, said to represent a Grecian lady 
In full costume of the olden style ; an outer garment like the peplos of the Greeks is seen 
likewise in fig. b, which represents a Cairo dancer, and in fig. c, which shows an oriental silk 
robe thrown over the head and arms. In fig. c and/, we have two female Bacchantes ; their 
costume, like that of the musician fig. h, appears to be highly ornamented ; one holds the thyr- 
sus, and a crater of wine : the other appears to be playing with a sort of castanets. In fig. n. 
is a representation of an Egyptian princess from the palace at Karnac ; it exhibits a slight un- 
der dress and a close robe in slanting folds open in front, the whole scarcely concealing the 
form ; it may illustrate the Coan vestments, or woven wind, of the ancients. A nearly transpa- 
rent robe is also seen in fig. o, which is an Egyptian priestess holding in her right hand a sis- 
trum, and in her left some mythological image probably pertaining to the worship of Isis. 

Respecting the material of the vestments of Cos, see § 335. — On the question concerning 
the use of silk among the Greeks, cf. Anthonys Lemprierej under the word Seres. — On the use 
of cotton, E. Baines, History of Cotton Manufacture. Lond. 1836. 8. (chap, ii.) — A brief ac- 
count of Costumes is given in North Amer. Rev. for July, 1838. p. 148. — Mongez, Sur habille- 
mens des anciens, (Gr. & Rom.) in the Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 
222. — Cf. $ 197. 3. 

6. The Athenian women seem to have paid much attention to the adorning 
<rf their persons. " They painted their eye-brows black, and applied to their 
faces a layer of ceruse or white lead, with deep tints of rouge. They sprin- 
kled over their hair, which was crowned with flowers, a yellow-collored pow- 
der." At the toilet they used mirrors (Kutotitqcc) commonly made of pol- 
ished metals. 

The Bride, in Plate XIX. flg. 4, holds a mirror in her right hand. — See Menard, Sur les mi- 
-roirs des anciens, in the Mem de PAcad. des Inscr. xxm. 140. — Cf. Class. Journ. xvi. 152. 

§ 170. The custom of frequent bathing and anointing continued to 
the latest period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for 
cleanliness and vigor of body. Public baths became at length very 
common, even in the cities which had not previously admitted them. 
They were furnished with several distinct rooms for undressing, for 
bathing, for anointing, &c, which were named from their appropri- 
ate uses. 

1. The public baths were furnished with various accommodations for con- 
venience and pleasure. They commonly contained several separate rooms ; 
(1) the u7codvTr l Qiov, in which those who bathed put off their clothes ; (2) the 
i-toxavoTov, the " sweating room," or room for taking vapor baths ; the fiarc- 
.TtarijOiov, for the hot bath; (4) the Zovtqov, for the cold bath; (5) the a?.sm- 
Ttlqiov, the anointing room. 

This account of the rooms is according to Robinson, Arch. Greec. p. 506. — For a more full 
account of ancient baths, see P.I. $241. 3. 

2u. The various ointments used had different names according to the modes 
and materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go 
in this repect, that it was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Spar- 
ta the selling of perfumed ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athene 
men were not allowed to engage in it. 



640 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES, 

3. u Every part of the body had its appropriate unguent. To the feet and 
legs the Greeks applied ^Egyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm 
was thought best adapted to the cheeks and breasts J the arms were refreshed 
with balsam-mint ; sweet marjoram had the honor of supplying an oil for the 
eye-brows and hair, as wild thyme had for the knee and kneck. — A nice dis- 
tinction divided perfumes into two kinds ; the first Were a thicker sort and 
applied more as salves or wax (x^Utara) ', the others were liquid and poured 
over the limbs (a'AeUtuara). To indulge in the liquid ointment was thought 
to evince a feminine and voluptuous disposition ; but the sober and virtuous, 
it was allowed, might use the thicker sort without stay impeachment of then? 
good qualities." — Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263. 

4 u. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were per- 
formed by women ; in particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was 
the custom to kiss the feet of such as were highly esteemed. 

In illustration of this custom of kissing the feet, cf. Aristophanes, -^p)**?? (p. 460. ed. Lug. 
Bat. 1624), and in New Test. Luke, vii. 38 ; John, xi. 2. 

§ 171. The general construction of Greek houses haa already been 
stated (§ 56). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at 
Athens, it was applied to public buildings rather than private dwell- 
ings, which were mostly of an ordinary character. This was true 
also at Thebes, otherwise greatly celebrated for her superb architec- 
ture. Much more care was bestowed in ornamenting the interior 
apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furniture and 
utensils, and with elegant works of art (P. I. § 178). Besides, the 
custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or 
openings with colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, 
and rendered their beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also 
found it to their honor and profit to construct the public ediffces in a 
style of superior magnificence. 

1. The common term for the whole house was olxog ; the eating hall was 
called TQiyJ.inov and ioriaroqiov ; the sleeping room, y.oirwv. — Potter gives 
the following account of Grecian houses. " The men and women had dis- 
tinct apartments. The part in which the men lodged was towards the gate, 
and called avS^wv or avSQaivirtg ; that assigned to the women, was termed yv- 
vav/.wv, yvvaiy.wv'iTig^ and was the most remote part of the house, and behind 
the avl) t , before which were other apartments denominated rcQoSouog and tcqo- 
avliov. The women's chambers were called riyeoi -dulauoi, as being placed 
at the top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women were usually 
in the highest rooms (ma, vjisqwa). Penelope lodged in such a place, to 
which she ascended by a xliuat, (Odyss. i. 330^)." — The terms avafla&uug, leva' 
(la&ui.g, avapa&qa, and avapa&aov, are all used to designate a staircase, a flight of 
steps, or stairs. Although in general the private dwellings were of an or- 
dinary character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which 
were very costly and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been 
more lofty and built with greater solidity than those at Athens. 

In our Plate XTX. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by Stuart (Dictionary of Ar- 
chitecture). His account is as follows. " The Greek house had no atrium, but instead of it 
the peristyle was approached by a passage called thyroreum. On the side of the peristyle op- 
posite the entrance was a kind of vestibule called pastas ; the apartments on the riuht and left 
of which were termed severally thalamos and amphi-thalamos, and beyond them were the oeci 
or halls. In the first peristyle were the triclinia in daily use, and the apartments of the do- 
mestics ; this division of the house was called gynceconitis. In the south portico of the greater 
peristyle, which was styled analronitis, were the pinacothecce and Cyiicene ozcus ; in the eastern, 
the bibliotheca ; in the western, the exedra .- and in the northern, the great ozcus, or banqueting- 
room. The hospitalia consisted of triclinia and sleeping rooms for strangers and were on the 
right and left of the great oecus. There were courts or passages to these apartments called 
mesaulcB. In the plan [Plate XIX.] a is the thyroreum ; b, peristyle of the gynceconitis ; c, the 
pastas ; d, the great ozcus; e, stables ; /,/, courts ; g,g, g, porter's cellos; h, h, common triclinia; 
i, the thalamos ; j, the amphi-thalamos ; k, k, mci or fialls ; I, I, the mesaalce ; m, m, the hospitalia ; 
n, the vestibule ; o, the great peristyle ; p, the bibliotheca; q, q, the p'macotheccB ; r, the Cyiicene 
tecus ; s, the exedra.'' J 

2. A door (&voa, nvfaj) was fastened by means of lock and key (x?.slg) .; the 



tLATE XX-. 




542 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES, 

key described by Homer seems to have been merely a bolt which was fnofeej 
by a thong (iiiag) attached to it (Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar ta 
the modern were in use-— Various articles of furniture are named. In the 
sleeping room was the bed, xatrtj or It yog ; this was often- in the form of the" 
sofa, about six feet long and three broad ; called also y.?.iv> r The chair (&q6v 
og), ewer (jiQoyoog) and basin for washing (/Iovt^iov), mirror (zutotttqov) 
and its case or stand (?.ocpsiov), clothes-chest (zio-n/), <&c. are mentioned. 

In Plate XXV. fig. b, is a sort of key formed by a bolt and string; it was found at Pompeib 
Fig. 2, of Plate XIX. is a Grecian key, selected from a number given in Montfaacon, — Fig. 5y 
of this Plate, shows a Grecian sofa.-bed, with a man in one corner and his wife reclining be- 
hind him. Fig. 10, of same Plate, is another form of the Greek sofa. Fig. d, of Plate XXV. 
is a form taken from an Egyptian monument. — Chairs (Egyptian) are seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, 
of Plate XIX. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4. — The latter fig. shiows also a mirror, held 
by the female before her face. 

§ 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce, 
were highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 
1 u. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phoeni- 
cians solely; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and 
several of the Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then 
chiefly monopolized by the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pur- 
suit by the unproductiveness of her soil ; and although Lycurgus prohibited 
commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even there it gradually and constantly 
increased. By the union with Egypt at a later period, Grecian commerce* 
tose to still higher success. Besides the states just named, Corinth and the* 
islands iEgina and Rhodes Were the principal places of commerce ; and their 
industry and enterprize contributed very much to the weaHh and power of 
the Grecian states. 

2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce 1 , being washed on three sides- 
by the sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and 
metals, which came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have im-' 
ported also timber, salted fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia; wool-* 
len and other stuffs from Asia Minor and Syria ; and honey, wax, tar, and 
hides from the cities on the Black sea. They likewise exported, not only dif- 
ferent commodities brought from foreign countries for the purpose, but the 
products of Attica , which Were chiefly olives and oil, and various articles of 
manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils. 

Barthelemy'' s Anacharsis, ch. Ivi. — D, H, Hegewiscli>s geograph. und histor. Nachrichten dte 
Colonien der Griechen betreffend. Altona, 1808. 8. — Rollings History of the Arts and Sci- 
ences of the Ancients. — For an account of the routes by which the productions of the east 
Were conveyed through Babylon to the countries of the Mediterranean, see Heeren, on the 
Commerce of Ancient Babylon, as translated by F* M.- Hubbard, in the Bibl. Repos. vol. tii. p* 
864 ss. 

3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. II. § 51), that agriculture 
was at an early period a subject of practical interest among; the Greeks. Yet 
the art does not appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any 

of the states. (Cf. § 58.) The plough (uoorqov) of the Greeks is said to- 

have been of two kinds (Slo tidtj); the one kind, composite (jctjxrbj/) ; the 4 
other, simple (avroyovov). (Cf. Hes. Works and Days, v. 432, 436.) The 
principal parts of the composite were the following) the ioro(ioavg or qvkiog i 
beam ; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong connect-' 
ing the yoke with the beam ; the vvvig or vvvij, ploughshare, whose extreme" 
point was called vi'tupy ; it was attached to a piece of wood called t?.vua, and 
connected with a piece termed yvfjg j the iyir?.r h handle. 

A specimen of the simple may be seen in fig, 6, of our Plate XXV.; which represents a Sy- 
rian plough, with a small metallic blade or share, furnishing an illustration of the metaphor of 
the prophet (Micali, iv. 3) ; other forms are seen in fig. iii. ; one of the -engravings shows a; 
single bullock drawing the plough, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the 
other he guides the animal by a rein. — See Mongez, Sur les instrumens d'agriculture des an-- 
ciens, in the Mem. de VInstituty Classe d'Hist. et Lit, Anc. vol. n. p. 616; vol. in. (published 
1818), p. 1. with engravings. — Cf. Rougier, as cited § 13. 5. 

§ 173. Here it may be proper to give a brief account of the mon-' 
eys, weights, and measures of the Greeks. In early times, traffic 
Was effected only by exchange of goods, or barter, the inconvenience 
of which must soon be felt. Rude metals were next employed, im 



PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 543 

order to render an equivalent for what was purchased, and were 
weighed for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value were 
indicated by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, reg- 
ular coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance 
cannot be decided (cf. P. I. §. 94, 95). It is known, however, that 
in the time of Solon, B. C. about 600, they were in common use in 
Greece. The metals used in making money-coins were gold, silver, 
brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were impressed only on 
one side. The impressions were various, both as to the objects rep- 
resented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic 
coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her 
sacred bird. 

1 u. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulating medium 
were these : rouitrua, any legitimate coin; xqtjjfia, money in the loose sense ; 
and y.iouu, small coin or change. Besides these there were numberless spe- 
cific names, derived from the weight of the coins, the place where they were 
struck, or the image upon their face. There were also terms, which expres- 
sed large sums or amounts, but were not names of actual coins ; as e. g. the 
uva or ui'ja, and the ralavrov. The former (uva) designated at Athens the 
sum of 100 drachms ; at JEgina, the sum of 160 ; the term was however also 
used to signify merely the golden orar^q. The latter (rcclavTov) was usually 
the sum of 6000 drachms, but had different values in different places; a tal- 
ent of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. 

3. Among the coins, named from the image upon them, were the ftovg, bear- 
ing the figure of an ox ; the y.uqj] having a representation of Pallas, the maid; 
*/7.av'i, with an owl for its device, another name for the tetradrachma. 

In Plate II. are several specimens of Greek coins, taken from Montfaucon's Antiquity Ex- 
plained, and from Ckdmefs Dictionary. Fig. 1 is a coin of Thebes ; fig. 2 of Argos ; 3, of ^Egina; 
4, and also a, d, and e, are Macedonian coins ; 5, and also q, c,f, and v are Athenian ; 6 is a 
coin of Thespire ; 7 is an iEtolian. Fig. 5 is an Attic tetradrachm, with Minerva's head on the 
obverse, and on the reverse an owl standing on a prostrate vase encompassed with an olive 
crown ; fig. v is the reverse of a didrachm, showing an augur's wand and a sacrificial vase ; 
fig. / is the drachm, bearing a sort of tripod. Fig. c has the head of a Vulcan, and on the re- 
verse are two lighted torches ; on b, Apollo appears in company with the owl. — Cf. P. I. § 93. — 
Eockk, iiber Munzen, Masse, und Gewichte des Alterthums. Lpz. 1838 8. 

2u. Of the actual and circulating coins the l.znrov was the smallest. Sev~ 
en of this name were equal to the /a/.y.ovg, and eight of the latter to the 
6§olug. This last varied, however, in value, according to the place where it 
was coined. Six bfio/.oi were equivalent to the ^oa/u/J, which had its name 
from the weight, but was of different values in different places. The names 
of the coins ijuwfto/.ior, di(o(lo?.iov or di6(io?.ov, rqiofio/.ov, &c. and ^uiSqa/uov, 
diSqa^uor, Sec. are easily understood. Four 8qa/uai were equal to the ora- 
t (,'o in silver, a coin, which was also called rsrouSqa^uov, and seems to have 
been the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The arar^q in gold 
was equal in value to 20 dqa/uai, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called 
6'i^ou/uo;, but was most generally termed xqvoovg. It received likewise 
other names from the places where, or the kings under whom, it was struck ; 
as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater Crasi, Sec. £ 

§ 174. Various changes successively took place in the denomi- 
nations of Greek coins. There were changes also in the worth of 
these coins, both as to their actual contents and their relative value. 
Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for money. The 
Spartans were required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, 
and did not depart from the custom until a late period. The com- 
mon ratio of value between gold and silver was as one to ten, but 
it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a half. There 
are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with 
modern, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the for- 
mer. The dqa/u,} equalled about 9d sterling. 



544 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Many specimens of the silver arart\q or rsrquSqa/uov are still preserved 'in 
collections. Letronne, having accurately examined 500 of them, and arranged 
them according to the centuries in which they were struck, deduced the 
mean weight of the old Attic dqmxui'j, coined B. C. 2 centuries and 
more; and the value, as thus derived, is stated at 17 cents, 5-93 mills of our 
currency. The later Sqa^M is stated at 16 cents, 5-22 mills. 

Conger's Essay on the Measures, Weights and Moneys of the Greeks and; Romans, in J3n~ 
thon's ed. of Lempriere. — G. Orosse, Metrol. Tafeln iiber die alt. Masse &c. Roms und Griech- 
enlands (Von A. G. Kdstner) Brauns. 1792. 8. — F. Ch. Matthia, Uebersicht des rb'ra. und" 
griech. Mass— Gewichts— und Munz— wesens. Frankf.. 1809. 4. — T. F. Warm, De ponderum, 
etc. rationibus apud Romanos et Greecos. Lips. 1S21. 8. 

§ 175. In conection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak 
of their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient 
method was quite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, 
J, perhaps from y Ia for Mia ; fox five, IT, from TTejts ; for ten, J, from ALy.a j 
for a hundred, H, from Hizarov ; for a thousand, X, from Xi?.ia ; and for ten 
thousand, M, from Mvqia. All numbers were expressed by combinations of 
these letters ; each combination signifying the sum of the numbers designat- 
ed by the letters separately ; e. g. Til 11 represented eight; J TI I , sixteen ; 
J J, twenty &c. Sometimes they were combined so as to express the product, 
instead of the sum, of the separate letters; in such case, one of the letters was 
made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; for example, 
PI (representing a TI with a d in its bosom) signified ]0 X 5, i. e„ 50: so 
a TI. with an H placed within it signified 100 X 5, or 500 ; and a A 
having M within it, signified 10,000 X 10, or 100,000 : this form of com- 
bination was chiefly confined to numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such num- 
bers were expressed by using a large II and writing the letter for the other 
factor in its bosom. This was the old Attic system, and is found on inscrip- 
tions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf. P. I. § 91. 4.) 

But this method was superseded by another ; in which all the letters of the 
alphabet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bav ,Ko7CTca, and 
2auni, mentioned in P. I. § 46. By this system, the first eight letters, from 
Alpha to Theta, expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being in- 
serted after Epsilon, to signify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, express- 
the tens ; the last (77) signifying 80, and Konna being used for 90 \ the next 
eight, from Rho to Omega, expressed the hundreds ; SI standing for 300, and 
Sauni: being used for 900. The letters-, when thus used to designate num- 
bers, were usually marked with a stroke above ; thus, i', 10; ■/.' , 20; r.p 22. 
In order to express thousands, the eight first letters with Bad were again< 
used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus ,8, 4,000; £, 6000 ; ,v.vl%' , 20,432.— Cf. 
Robinson's Buttman, §2. — Bouilht, Diet. Class. {Tableaux &c. N. 34.) 

§ 176. The use of weights was of early origin among the Greeks,, 
as elsewhere. Grecian weights had the same names with their coins 
of money, a circumstance which seems clearly to point back to. the 
custom of weighing uncoined gold and silver for purposes of ex- 
change. The proportions of the weights were different in different 
applications of them ; as, e. g. those of common merchandize did not 
in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. The 6fioUq is. 
said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries or 
physicians, who used a weight, termed y.iqunov, about one fourth of 
the 6(SoUg % and another, o>T«oto», only one fourth of that. 

§ 177. In speaking of the Greek measures, we may notice them as 
divided into measures of length, extent, or capacity. 

1 u. The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in 
most of the ancient nations, from members of the human body ; e. g. Suzrv- 
Xog, a finger's breadth ; <mi&au>' h a span, hand's width, the distance from the 
extremity of the thumb to that of the little finger ; novg, a foot. The Her- 
culean or Olympic foot was longer. The n^yvq, a cubit, was the distance 
from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger. 'Oqyviu a fathom, was. 
the distance across the breast, between the extremities of the hands, the arms* 
being extended (o^'yw) in a horizontal line.. 



PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 545 

2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of extent, the 
principal were the nuvg, the ayovya, and the nJ-iOgov. The rcovg was a square 
with each side one foot ; the uqovqcc, a square with each side 50 nudsg ; and 
the nli&oov, a square with a side of 108 tcoSss ; so that 2,500 node? made an 
ccnovou, and 4 aoovqai a st/I^oov. — The term orcaorlov seems to have been used 
to designate a measuring line. 

Su. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to 
liquids or to things dry. The largest liquid measure was uetoj/t/,?, equal to 
about 8 gallons, and called also sometimes y.uSog, y.sQuutov, and auyoQsvg. 
The smallest measure was the xo%jLiuqiov, containing less than a hundreth 
part of a pint, and so called from r.oyj.og or zoz?.iov, a snail-shell. The |e<m/s 
contained about a pint, and was equal to twice the measure termed y.orvl.y]^ 
Between the y.orvXtj (half pint) and the y.oy?.iuoiov, six intervening measures 
are named. The measure next larger than the iiOTtjg (pint) was the yovg, con- 
taining upwards of two quarts. 

4. The y.oTi'Lti is said to have been applied by ancient physicians to the 
same use as modern graduated glasses of apothecaries, being made of horn, 
and divided on the outside by lines, so that certain parts of the measure cor- 
responded to certain denominations of weight. The largest measure applied 
to things dry was the uidtuvog, which contained somewhat more than a bushel 
and a fourth, and received different names in different regions. The yoivi^ 
was a little less than a quart; 48 of which were contained in the uidiuvog* 
Most of the other measures were of the same names as the liquid measures. 

§ 178. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were 
very numerous, and in the better portion of their history, various, 
refined, and tasteful. Music and dancing were among the most prom- 
inent, and were almost a necessary accompaniment of public and pri- 
vate festivals, entertainments, and social meetings. In this custom 
there was a regard not merely to immediate gratification, but also to 
the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical accompa- 
niment were almost inseparable; at least instrumental music was 
scarcely ever practiced without vocal. There were several kinds of 
exercise, which it was common to connect with the entertainments 
of the banquet, and various social games or plays (cf. § 167). 

There was an amusement in which dancing and playing with a ball were 
in some way (a) connected together. A favorite dance is still preserved (b) 
in Greece, called Romaica. 

(a) Burette, Spheristique des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad, des Inscr. vol. i. p. 153, — (b) 

Lond. Qjiart. Rcr. xxm. 350. See Burette, De la danse des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad, 

des laser, u 93. — J. Menrsius, De Saltationibus veter. contained in vol, vin. of Gronovius as 
cited § 13. — Jul. Cces. Balengeri de ludis privatis ac domesticis veterum liber unicus. Ludg, 
1627. 8. This is given also in the Class. Juurn. vol. v. — On various Doric dances, cf. Mutter, 
iiist. and Antiq. of Doric Race, bk. i. ch. vi. 

§ 179. We have spoken before of the great importance and comprehensive 
meaning of music (aovaixij in the system of education among the Greeks 
(cf. P. I. § 63). Here we introduce some remarks on musical sounds and in- 
struments. " In music the Greeks distinguished sounds, intervals, concords, 
genera, modes, rhythmus, mutations, and melopoeia. The notes or sounds of 
the voice were seven, each of which was attributed to some particular planet; 
1. VTzart], to the moon ; 2. nuqvnurt], to Jupiter ; 3. ll/avoc, to Mercury ; 4. 
fit)*;, to the sun ; 5. 7taqaidatj, to Mars ; 6. To'trr, to Venus; and 7. vtjrrj, to 
Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary order, and ascribe vnurt] to 
Saturn, and r/jt; to the Moon. The tone or mode, which the musicians used 
in raising or depressing the sound was called rouuc ; and they were called ru- 
ftoi, as be>ng laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four 
principal vouoi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. 
To these some add a fifth, which they 'call the JEolic, but which is not men- 
tioned by ancient authors. The Phrygian mode was religious; the Lydian, 
plaintive; the Doric, martial ; the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the JEolic, 

simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers to battle was called ^O 6iog. . 

Afterwards, the term rUtoi began to be applied to the hymns which were sung 
In those modes." 

46* 



546 GHECIA-N ANTIQUITIES.- 

Robinson,. Arch. Grsc. bk. v. cli. xxiii. — See Burette and Chabanov, on ancient music, 3S 
cited P. I. §63. 

§ 180. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The 
music of those who only played on instruments was called uovor/.i t xi'ill ; that 
of those who also sang to the instrument, uovoty.) l utra utt.aidlag. The musi- 
cal instruments were divided into hiTtrsvaru, wind instruments, and h-tara or 
vsvQodsToi, stringed instruments. The lyre, the flute, and the pipe, were the 
three principal instruments ; but there were several others. — Of" the instru- 
ments to which- chords or strings were applied, the most famous was the lyre, 
which was called in Greek y.iduou and'qjoguiyt, though some affect a distinc- 
tion between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen- 
thread, and afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or 
strings were three in number, whence such lyre was called rgfyogfog ; and 
the lyre with three strings is said by some to have been invented in Asia, a 
city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes denominated aniuc. Afterwards, it 
was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, and'hence was called in- 
ruxoqdog, sntafpQoyyog, and snr-uyhaoaog. They struck the strings sometimes 
with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- 
ment was called in Greek xt&aitittiv, xqovsiv Tr^'xrow, or d'uo'zsir, Suxrv?.ioig 
x?)ov£ir, and \UuV.mr. To learn. to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of 
three years was necessary. This instrument was invent'ed'in Arcadia, which 
abounded with tortoises, of the shell of which the lyre was made. — The flute, 
av£:6g , was a cerebrated instrument. It was used in the sacrifices of the gods,, 
at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva is said to have in- 
vented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (itZvcyiavXvg). Flutes were 
made of the bones of stags or fawns-, and hence called riSoeioi on-Zui , and the 
invention of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. 
They were also made of the bones of asses, and of elephants ; and likewise 
of reed, box, and lotus. The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in play- 
ing on this instrument. — The pipe was called avtjiyz, and differed in sound 
from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp and shrill, and hence its- 
sounds were called /.aTrru/Jai: On the contrary, the sound of the flute was- 
grave, full, and mellow; and hence the flute was denominated Suqt'iqouo;." 

Besides the instruments already named, we may mention the following,, 
arranged under the heads of stringed instruments; wind instruments, and in- 
struments of 'percussion. 

1. Stringed instruments : ru^ltx, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve- 
strings (dcodsxa (f&oyyovg) ; Jcijy.Ttc, another variety of the lyre, used by the 
Lydians ; uayuSig, a lute with twenty strings; aoyuoor, said to be of a square 
form and similar to the ifJiQvqa ; tuvvqu, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a 
melancholy tone, but perhaps without foundation; it has been supposed that 
the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and in playing were struck 
with a plectrum (jil.^yrqov), like a modern violin; auiiSvy.r ; , sambuca (cf. Per- 
sius, Sat. v. 25), sacklut (cf. Dan. iii. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with, 
four strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; Tqiyon-ov, a triangle 
with several strings of unequal length ; U'cO.r^oior, said to be like the uayuSig, 
and also used for any variety of the lyre ; liudvou, a Libyan instrument of a 
square form. 

In Plate XXI. are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig. 1. is a triangular form of 
tlie harp or lyre, by some considered as the sambuca, by otbers as the trigonon. Fig. C presents 
a similar form : this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Herculane- 
um (cf. LoiuJ. Quart. Rev. xvm. 87) ; it shows dancing and' playing together. Fig. 10 is by 
some called the sambuca ; having four strings apparently over a sounding board. Fig. w is an 
old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as " Timotheus'3 
harp with nine strinss." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Jilonifaucon. Fig. 2 is a form of the 
lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. c shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- 
pian lyre, see Plate II. fig. 6.) — In fie. 6 we have the kinura or violin, from Montfaucan.- In 
fig. 7 is a similar inscruinent from JViehuhr, in a side view ; a front view of it is given in fig.: 
8^ having. five strings of metal wire. Fig. .3 and fig. 5, also from Niebuhr, are given in Calmet, 
as other "forms of the kinura or kinnor. Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, 
and seems to be the same instrument with three strings : it has been supposed to represent the 
Hebrew shalishim played on by females in David's time (1 Sam. xviii. 6). In fig./is seen a 
Persian violin and fiddler. 

2. Wind instruments : ll.vuog, a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usual- 
ly made of box-wood; yiyyqa or yiyy°Uc, a Phoenician pipe (§ 72.2), short, of 



PRIVATE EIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 54T 

a plaintive note ; u6vav?:og, a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; aaxciv- 
s.oc, a sort of bag-pipe. It may be remarked, that there was a great variety of 
these instruments belonging to the class of pipes or flutes. The orytyi, which 
is called also the pipe of Pan, is of great antiquity ; some suppose it to be the 
instrument mentioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 21, cf. Comprehensive Commentary) 
by the name of ugabh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and Syria;, 
with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from jive to twenty -five. A 
double flute is often mentioned, called also the right and left (ef. § 238) ; the 
right one, or tbat beld in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having 
a higher tone than the left; and both as blown by the performer at the same 
time. — There were several varieties likewise of the ouijuy'i, or trumpet ; as r 
xtnac, a Phrygian trumpet, or flute crooked like a horn ; y.sQUTty};, a trumpet 
of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also to have been, in; 
the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind termed 
idoavZic, or water-organ. 

In Plate XXI. we have also represented a number of wind instruments. Fig. 5 is the pipe 
with seven reeds. Fig. y is the single flute as given by Pfeiffer, from Niebuhr. In fig. a we 
see a musician blowing the double flute ; it is taken from a representation found at Pompeii 
(cf. Pompeii, p. 260, as cited P. I. $1226. 1). Fig. ii. presents also, as has been supposed, the 
double flute ; it is from a representation found at Herculaneum ; the two parts seem to be of 
equal length. (The same appears to be the case in the views given Plate XX. fig. A and i.) — ■■ 
Fig. 7i is the kcras or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. t is another form, straight ; by some 
supposed to represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelites in the wilderness 
(cf. Numbers, x. 2). Fig. B. shows a form of the Roman curnu. Fig, 1 presents a performer 
upon a sort of flute ; it is from an Egyptian monument. Fig. A. is taken from an ancient altar 
on which is sculptured the funeral pomp of Hector ; the figure here given leads the procession; 
it is a woman blowing a long flute with its extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet ; a' 
funeral pipe, used as an accompaniment to the threne or funeral song (cf. Matt. xi. 17). See- 
Galand, as cited § 282. 2. — A description of the hydraulis is given in a treatise of the mathe- 
matician Heron (cf Thevenot, Vet. Math. Op., cited P. II. §40S£. 1) ; a drawing designed after" 
this description is found in ForkcPs Geschichte der Musik (cited P. I. § 63). Cf. Nov. Coram.. 
Soc. Reg. (Sotting, vol. n. — J. Hawkins, History of Music. Lond. 1776". 5 vols. 4. 

3. Instruments of percussion: some instruments of this class were also 
used; r.ru n arov, a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the 
other, formed of wood with leather drawn over it ; much used at the festivals* 
of Cybele and of Bacchus ; y.i\u8u?.a, cymbals which were of metal (/ul.y.u) ; 
usually large and broad ; sometimes smaller so that two were held in each 
hand of the player, and such as are used by oriental dancing-women. The 
xwSaiv was merely a little bell. The xQoraZov is described by some, as a sort 
of bell made of brass ; by others, as " made of a reed split in two and so fit- 
ted as to emit a sound from the touch." The asiaroov, sistrum, was properly 
an Egyptian instrument, used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval 
frame, with several bars of metal, which passed through it transversely, and' 
being loose gave sounds when the instrument was shaken in the hand. A 
peculiar instrument was formed by placing metallic rings so as to move freely* 
upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the form of a circle, sometimes 
of a triangle. 

Several instruments of percussion are exhibited in Plate XXI. Fig, iii. is the tympanum or 
drum ; in fig. h are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called castanets. Fig. 0, differ- 
ent forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the triangle with rings ; by it is a stick with a knob 
at the end, used perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the 
hands of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf. Dan. iii. 10).— 
The sistrum is seen in fig. 0, of Plate XX. 

On the musical instruments of the ancients, cf. Montfaucon, as cited P. III. § 12. 2. (d), vol, 
m. p. 342, and Suppleni. vol. in. p. 185. — Calmet, Dictionary &c. vol. in. p. 337. eel. Chariest". 
1818. — Pfeiffer, on the Music of the Hebrews, translated by O. Jl. Taylor, in the Bibl. Rnpbsit. 
$ Quart. Ot/serv. vol. vi. p. 357. (With a plate.) — Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, Article Instrumental 
Musik. 

§ 18L The restraint imposed upon the female sex among the 
Greeks has already been mentioned (§ 59). This state of subjection 
and degradation continued even in the most flourishing times. Un- 
married females were very narrowly watched. Their apartment in 
the house (nao&£Vb>v) was commonly kept closed and fastened. The mar- 
ried women were at liberty only to go as far as the door of the court 
or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. In general,. 



548 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not 
without wearing a veil (xu?.vtctqov). 

1 u. In Sparta, however, only married women were required to wear veils ; 
the unmarried might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far 
more liberty at Sparta than at Athens. Lycurgus hoped by removing re- 
straints to promote an innocent familiarity of intercourse. But this free- 
dom, however virtuous it might be at first, at length degenerated into licen- 
tiousness. 

On the state of female society in Greece, see Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxii. 163. — Bibl. Repos. 
vol. ii. p. 478. — Social Condition of the ancient Greeks. Oxf. 1832. — H. Walker, Woman physio- 
logically considered as to Mind, Morals, &x. Lond. 1839. 8. 

2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the 
earlier ages (cf. § 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom and shuttle. 
They also employed the needle (ayJatQa, yaipig) in making garments, and va- 
rious furniture for household use. Embroidery (poyov <£>at'yiwr or <f>ofy('ovu)r, 
opus Plirygium) was an art much cultivated. Curtains y/isQovi'^ara) and oth- 
er articles, richly embroidered (riolvy.sOTvt), were wrought for private dwell- 
ings and for the temples (cf. § 28). 

A splendid work on Ancient Tapestry has recently been commenced at Paris, (1837,) and ia 
to be completed in 4 vols. fol. with cuts and engravings. 

§ 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, 
and was promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, 
certain penalties were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried 
after a certain acre. At Athens also, all who wished to be COmmand- 
ers or Orators, or to hold any public office, were required to have a 
family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other hand was not 
permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases. 
The age at which marriage should be allowed was also prescribed, a 
younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter at 
Athens, were forbidden to marry until they were thirty-five. At Spar- 
ta the usual age for men to marry was thirty, and for women twenty. 
Marriage between parties of near consanguinity was not allowed, or 
at least was generally viewed as improper and scandalous. The 
Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters by the same fath- 
er (ouonaTQiovg), although not those by the same mother (Suom^Qiovg). 
In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a 
citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception. 

1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with severity. Although po- 
lygamy was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without re- 
straint. Concubines (naJ.luy.'idsg) were usually captives or purchased slaves. 
Prostitution was exceedingly common, and favored even by the whole system 
of religious worship. In Athens the most distinguished statesmen and phi- 
losophers openly associated with females of dissolute morals (ira'i^ui.). The 
city of Corinth was still more famous for licentiousness. 

Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bibl. Repos. vol. n. p. 441. 

2 t. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to con- 
sult the parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (t/jrt'r^o- 
77.0c). The betrothing was usually made in a formal manner by the father. 
The parties pledged to each other mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining 
right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed on the bride a present as a pledge 
of his honor, called aona, a^oaJdjv, iivijarQor. The giving of a dowry (nnoic, 
tpegvi,} with the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens it was 
a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In 
Sparta, however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement 
of the dowry, and the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called 
in, and the husband delivered an acknowledgement or receipt (rrQoaiMa), when 
he took the stipulated gifts. At Athens it was customary before the actual 



PLATE XXI. 




550 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

marriage, to present the bride before Diana with offerings and prayers ; this 
ceremony was called agxTsta, and was designed to appease the goddess, who 
was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities, male 
and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore 
called yau/j/.ioi -d-sol, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering 
into the marriage contract. 

3 m. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, 
were adorned with garlands and flowers. Towards evening the bride was 
conducted to the house of the bridegroom (olxov ayso&ai) either on foot or in 
a carriage (aQua). The bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was 
called rcuQo/og or TtaQuvvuyog. A procession went before her, bearing lighted 
torches, and accompanied with music and dancing. When the newly married 
couple entered the house, it was customary to place or pour upon their heads 
figs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to a banquet, 
which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yuuog, and was 
attended with music and dancing. The songs were called vuhaioi, or vuhsg. 
After the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber 
(■d-a/.uuoo), which, as well as the nuptial bed (j.kyog, Isxtqov), was usually 
highly decorated (jiaarbg) for the occasion. The young men and maids re- 
mained without, dancing and singing the InibaZuuiov xotutjnxov, while a 
friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door (-9v()(x>Q6g). This 
company returned to the door in the morning, and sung what was called tho 
tTci&uluuiov tysQTiy.ov. The nuptial solemnities occupied several days; one of 
the days was called Inavlia; another, unuvlia. 

See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. lxxvii. — 
On the marriage customs in Sparta, cf. Mutter, bk.iv. ch. iv. 

4. Children were discriminated as yvt' t aioi, lawfully begotten ; r6& ot, born 
of harlots or concubines ; -dtTol, adopted. It was an ancient custom for le- 
gitimate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, 
without respect to priority of birth ; allowing a small pittance to such as were 
unlawfully begotten. If there were no legitimate sons, the estate of the fa- 
ther fell to the daughters ; but their nearest relatives might claim them in 
marriage. Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to adopt whom 
they pleased; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could 
not take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — 
Free citizens were permitted to dispose of their property by will (dia&^xri), 
after the time of Solon ; but there were certain conditions to be regarded. 
Wills were signed and sealed before witnesses, and put into the hands of 
trustees (iniueJ.tjrai.) who were to execute them. 

Potter, Arch. Grasc. bk. iv. ch. xv. — Blanchard, On Laws respecting adoption &c. in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. xn. 68. — Orations of Isoeus (cf. P. II. § 104.) 

§ 183. Something should be said of the Greek customs in later 
times in reference, to funerals and burials. Funeral obsequies were 
considered as a sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore 
termed dixaia, vUnua, oaia. They were denied only to notorious crim- 
inals, traitors, and suicides, especially such as destroyed themselves 
to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like, whose remains, if 
they happened to obtain burial, were even disinterred. 

§ 184 1. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have 
already (§ 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the 
corpse in a costly robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it 
with green boughs and garlands of flowers. The body was then laid out to 
view (jtQOTidt-oQai) in the entrance of the house, on the ground, or on a bier 
((piysTQov), where it remained at least one day, with the feet towards the gate. 
It was while here constantly watched. A vase of lustral water (agSuriov) 
stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly before it was removed 
for burial, a piece of money, usually an dpotig, was placed in the mouth, as 
the fare {Savkxi], noq&idor) due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the 
Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (usAirrovra) was also put in the 
mouth, to appease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into 
Hades (%4<%). 



PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATTEft AGES. OOl 

Respecting Hades ^ cf. P. III. $32. It does not appear that the Greeks practiced thd 

Egyptian custom of embalming the dead. — De Caijlns, on the embalming of the Egyptians, iri 
the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxin. 119, 

§ 185t. The ftiiiei'al itself was termed litxouiS»i, or lx<foqa\ the carrying forth 
t>f the corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere 
in the day time. In Greece, generally, young persons were buried at break of* 
day or early morning twilight. The corpse \Vas placed on a bier, or if the 
deceased had been a warrior, on a large shield, and the bearers earned it ori 
their shoulders (aqdrjv </>*o? iv), followed by the friends and relatives of both 
Sexes. The procession was commonly oil horseback, or in carriages ; it was a 
token of higher respect when all went on foot. — Sorrow for the deceased 
was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by wearing black 
&nd sordid garments, by covering tlie head with ashes^and plucking off the 
hair, by cries of lamentation, artd by funeral dirges. The latter were per- 
formed by musicians employed for the purpose (-dQi'^wv fSao^ot) ; one was 1 
Bung as the corpse was borne forward, another at the funeral pile, and a 
third at the grave ; they were called d/.ocpvQuoi; also lu/.suoi, ru7.tu.qi. 

Funeral chants are still common in Greece, termed myriclogues, — See Mrs. Hemans, Greete 
Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Bost. 1827. vol. n. p. 160. 

§ 186, The custom of burning the corpse became universal among 
the later Greeks ; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly men- 
tioned before (§ 31). 

1 1. The ashes and bones were gathered (6ojo?.uytoV) in an urn, and buried 
commonly without the city, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose, 
The urns used for this purpose (xu?.7tai, xuqvaxsg, ooroQijxai, ooqoi, &c.) were* 
made of different materials, Wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the 
rank and circumstances of the deceased. These urns were sometimes en- 
Closed in a sort of chest, which Was formed of stone or other materials ; and 
to this chest, as well as to the Urn, the term aaqxo(puyo$ seems to have beeri 
applied. 

The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babylon to Alexandria in a splendid carriage? 
and his funeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy* The Sarcophagus, in Which the* 
golden coffin or urn containing his remains was enclosed, is said to be now in the British Mu- 
seum, having been discovered at Alexandria by the French in the expedition of Bonaparte and 
by them surrendered to the English. — E. D. Clarke, The tomb of Alexander. Camb. 1805. 8, 
Cf. also Clarke's Travels, vol. in. p. 164. ed. N. Y. 1815.— Quatr. de Quincy, Sur le char fune- 
raire qui transports de Babylone en Egypte le corps d'Alexandre, in the Mem, de VAcad. de$ 
Inscr. Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 315, with a plate. Cf. C. de Caylus, in the Memi 
de V Acad, rfes Inscr. xxxi. 86. 

On the urns and vases found in sepulchres, cf. Pi I. § 173, — On an alabaster Sarcophagus 
discovered at Thebes, in the tombs of the Kings, Lond. Q.uart. Rev. xvin, 369 ; xix. 192, 404/ 

2t. The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulo- 
gy, with games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases,- 
Were repeated on successive anniversaries. — In the case of such as had died 
in war, the oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their 
decease, was viewed as so important, that the speaker for the occasion wa£ 
appointed by the public magistrates. Thus Pericles was appointed, when the 
Athenians solemnized a public funeral for those first killed in the Peloponne- 
sian war (Thucyd. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same honor was ren- 
dered to those who fell in the fatal battle of Choeronea (cf. Mitford's Greece,- 
ch. xlvii. sect. 6). 

For a very interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of the dead, the 
student is referred to the 23d book of the Iliad, where Homer gives an account of the funeral of 
Patroclus. 

Solemn games With rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor of his friend Hephais- 
tion at Ecbatana ; the whole ceremonies of the funeral were conducted with great magnifi- 
cence, according to Arrian (lib. vii). Diodorus Siculus speaks also particularly of Hephsestion's- 
funeral pile. — Cf. Comte de Caylus, Le bilcher d' Hephaestion, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxi„ 
76. — Quatr. de Quincy, on the same, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d'Hist. ct Lit. Anc. iv. p* 
395, with a plate. 

§ 187. The sepulchral monuments of distinguished men were built 
often with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also fre- 
quently erected to them in other spots, where there ashes were nol 
deposited. 



S52 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

1. In early times, the Greeks were accustomed to place their dead iii repos- 
itories, made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were some* 
times made repositories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered em- 
inent public services. But in later ages it became the general custom to bury 
the dead without the cities and chiefly by the highways. Graves at first were 
mere openings dug in the earth, V7i6yaia> Soon there was a custom of pav- 
ing and arching them With stone. The place of interment was originally 
marked simply by a barrow or mound of earth (/ouia) ; which sometimes had 
a circular basis of masonry (xQtjTtlg). On this arude stone (oijua) was placed 
afterwards; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a cippus or truncated col- 
umn (oTtp.tj) ; at length, larger and more imposing monuments were built. 

2. The terms iivrua and uvi]uttov Were applied to designate the whole struc- 
ture, including the receptacle for the remains and the monumental erections. 
Two parts are discriminated ; (1) the grave strictly, called -#»,'x>7, anp.onov^ 
rrufioc, Tucpoc, iqLov, which last means specially the portion Under ground } 
(2) the space around it, Usually fenced with poles or a sort of balustrade^ 
called -Sqiyxoc;, oiiTCtj, ntQLoixodoutj, c fqx.os, otjy.oc ; within this space the mon- 
umental pillarg (artjlai) and ornaments were erected. — On the pillars, or oth- 
er structures forming the tomb, were placed inscriptions (iniyQa(pai) ; and 
often images of the deceased (Jiyu/.uara), and also other ornaments, with de- 
Vices denoting their Gharaoter and pursuits or particular achievements.. Thus 
on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on that of 
Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and 
teylinder. Tombs adorned With sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered 
at Athens and other places. 

Bee De Boze, Descript. d'un Tortlbeau &c. in the Mem. de VAcacL des Inscr. lv. 648. — Arch- 
tcologia (as cited F> It $243.3), vol; xm» p. 280, on a Greek sepulchral Monument; With 4 
£>late. 

3. Cenotaphs (y.svorucpia, -Atv^Qta) were monuments erected for the dead, 
Which were not the repositories for their remains. They were raised both for 
persons who had never obtained a proper funeral, and also for such as had re* 
ceived funeral honors in another place. It was a notion of the ancients, that 
the ghosts of unburied persons could not be admitted into the regions of the 
blessed, without first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one per- 
ished at sea or where his body could not be found; the only way to procure 
•repose for him was to build an empty tomb, and by certain rites and invoca* 
lions call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. 

A common place of sepulture for many individuals was called nolvavSqtov* 
■■ — The term y.oiurjri'^iov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Chris* 
tians, in accordance with their faith, that the grave is but a temporary sleep 1 * 
ing -place. 

4. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length 
led to such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints* 
The splendor of the monument erected to Mausolus (cf. P. III. § 72) occa- 
sioned the word Mausoleum to be applied as a common name to such struo 
tures. 

In our Plate XV. are some specimens of monumental structures. Fig. 1. represents a tomB 
of white marble, at Mourghab in Persia, corresponding to the ancient Pasargada ; it has com- 
monly been supposed to be the Tomb of Cyrus, which was erected by himself and visited by 
Alexander (cf. Arrian, vi. 29) ; some, however, declare it to be a more modern structure. — 

.Morler, cited P. I. §243. 3. Fig. 2. represents a structure called Absalom's Pillar. In the 

time of Josephus there was a marble structure by this name, said to have been reared by Ab- 
salom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). The one here given is, however, no doubt comparatively recent 
" The lower portion is quadrangular, standing detached from the living rock, from which it 
was hewn. Upon the four facades are cut Ionic pillars, above which is a frieze with Dorie 
metopes and triglyphs. Over this basis rises a square piece of masonry, smaller ; and the 

Whole is crowned by a tall conical tower, finishing in a point." Fig. 3. gives a view of 

the Tomb of Cestius at Rome ; cf. P. I. § 226. 1 : it is taken from Pronti, cited P. I. § 243. 3. 

* Fig. 4. presents the gates of a tomb ; over them is a Greek inscription, Glycon and Hemera 

■to the ivfernal gods ; Mercury, with his wand, is represented as in the act of closing or opening 
them, it being a part of his office to introduce departed spirits into Hades. This figure is given 
in Calmet, to illustrate the expression " gates of hades " in MatU xvi. 18. — Calmet, Dictionary 
&c. vol. in. p. 279. Chariest. 1813, 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction, 

§ 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather 
than antiquities, to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, 
and the extent of their empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and 
a few remarks upon them, will aid in getting a better view of the Ro- 
man antiquities, and enable one to understand and appreciate more 
correctly the people and their more important peculiarities. Some 
preliminary notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and 
then something respecting the Romans themselves. 

§ 189, According to the common accounts of history, the city of 
Rome was founded 752 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand child- 
ren of the Alban king Numitor. It was situated not far from the 
mouth of the Tiber, in Latium, a province in middle Italy. In the 
beginning it was of small extent, confined to Mount Palatine, on 
which it was built. The number of inhabitants did not amount to 
4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called op- 
pidum, while the better part, later built, was called urbs, which be- 
came at length a general name for Rome. It was first peopled by 
some families from Alba Longa, and afterwards by various acces- 
sions (cf. P. I. § 109, 110) ; partly of the vagabond and worthless 
from the neighboring people of Italy. 

1 u. The Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the Palatine, and at last 
five other mountains or hills were included in the city, and thence was de- 
rived the epithet septicollis. The first walls around the city were low and 
weak ; Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius improved them. 

2u. Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of 
the city were the capture and burning of it by the Gauls, 385 B.C., and the 
erection of numerous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and after the con* 
flagration under Nero. In the two last mentioned periods, Rome was very 
rapidly enlarged and adorned, and continued to be further improved under 
succeeding emperors down to the time of Honorius. In his reign occurred 
the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under Alaric, A. D. 410. The 
city was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodoric. But by that disaster^ and 
the still greater devastations of the Gothic king Totila, A. D. 547, it lost 
much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the ages following 

Su. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, 
there is a vast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of the latter 
we find only certain traces and monuments, and these are in part mere ruins 
and fragments. 

P. Macquier, Romische J&hrbuclier, oder chronol. Abriss der Gesch. Roms ; aus dem Franz. 
mit Anmerk. von C. D. Beck, Leipz-. 1783. 8. — For a more particular notice of Rome and its 
topography, see P. V. § 51 ss. 

§ 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the 
republic and beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was 

47 



554 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

very great. The number of citizens may be estimated at 300 thou- 
sand, and the whole number of residents at 2 millions and upwards, 

" Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only form 
conjectures. Lipsius computes them, in its most flourishing state, at four mil- 
lions." (Adam.) Tacitus (Annals, L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in 
the reign of Claudius the number of Roman citizens amounted to nearly 7 
millions ; it is supposed that this number must have included the citizens in 
Other places besides the city of Rome itself. — Gibbon has the following re- 
marks on the population of the Roman empire : " The number of subjects 
who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, 
cannot now be fixed with such a degree of accuracy as the importance of the 
object would deserve. We are informed that when the emperor Claudius ex- 
ercised the office of Censor, he took an account of six millions nine hundred 
and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, who with the proportion of women 
and children must have amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The 
multitude of subjects, of an inferior rank, was uncertain and fluctuating. But 
after weighing with attention every circumstance which could influence the 
balance, it seems probable that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about 
twice as many provincials as there were citizens, of either sex and of every 
age ; and that the slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabit- 
ants of the Roman world. The total amount of this imperfect calculation 
would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons ; a degree 
of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the 
most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of 
government." 

De la Malic, Sur la population libve &c. delaRepubl. Rom. in the Mem. de PInstitut, Classe 
de Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. x. 461. — Wallace, on the Numbers of Mankind. — Hume, Essay on the 
Populousness of anc. Nations. — Amer. Quart. Register, vol. ix. 140. 

§ 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six 
thousand paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings 
considerably enlarged the dominion of Rome. During the time of 
the republic her empire was rapidly and widely spread, and at length, 
by numerous and important conquests, a great part of the known 
world was subjected to her sway. 

1m. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire were the 
Euphrates on the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, and Mt. 
Atlas on the south, the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on 
the north. Under some of the succeeding emperors, even these limits were 
transcended. 

The following countries were subject to Rome : in Asia ; Colchis, Iberia, 
Albania, Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palsestina, the Bosphorus, Cappa- 
docia, Galatia, Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of 
Asia Minor : in Africa ; Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gaetulia, Africa Pro- 
pria, Numidia, and Mauretania : and in Europe ; Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the 
Alps, Rhaetia, Noricum, Illyricum, Macedonia, Epirus, Graecia, Thracia, Mce- 
sia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to these were a number of islands, 
from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to which Britain may be added. 

2u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The 
emperor Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and separated 
Italy, Spain, Gaul, Aquitania and Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into 
provinces. — One of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine 
the Great, who divided the empire into four Praefecturates, containing various 
dioceses and distinct provinces, for the government of which he appointed a 
number of new magistrates (§ 309. 2). 

The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its various changes, is found in 
Onuphrii Panvinii Romanum Imperium, in the Thesaurus Antiq. Rom. of Crrceoius, vol. l. — Cf. 
Gibbon, Decl. and Fall &c. Ch. 1. 

§ 192. In a few centuries the Romans acquired a greatness and 
power, which is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all 
history. 



INTRODUCTION. 555 

lit. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warlike char- 
acter, for which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily- 
strength and superior prowess constituted the grand object of their wishes and 
efforts, and war and agriculture were their only pursuits. A great part of the 
people were directly occupied in their constant wars; the proportion of sol- 
diers compared with the rest of the citizens is estimated to have been as 1 to 
8. All the early Romans felt an equal interest in defending their country, 
because the conquered territory was divided equally among them. In addi- 
tion to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of main- 
taining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the gov- 
ernment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other 
nations. 

2u. To treat of these topics belongs to history ; yet a brief view of the 
principal revolutions in Roman affairs seems to be necessary for our object. 

§ 193^. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. 
According to the common accounts (not altogether certain, however,) six 
other kings succeeded him ; Nuraa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius , Ancus Martius , 
Tarquinius Priscvs, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus ; men of active 
enterprise, who contributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The 
most remarkable circumstances or events, during the regal form of govern- 
ment, were the division of the people into Tribes, Curise, Classes, and Cen- 
turies ; the separation of Patricians and Plebeians ; the establishment of the 
senate, and of the religious worship ; the settlement of the mode of comput- 
ing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxation ; and the in- 
troduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that the prin- 
ciples of the government under this first form were not strictly monarchical, 
but rather of a mixed character, and really laid the foundation of the subse- 
quent advantageous system of the republic. During this whole period, the 
Romans were involved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war con- 
tributed to their success, for they never would makepeace until they had con- 
quered. The regal government continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 
509, because the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, had provoked the nobility by 
arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by heavy impositions. 

The immediate occasion of Tarquin's expulsion, and the abolition of the monarchy, is said 
to have been the vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, hy Sextus Tarquin- 
ius, the king's son. Cf. Goldsmith's Rome by Pinnock ; p. 85. ed. Phila. 1835. 

§ 194 m. Ptome was now a free state, at first aristocratical, and then for a 
period governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustain- 
ed by their tribunes, constantly increased. During this time the dominion of 
the Romans, as well as the vigor of their constitution was augmented; their 
legislation was judicious; and their morals comparatively rigid. For a con- 
siderable period they maintained an elevated national character, in which sim- 
plicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit of enterprize, a strong sense of 
justice, daring boldness and self denial and the warmest patriotism, were 
prominent traits. — The most brilliant era in the Roman republic was the first 
half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during 
the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was 
in possession of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption 
of morals advanced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we 
may mention the victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the le- 
gions and officers amidst the luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of 
Corinth and Carthage ; each of these things contributed to the unhappy re- 
sult. Through debauchery, luxury and effeminacy, the Romans now suffered 
a universal degeneracy cf manners and morals, although they gained from 
their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations an increase of 
knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. 

A valuable work on this subject is the following ; Chr. Mciners, Geschichte des Verfalls der 
Sitten und der Staatsverfassune der Rbmer. Leipz. 1782. 8. — Also by same, Geschichte des 
Verfalls der Hitten, Wissenschaften und Sprache dei Rbmer in den ersten Jahrhunderten nach 
€'h. geburt. Wien und Leipzig. 1791. 8. — More minute, but especially instructive, is Ad. Fer- 
guson's Rise and Prog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. II. §296. 5. (f.) — On the state of morals in 
ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv. p. 579. 

§ 195 m. Selfishness, avarice and lust of power were immediate consequen- 
ces of this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy 



556 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

disorders in the state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended 
for the supreme authority. Octavius at last gained the point, and under the 
name of Augustus was the first possessor of the now established Imperial 
throne. His reign throughout was a flourishing period of Roman history. 
Some of his successors were worthy rulers. But much more effectual and 
more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who disgraced the throne by 
the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these, the already 
prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession the 
most violent and fatal internal commotions ; the right of the strongest tri- 
umphed over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to 
prop up the sinking dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final 
ruin. 

Goldsmith's Rome, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Cf. P. II. § 296. 5- 
( f ). — Bridge'' s Roman Empire under Constantine the Great. 

§ 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, 
that their history must be crowded with interesting and instructive 
incidents ; and that a familiar acquaintance with their constitution 
and customs must be highly useful. The utility of studying the Ro- 
man antiquities needs therefore no further recommendation. 

1m. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiqui- 
ties in order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other 
advantages, which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, 
and of every one, in tact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refine- 
mentand taste. It is essential as a help in reading the distinguished Roman au- 
thors, whose writings are preserved, and in obtaining a correct idea of the va- 
rious works of Roman art. 

2«. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be 
drawn, are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the histor- 
ians. There are also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they 
lived among the Romans, and being strangers, many things must strike them 
as more important and remarkable than they might seem to the native citi- 
zens. Among the latter class of writers are Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, 
Plutarch, Appian and Dion Cassius, and even, some later writers, as Procopius, 
Zonaras, Jjydus, &c. Some aid may be d'erived also from the writings of the 
Christian Fathers. 

3 m. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of 
science. The materials drawn from the sources just named, and various 
others, have been digested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on 
the other, particular branches of the subject have been examined in more full 
detail. Yet this has perhaps never been done with sufficient knowledge of 
fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimination ; the essential has not been 
sufficiently distinguished from the less important, nor the general and univer- 
sal from the particular and local; nor has there been suitable care to i^ote the 
periods, in, which the customs and principles were introduced, made preva-- 
lent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than avoid 
in tfie brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot be fally re- 
moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. 

§ 197. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 

1. The largest Collections of separate treat- 
ises are the two following ; Jo. Georg. Grcevi- 
us, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum ; c. 
fig. Traj. ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 vols. fol. (For 
an account of the contents of this, see Ap- 
pendix to Kennett cited below). — J. M. Pole- 
ims, Supplement to Graevius and Gronovius. 
Ven. 1737. 5, vols. fol. — Alb. Henr. de Sallen- 
grc, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. Com. 
1716—19. 3 vols. fol. Very useful on ac- 
count of its copiousness and its good references 
is Sam. Pitisct Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. 
Com. 1737. 3. vol. fol. — As a system formally 
arranged may he mentioned, Jo. Rosini Antiq. 
Roman. Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. TIw. 
Dempsteri. Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. J. F. 
Reitziu3.) Amst. 1743. 4, -rr^Meusel as cited 



§ 240, vol. 3d. exhibits the writer son Roman 
Antiquities &c. 

2. The best manuals. — Bas. Kennett, Roma? 
Antiquae Notitia, or the Antiquities of Rome, 
in two parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have 
been many later editions ; first American, 
Phil. 1822. 8. — : G, H. JVieuport, Rituum, qui 
olim apud Romanos obtinuerunt, succincta ex- 
plicatio. 14th ed. Berl. 1784. 8.— C. G. Swartz, 
Observationes ad Nieuportii Compendium an- 
tiquitatum Romanarum (ed. A. M. Nagel). 
Altd. 1757. 8. — C. J. H. Haymann, Anmer- 
kungen iiber JVieuport's Handbuch der rom- 
ischen Alterthiimer. Dresd. 1786. 8. — Christ. 
Cellarius, Compendium Antiq. Rom. cum. ad- 
not. J. E. Im. Malchii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. — G 
C, Matfimus von Cilano, Ausf,uhrliche Abh.an.d- 



INTRODUCTION. 



557 



lung der romischen Alterthumer, herausgege- 
ben von G. C. Adler, Altona, 1775, 76. 4 vols. 
4. — C. G. Heynii Antiquitas romana, inprimis 
juris romani. Gbtt. 1779. 8.— P. F. A. JSTitsh, 
Beschreibung des h'auslichen, wissenschaftli- 
chen, sittlichen, gottesdienstlichen, politi- 
schen und kriegerischen Zustandes der Rbmer, 
nach den verschiedenen Zeitaltern der Na- 
tion, by J. H. M. Emcsti, Erfurt, 1812. 2 vols. 
8. — Same work abridged (by Ernesti). Erf. 
1812. 8.—K. Ph. Moritz, ANQOY2A, 
oder Rom's Alterthumer. 1st part (of the sac- 
red rites of the Romans), Berl. 1791, 1797. 8. 
2d part (of the civil and private affairs), ed. 

by F. Rambach, Berl. 1796. Alexander Adam, 

Roman Antiquities &.c. Edinb. 1791,8. Often 
reprinted. An improved ed. by James Boyd. 
Edinb. 1834. 12mo. Another ed. by J. R. Major, 
Oxf. 1837. 8 Transl. into German with im- 
provements by ./. L. Meyer (3d ed). Erlang. 
1818. 2 vols. 8. — J. K. Unger, Sitten und 
Gebrauche der Rbmer. Wien. 1805, 6. 2 vols. 
8. with plates. — 6. G. Kopke, Antiquitates 
Romans, in xii. tab. descr. Berl 1808. — L. 
Schaaff, Antiquit'aten und Arch'aologie der 
Griechen und Romer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. 
Altcrthumskunde). Magdeb. 1820. 8 — F. Creut- 
zer, Abriss der romischen Antiquit'aten zum 
Gebrauche bei Vorlesungen. Leipz. 1824. 8. 

Less extensive but useful and instructive is 
the following, J. H. L. Meierotto, Ueber Sitten 
und Lebensart der Rbmer, in verschiedenen 
Zeiten der Republic. Berlin 1814. 8. (Ed. Ph. 
Buttmavn). — Worthy of mention also is, 
TVilcocWs Roman Conversations, or Descrip- 
tions of the Antiquities of Rome. Eond. 1797. 

2 vols. 8. The following are abridgments; 

Abriss der griech. und rbmisch. Alterthumer, 
von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal, 1821. — Ro- 
man Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for 
Classical Schools ; by'C/ts, K. Dill away' Bos- 
ton, 1831. 2d ed. 1835. — Thos. S. Carr, Manual 
of Rom. Antiquities. Lond. 1836, 12. 

3. We may also refer here to Montfav con's 
Antiquite Expliquee, as illustrating by its 
plates and descriptions Roman as well as Greek 
Antiquities (cf. § 13). — The following work 
contains many excellent delineations ; Rac- 



colta Tavole rappresent. i costumi religiosi, 
civili e militari degli antichi Egiziani, Etru- 
schi, Grecie Romani, tratti dagli antichi mon- 
umenti, — disegrate, ed incise in rame, da 
Lorenzo Roccheggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing 

100 plates each. As pertaining especially 

to the subject of costume, we add, Bardon, 
Costume des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 

vols. 4. #. Lens, Le Costume, ou Essai sur 

les habillements et les usages de plus, peupl. 
de l'Antiquite, prouve par les monuments. 
Liege, 1776. 4. — Thos. Hope, The costume of 
the Ancients, Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 8. with nu- 
merous engravings in outline. — Particularly, 
Maillot §■ Martin, Recherches sur les costumes, 
les mceurs &.c. des anciens peuples &c. — orne 
de 296 planches, au trait. Par. 1804-6. 3 vols. 
4. " The 1st volume contains, in great detail, 
the costume, manners &c. of the Romans, 
from Romulus to the last emperors of Constan- 
tinople. The engravings are taken from med- 
als and monuments of each epoch." 

5. It is proper also to refer here to works il- 
lustrating the remains of Roman Antiquity. — 
See P. I. § 130, 138, 187, 188, 191, 226, 243.— 
W. Stukelc'y, Itinerarium Curiosum, &c. Lond. 
1760. 2 vols, in one fol. with 200 copper plates ; 
containing notices of Roman monuments in 
England. — The Publications of the Instituto 
di Correspondenza Archeologica, a society for 
archaeological correspondence, founded in 
Rome by several distinguished scholars and 
antiquaries. The Bulletino dell' Instituto, com- 
menced 1829, contains brief notices of new 
discoveries and new works with other articles 
of special interest. By the title of Monumcnti 
Jnediti, the annual volume of plates is desig- 
nated. The Annali dell' Instituto, the chief pub- 
lication, gives essays, reviews, and extended 
descriptions. Gerhard, Kestner, Raoul-Roch- 
ette, Bock, Panofka, Hirt, Miiller, Millingen, 
&c. have been contributors, 

6. On various points, Lardner, Pauly, JVcber, 
Fosbrnke, &x. as cited § 13. 5. — Lockhart's 
Valerius, Bulwer's Pompeii, and Ware's Letters 
from Palmyra, are fictions professing to ex- 
hibit the state of manners in the first centur- 
ies after Christ. 



§ 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek, 
under four distinct branches; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of 
religion, civil government, war, and private life. 



(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well 
to notice the ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Oris- 

to to to 

inally, rcligio seems to have signified every sort of serious and earn- 
est exertion, to which one was impelled by external or internal mo- 
tives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to express the included idea of 
duty towards the Deity and towards fellow creatures; and the theory 
of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. In the 
plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and prac- 
tices pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, 
in as much as the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and 
the Divine Being will lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility 
and conscientiousness of deportment, the word rcligio was also nat- 
urally employed as comprehending in its meaning this correctness 
of morals. 

47* 



558 II OMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 200.. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the R man3y 
we must i?evertJto the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 188), 
There doubtless existed in Latium, long before the founding of 
Rome, various religious customs, and the worship of various divini- 
ties; and 1 it is not easy to trace out their gradual rise and establish-' 
ment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, and Arcadia, 
this native religion received many additions and modifications ; hence" 
the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of my- 
thology and worship (cf. P. III. § 8). In some particulars the Ro- 
man traditions differ from those of the Greeks, where the divinities 
and their chief attributes are the same. The Romans also adopted 
several religious usages not practiced by the Greeks, as e. g. in rela- 
tion to auguries and auspices, which' were borrowed from the Etru- 
rians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great preva- 
lence of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. 

§ 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, 
intimately connected with their politics. It was often employed as 
a means of promoting secret designs of state, which the projectors 
knew how to render agreeable and desirable, by the help of supersti- 
tion. Thus the' inclinations of the mass of the people were deter- 
mined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enterprises 
derived their most effective stimulus from this source ; and not sel- 
dom it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since 
love of country was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the 
religious solemnities and festivals served to foster and to deepen sen- 
timents of awe and fear towards the gods, and thus contributed to 
the same end; The purpose and influence of the gods were consid- 
ered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this belief 
was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to- im- 
part dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the inter- 
vention and agency of the gods therein. 

§ 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romulus made it a 
prominent object to render the national religion a means of union 
between the various and discordant materials of which the first in- 
habitants were composed. Still more carefully was this object pur- 
sued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the chief author of 
many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, as 
has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His 
pretended interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, 
secured greater respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental 
principles of Numa's system, being 1 retained, were afterwards carried : 
out more fully and variously. — As knowledge and sound philosophy 
advanced among the Romans, the religious notions of the more in- 
telligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; but this was 
confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common faith, 
even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cum- 
brous by the deification of the emperors. 

On Numa, cf. P. II. § 447. — For a particular account of the gods worshiped by the Romans, 
we refer to the part (III.) of this work which treats of the subject of Mythology. The Roman 
division or classification of their gods is noticed in (P. III.) §9. 

§ 203. The g?eat number of the Roman deities occasioned a. large 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. TEMPLES- ALTARS. 55^ 

iiumber of temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome 
above four hundred (420). The name of temples, templa, however, 
properly belonged only to such religious buildings as were solemnly 
consecrated by the augurs ; by this circumstance, and also by a less 
simple style of architecture, they were distinguished from the <zdes 
sacrce, although the names are often used interchangeably. Their 
form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangular oftener 
than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- 
monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the build- 
ing, and also after a remodeling or repairing of it. — The principal 
parts of a temple were commonly the sanctuary (cella sanctior, ady- 
tum), the interior, appropriated for the ceremonies of sacrifice, and 
the exterior or court, serving for various purposes. The temples 
however were often used, not only for religious solemnities, but also 
for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They usu- 
ally stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at 
least ornamented with them on the front. 

On the structure cf ancient temples, cf. P. I. $234, and references there given. — Simon, 
Temples de l'ancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad. laser, i. 199. — See P. V. §58-60. — We may 
obtain an idea of the ceremonies at the dedication or consecration of a temple from Tacitus^ 
Hist. iv. 53. — Cf. also Hookc's Rom. Hist. vol. x. p. 282, as cited P. II. § 299. 7. 

§ 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did 
the Greeks, with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture 
and painting, and with consecrated offerings of various kinds, called 
donaria. Every thing connected with a temple was held as sacred to 
the god or gods to whom it was devoted. — A general name for such 
places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings were there 
erected, was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a 
more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the 
temple where stood the images of the gods, one or more ; but it is 
often used in a more general sense. Small temples, or chapels, also 
places for worship without roofs and only guarded by a wall, were 
termed sacella. Among the groves (luci) consecrated to the gods, 
of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, Egeria, 
Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. 

§ 205. Altars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and 
were then inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they 
were dedicated; usually, however, they were placed in temples. A 
distinction was made between alt aria and arce ; the former were 
raised higher, and were used for offering the sacrificial victim ; the 
latter were lower, and were used in offering the prayer and libation. 
The former were more usually consecrated to the celestial gods, the 
latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and were 
so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 

lu. There was also a third, kind of altar, anclabris or enclalris, a sort of ta- 
ble, on which the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims 
were laid by the Haruspices. The mensa sacra was something still different, 
a table on which incense was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed 
to be burned, as various articles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes 
made of metals, even of gold or some metal gilded, but more frequently of 
marble and other stones, commonly of a white color. Sometimes they were 
hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of victims. The form of 
altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not unfrcquently they 
were adorned with sculpture and image-work. 



580 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Different forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXII. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enctabris. 
Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's altar of burnt offering (cf. 2 Chron. iv. ]) ; given by Pri- 
deaux, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins ; copied and described in Calmet,' Diet. 
&c. vol. in. p. 144, 357, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E is an altar erected as a sepulchral monu- 
ment, in honor of a Roman emperor ; it is highly ornamented with sculptures, and bears an 
inscription ; the letters d m stand for Diis Manilas. The elevations at the corners in this and 
in fig. H, show what is designated by the phrase " horns of the altar.'''' — For various altars as 
sepulchral erections, see Montfaucon, (as cited P. III. § 12.) vol. v. and. Suppl. vol. v.— Roman 
altars have repeatedly been found in England. Jlrchaologia, as cited P. I. § 243. 3. vol. in. p. 
118, 324. 

2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribbons, and garlands 
of herbs and flowers. Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among 
the Romans as well as Greeks (cf. § 66), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of 
masters, for insolvent debtors and criminals, where it was impious to touch 
them, although contrivances might be employed (ase. g. kindling afire around 
them) to force them away, or they might be confined there until they perished. 

§ 206. A great variety of instruments and vessels, vasa sacra y 
were employed in the sacrifices offered to the gods. 

1 u. The most important were the following : the axe (bipennis, securis, 
d, d), or club (malleus, c), with which the victim was first struck ; knives for 
stabbing (cultri, e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and 
entrails (secespitaj ; the censer (thuribulum, 1), and the box containing the 
substance burnt for incense Cacerra or arcula thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in 
dropping the wine upon the sacrifices (guttus) ; a flat vessel in which the 
priests and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine (simpuluw,, b) ; broad 
dishes or bowls (paterae, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims ; an ob- 
long vase with one or two handles (capedo, capeduncula, capis, o, o) , vessels 
to hold the entrails (ollai extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were 
brought to the altar (lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the 
fruit offered (canistra); small tables with three legs (tripodes) ; an instru- 
ment, having a tuft of hair, or the like, for sprinkling the sacred water (asper- 
gillum, f) ; pans for the sacrificial fire (prarfericula) ; metallic candlesticks 
(candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 

2. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the 
above specification, refer to the figures thus marked in our Plate XXII. The figures marked 
by the letters are drawn from Montfaucon, vol. n. p. 150. Those marked by the numerals are 
from Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. I. §226. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial ap- 
paratus ; fig. g shows the sacred fillet (vitta), which was sometimes hung from the neck ; fis. 
4 is a ladle (ligula) ; fig. 3, a pitcher (urceus, culvllus) used for the libations ; these figures, 
are taken from sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a temple found 
at Pompeii ; fig. B exhibits a scene from the same altar ; a magistrate in his robe is offering 
sacrifice ; he holds in his hand a patera ; the victim is led forward by the popa or cultarius, who 
is naked to his waisf with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a 
vase or pitcher, and an older servant bearing a platter (discus) ; by his side is a musician 
blowing the fiute, followed by lictors with their fasces ; in the back ground appear the pillars 
of the temple decorated with garlands. — Fig. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Mont- 
faucon from an ancient coin ; the augur's wand (litmus) is seen in the hand of the principal 
person. — Fig. a, is the sacred trumpet (tuba) sounded at hecatombs and other sacrifices. — 
The group of articles included in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to 
illustrate also Hebrew and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will no- 
tice among them the shovel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the modern teapot, 
a fire-pan, jars, bowls, dishes, &c. cf. Exod. xxv. 29. 

§ 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into 
certain common orders, or colleges. These were mostly established 
by the first kings; Romulus established the Luperci, Curiones, Ha- 
ruspices ; Numa, the Flamincs, Vcstales, Salii, Augur es, and Fecia- 
les. During the republic the Rex sacrorum and the Epulones were 
introduced; and under the emperors some others. — The Roman 
priests may be ranged in tivo general classes; those common to all 
the gods (omnium dcorum sactrdotes ) ; and those appropriated to a 
particular deity (uni numini addicii). Of the former were the Pon- 
tifices, Augures, duindecemviri sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres 
Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, Sodales Titienses, and Rex 
Sacrorum. Of the 'latter class were the Flamines, Salii, Luperci, 
Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. 



PLATE XXII 




562 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by 
Numa, originally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally 
more even to fifteen. The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maxi- 
mus, who held the highest priestly office, dignity, and power. He 
was appointed at first by the kings, subsequently by the college (Col- 
legium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104 B. C. by the peo- 
ple. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again taken 
from them. All the other priests and the vestals were subject to the 
Pontifex Maximus. 

1 u. He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the fes- 
tivals and the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of the rec- 
ords of public transactions (annates). He was also judge in many questions 
of right. — His dress was a toga preetexta, and his head-ornament a sort of cap 

made of the skin of a victim and called galerus. Augustus assumed this 

office himself as emperor, which was done likewise by his successors down 
to Gratian, who abolished it. 

2. Those who held the office of Pontifex Maximus, are said to have resided 
in a public house called Regia (cf. § 213). — The hierarchy of the church of 
Rome .is thought to have been established on the model of the Pontifex Max- 
imus and the college of Pontifices. 

L Bimard, Le Pontificat des Emper. Romains, in the Mem. Jlcad. Inscr. xn. 355 ; xv. 38. Cf. 
1]5. — On the Roman pontiffs &c. cf. MoyWs Works, vol. i. — Beaufort, Repuhlique Ro- 



mame. 



§ 209. The Augurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their 
name from consulting the flight of birds, augurium, avigerium. They 
were introduced from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a reg- 
ular order by Numa. Their number was originally three, then four, 
afterwards nine, and finally increased by Sylla to fifteen. At first 
they were taken only from the Patricians, but after B. C. 300, in part 
from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Mogister Collegii, and 
Augur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with 
purple (trabea), a crooked staff (lituus), and a conical cap (some- 
times called apex). Their principal business was to observe the 
flight and cry of birds (auspicium), from which they predicted fu- 
ture events. They also explained other omens and signs, derived 
from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain ani- 
mals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 

1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acuminibus, i. e. prognostics were, 
drawn from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the ad- 
hesion of the lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they 
were planted. The places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices 
were to be erected, were consecrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs 
continued until the time of Theodosius the Great. The public Augurs of the 
Roman people should be distinguished from the private Augurs of the em-. 
perors. 

2. The omens, signa, portenta, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjec-> 
tured or pretended to foretell the future, have been classed in five divisions. 
(1) From birds ; chiefly the flight of some (alites), such as eagles, vultures, 
and buzzards ; but also the chattering and singing of others (oscines) such as 
the owl (bubo), crow (corvus, comix), or cock ( gallus). (2) From appearances 
in the heavens; as thunder, lightning, meteors, and the like. — For taking 
omens of either of these two kinds the augur stood on some elevated point 
(arx, templum) with his bead covered with the lana, a gown peculiar to the 
office ; after sacrificing and offering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and 
divided the heavens in four quarters (called templa) with his lituus, and wait- 
ed for the omen. A single omen was not considered significant ; it must be 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 56& 

confirmed by another of the same sort. In whatever position the augur stood; 
Omens on the left were by the Romans reckoned lucky, contrary to the notions 
of the Greeks (§ 75) ; the explanation given of this disagreement is, that both 
Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; but the Greek 
augur faced the north, and the lucky omens would be on his right, while the 
Roman augur usually faced the south, and therefore had the lucky omens or 
his left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes called 
unlucky among the Romans, and the term sinister came to signify unpropi~ 
tious, and dexter to mean propitious. (3) From chickens (pulli) kept in a coop 
for the purpose. The omen was taken early in the morning from their ac- 
tions when the augur threw crumbs of corn before them ; if they turned 
away from it, or ate reluctantly, it was an unlucky omen ; if they devoured 
greedily, very lucky. Taking this augury was called Tripudium, perhaps- 
from the bounding of the corn when thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadru- 
peds, chiefly by observing whether they appeared in a strange place, or how 
they crossed the way, whether to the right or the left, and the like. (5) From 
various circumstances and events, which may be included under the term ac- 
cidents ; among these were sneezing, falling, hearing sounds, seeing images, 
spilling salt upon the table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. Omens- 
of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dirce. 

Kennett, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv. — Cf. Morin, Les Augurs, and Simon, Les Presages, in the 
Mem. de VJlcad. dcs Inscr. i. 54 and 129. 

§ 210. The Haruspices were the priests who inspected the entrails 
of animals offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occur- 
rences ; they were called extispices. They appeared under Romu- 
lus and were established by him ; it is doubtful of what number their 
college consisted. For some time Etrurians only, and not Romans, 
discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the Etru- 
rians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin ; 
the discovery of the art (Haruspicina) was ascribed by fable to Ta- 
ges, a son of Jupiter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was 
increased up even to sixty. Their overseer was styled Magister Pub- 
Ecus or Summits Haruspex. From the different modes and objects of 
their divination, they were divided into three classes, extispices, ful- 
guratores, and prodigiatores. For, besides observing the entrails of 
victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame, 
smoke &c, they also were consulted in relation to lightning and 
places or buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prod- 
igies and dreams. 

1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their mo- 
tion, and the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing 
from the appearances, they called them exta muta. On the other hand, the term 
litare was used to signify an auspicious sacrifice. 

2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as 
also the other religious orders had ; these seem to have been accounts of their 
observations, memorials of thunder and lightning, and ominous occurrences. 
• — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with sacrifices are alluded 
to by Virgil (Georg. iii. 486). 

§ 211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts 
(epulis) of the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197 ; 
by Sylla the number was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epu- 
lones, and by Caesar at last to ten. They had the care of what were 
called the Lectisternia, when couches were spread for the gods as if 
about to feast, and their images were taken down, and placed on the 
couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes ; the most im- 
portant of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the 



564 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Capitol. They were required to be present also at the sacred games 
to preserve good order. Very young persons, even those under six~ 
teen, were often taken for this office ; yet it was so respectable, that 
even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed its duties. Like the 
Pontifices, they wore a toga pratexta. The viri epulares must not 
be confounded with the epulones; the former were not the priests, 
but the guests at the repasts spoken of. 

§ 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing 
long before the building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other 
Italian states. The order was introduced at Rome by Numa. It con- 
tinued to the beginning of the imperial authority, and consisted of 
twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They may be considered as 
a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties and agree- 
ments pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called 
Pater patratus. It devolved upon him, or the Feciales under him, 
to give the enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, 
and to make the declaration by uttering a solemn form ( clarigatio ) , 
and hurling a spear (hasta sanguinea), into the enemy's limits. 
These priests were also the customary agents in effecting an armis- 
tice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and aid was still more 
indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices therewith con- 
nected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and 
the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding 
the security of foreign ambassadors at Rome. 

§ 213. The Rex sacrorum, or Rex sacrificulus, held an office, 
which was instituted first after the expulsion of the kings, and proba- 
bly derived its name from the circumstance, that originally the public 
sacrifices were offered by the kings themselves or under their imme- 
diate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, the office and name both 
arose from a desire, that the royal dignity might not be wholly forgot- 
ten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts occupied 
the first place, although his duties were not numerous, and consisted 
chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. 
He was also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacri- 
fice jointly with the Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (popu- 
lum calare), and make known the distance of the Nones from the 
Calends of the month then commencing. At the Comitia he offered 
the great public sacrifice, after which, however, he must withdraw 
from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Regina 
sacrorum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. 
His residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Regia> 
The office continued until the time of Theodosius the Great. 

§ 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such 
priests, as were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The 
most eminent of them was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of 
Jupiter. At the first institution of the order, there were but two be- 
sides this, viz. the Flamen Martialis and the Flamen Quirinalis. 
Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They were 
divided into majores, who must be Patricians, and minor es t who were 
taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a Ions: white robe 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 565 

with a purple border (l<zna), and a cap of conical form (apex) adorn- 
ed with a twig of olive. The Flamen Dialis had a lictor, and also a 
sella carulis and the toga pratexta ; his wife was called Flaminica^ 
and aided hiua in some parts of the worship on the festivals of Jupi- 
ter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and enjoyed sev- 
eral other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many 
duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the 
Flamen Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the 
god to whose service they were devoted, as Flamen Neptunalis, Flor* 
alis, Pulmonalis ; so of those belonging to a deified Cassar, as Fla- 
men A ugiistalis, Fiavialis, &c. 

§215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according 
to the common opinion had their name from dancing (salire), be- 
cause on certain festival days they passed about the city dancing, and 
singing songs in honor of Mars. They were first instituted by Nu- 
ma; the immediate occasion of their institution, according to the 
tradition, was the famous shield, Ancile, said to have been sent from 
heaven ; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in 
order to hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vest- 
als, were carried by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their 
circuit around the city. 

lit. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Prcesul, whose leap- 
ing was expressed by the verb amtruare, and the leaping of the others after 
him by redavitruare. They had their appropriate residence (curia Saliorum) 
upon the Palatine Hill. Besides the music which accompanied their dancing, 
they struck their shields together, and in that way noted the measure of their 
songs, which celebrated the praises of the god of war (cf. P. I. § 114. 4.) and 
of Veturius Mamurius, the artist who made the eleven shields. 

2u. The order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the 
accession of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the Emperors, espec- 
ially M. Aurelius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only 
for a certain period. — The Salii Collini or Quirinalcs were distinct from this 
body, and established by Tullius Hostilius. 

See T. Outberlethi de Saliis Martis sacerttotibus apud Romanes liber singuIaris.Franequerae, 
J704. 8.— Seidel, De Saltat. sacr. vet. Rom. Berl. 1826.-^2. JpePs Metrik, Th. 2. p. 647. 

§ 216. The Luperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and 
established by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designa- 
tion, which Pan received from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, 
Lupercus (ah arcendo lupos). His temple was from the same circum- 
stance called Lupercal, and his most celebrated festival at Rome, Im- 
percalia. This festival began about the middle of February, and was re- 
garded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The Luperci, on this 
occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle of 
goat's skin about the waist ; they carried in their hands thongs of the 
same material, with which they struck those whom they met ; the 
word to express the action was catomidiare. A peculiar efficacy was 
ascribed to these blows, particularly in rendering married women pro- 
lific. — There were three distinct companies (Sodalitates) of these 
priests; the Fabiani, Quintiliani, and Julii. The last were of later 
origin and took their name from Julius Caasar ; the others were 
named after individuals, who had been their chief or head priests. 

§217. The Galli were priests of Cybele the great mother of the 
gods, so called from the river Gall us in Phrygia, whose waters were 
48 



566 ROMAN ANTI4UITIE£. 

regarded as possessing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who 
drank it. The circumstance of their being castrated is referred to 
the fable respecting Atys. At the festival of their goddess, celebratd 
in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. III. § 21), these pifests imitated 
the phrenzy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and self- 
scourging and cutting, Their chief priest was termed Arcliigallus, 

The order was not highly respected. — ■ The Potitii and Pinarii, 

priests of HerGules, were not held in important estimation, although 
their pretended origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. 
The tradition was, that Hercules, during his residence in Italy with 
Evander, instructed in the rites of his worship the tribes or families 
bearing this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests. 

§ 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vestales, were an order of Priest- 
esses, of very early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The con- 
stant preservation of the holy Jire, and the guarding of the Palladium 
(P. III. § 43, 67), were the principal duties of the Vestals. They 
were first instituted by Numa, four in number ; two were added by 
Tarquinius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever after re- 
mained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vestalis or Virgo 
Maxima. They were selected (capere) between the age of six and 
ten, particular regard being had to their descent and their bodily 
vigor and perfection. They were obliged to continue in the office 
thirty years, unmarried. The first ten years were employed in learn- 
ing the rites, the second ten in performing them, and the rest in in- 
structing others. Negligence in any of their duties was severely 
punished. If any one violated her vow of chastity, she was buried 
alive in a place called Campus sceleratus, near the Porta Collina. 
Besides the two principal duties of these priestesses, they were ac- 
customed to offer certain sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. 
They also had the care of some preparations and services connected 
with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great respect, and many privile- 
ges ; e. g. entire freedom from parental control ; authority to deliv- 
er from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them; certain 
revenues of lands devoted to them ; the attendance of a lictor, when- 
ever they went out ; a public maintenance, and release from the ob- 
ligation to take an oath. Their office was abolished under Theodo- 
sius, on account of its expense, 

§ 219 a. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of 
priests before named (§ 207). The Quindecemviri sacris faciundis 
had the care of the Sibylline books (cf. § 226). The Fratres Arvales 
served especially at the festival, called Ambarvalia (P. 111. § 63), when 
the fields were dedicated and blessed, these priests passing over them 
in procession (cf. P. I. § 114), with a crowd of attendants. The Curi~ 
ones were thirty priests, who performed the sacred rites common to 
the several Curias (§ 251). The Sodales Titii or Tatii had their name 
from the Sabine king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven of them. 
There were also Sodales Augustales, or priests in honor of Augustus. 

1m. The priests had their assistants and servants (ministri). Among these 
were the waiting boys and maids, camilli and Camilla j the assistants of the 
priests who offered sacrifices, jlaminii and fiamince, ; the keepers of the tem- 
ples, ceditui or (Bditumni ; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS. SACRIFICES. 567 

them, popcB, victimarii and cultrarii. The tibicines, tubicines, jidicines, &c. 
who accompanied the sacrificial rites with music, formed likewise another fra- 
ternity. 

2. The mystagogi were those who initiated others into mysteries ; the name 
is also given to those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. 

By some late writers the priests were divided into three classes ; antis- 

tites. chief priests ; sacerdotes, ordinary priests ; and ministri, meanest priests. 
§ 219 b. Respecting- the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. 
When Romulus first divided the Roman territory, he set apart what was suffi- 
cient for the performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. 
JYuma is said to have provided a fund for defraying- the expenses of religion, 
and to have appointed a stipend for the vestals ; but there is no evidence, that 
the priests received any regular stipend or salary. Yet there can be no doubt 
that, in some way or other, sufficient provision was made for their support. 
Eiirigny, Les honneuvs accordes aux pretres &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxi. 108. 

§ 220. Of the vast multitude of religious customs among the Ro- 
mans, we will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers 
to the gods. They prayed with the head covered or veiled [capita 
velato). They bowed themselves down to the ground, in this pos- 
ture moved around completely from right to left, placed their right 
hand on the mouth (adoratio), and directed their face towards the 
east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a high- 
er degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or pros- 
trated the whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to 
lay hold of the altar and to make offerings of meal and wine with 
their prayers. The prayer was not always offered with an audible 
voice. Public prayers (precationes) were made by a priest or a mag- 
istrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was that before the 
Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings ( supplicationes ) 
were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing 
and praising the gods ; in which view the people made a solemn pro- 
cession to the temples. Public occasions of this sort were called 
supplicationes ad pulvinaria deorum ; these pulvinaria were cushion- 
like elevations or stools, on which were placed the statues of the gods. 
They were also termed supplicia, and were appointed in honor of 
particular deities, or of all the gods united. The prayers offered on 
these occasions were called obsecrationes, which term usually has ref- 
erence to the averting of danger. 

Burig?iy, Les prieres des Paiennes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 27. — Morin, Baise- 
mains &c. (adoratio), in the same Mem. vol. in. p. 69. 

§ 221. The sacrifices of the Romans (sacrificid) were very various. 
They were offered either at stated times (stata, solennia), or on par- 
ticular occasions (ex accident e nata). Animal sacrifices were term- 
ed hostice or victimce ; the original difference between these words, 
viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered on going out against 
a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as little re- 
garded by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the form- 
er a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice. 

1m. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously 
selected. They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the person offer- 
ing them, with garlands of flowers ; the horns of bullocks and rams were 
decked with gilt, and white fillets were hung* over their necks. The willing 
approach of the victim was considered as a favorable omen ; reluctance and 
resistance on the other hand as unfavorable • the act of bringing the victim 
forward was called admovcre. The priests then commanded all the profane to 



568 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

depart, and another priest ordered silence (Unguis favete). Then followed the 
prayer to the gods^ and after it the offering of the victim. The knife and the 
altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a mixture of 
salt and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (viola salsa). The head of the 
victim was sprinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by 
•the word immolare, although it is often synonymous with mactare. 

2u. The cultarius, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked, 
JlgoneP, and the consul, praetor or priest having answered, Hocage, then 
Struck the animal in the forehead with his axe or mallet ; another next cut or 
stabbed him in the throat, and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. 
The entrails were then examined by the haruspex, and if they were found fa- 
vorable, were, after being cleansed, laid on the altar and burned. Sometimes 
the whole animal was burned (holocaustum) ; but usually only apart, the rest 
being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or to the priests. Upon the burning 
flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out ; the latter constituted 
the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, active, 
libens. In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After 
all came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice 
partook in common, and which was usually accompanied with music and danc- 
ing, and often followed with games. 

§ 222. It was very common among the Romans to make vows 
(vota), which generally consisted in promises to render certain actual 
acknowledgements or returns, provided the gods should grant the re- 
quests of those making the vows. A person doing thus was said 
votafacere, concipere, suscipcre, nuncupare, and was called voti reus ; 
to fulfil the promise was vota solvere, reddere; he who gained his 
wish was said to be voti damnatus, voti compos. Sometimes the 
thing desired was itself termed votum. Often public vows were made 
for the benefit of the whole people ; these were considered as the 
most binding. The vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which 
was preserved in the temple of the god to whom it was made. 

lu. Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to 
hang up in the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures representing the 
circumstances of their danger and deliverance (tabula votivce). Similar pic- 
tures were sometimes carried about by them in order to obtain charitable re- 
lief 

2 m. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made 
to Juno Lucina or Genius, on a birth-day (vota natalitia) ; those made when 
boys, on passing from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo 
(vota capillitia) ; the vows of the sick in case of recovery ; the vows of those 
in shipwreck for escape ; of those on journeys by land. It also became a cus- 
tom for subjects to make vows for the welfare of their emperors, which were 
renewed after the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of their reign, and therefore 
called quinquennia, decennalia, or vicennalia. 

H. Dodwell, de diebus veterum natalities, in his Prmlect. Acad. Ox. 1692, 8. p. 153. 

§ 223. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (ded- 
icatio templi, § 203), was one of the religious solemnities of the Ro- 
mans. This was originally performed by the kings, afterwards by the 
consuls, and often also by two magistrates appointed for the purpose 
and called duumviri dedicandis templis. The senate must first de- 
cree the service ; the Pontifex maximus must be present at the sol- 
emnity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompa- 
nied with acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts 
then followed. 

lu* Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration (consecratio) ; only, 
the latter expression was applied to a great variety of particular objects, e. g, 
statues, sacred utensils, fields, animals, &o, Resecration, on the other hand, 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. 569 

was a private transaction, in which the people or individuals were freed from 
their vows ; this was also called religione solvere. 

2u. Execration was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods 
was a solemn rite by which (ccrto carmine) they called upon the gods of a be- 
sieged city (evocare) to take the side of the Romans ; it was attended with 
sacrifices and consultation of the entrails. 

§ 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended 
gods, and the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piaculum. 
Much more frequent and various were the lustrations or -purifica- 
tions (lustrationes), both public and private. 

lu. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals ; 
the private were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was cus- 
tomary before the march of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lus- 
tration, not for reviewing the forces, but to purify them by sacrifices. 

2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five 
years, a purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a 
bull, which were carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The 
sacrifice was called suovetaurilia, and he who performed it was said condcre 
lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have been applied to it, because at that 
time all the taxes were paid by the farmers general to the censors ('from lucre 
to pay J ; the term is also used to signify a space of five years, because the 
ceremony was performed always at the end of that period. The verb lustrare 
expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the victims were carried 
round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to 
survey. The lustrum was always made in the Campus Martins. 

§ 225. The oaths (jusjurandum, juramentum) of the Romans, 
which were regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into 
public and private. The first were taken by the magistrates before 
the Tribunal (§ 243. 1.) often also by the whole senate, the generals, 
the whole army, all the citizens at the census, and every single sol* 
dier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such as per- 
tained to marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the 
gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses ; not unfrequently sacrifices 
were at the same time offered. 

lu. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said conceptis verlis 
jurare. 

2u. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's 
self (devovere) to capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his 
country or the life of a person particularly dear. Sometimes the term was 
applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured city or army to 
destruction, or when an individual was punished. 

§ 226. The Romans had no oracles themselves ; but in cases of 
importance, they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the 
Delphic. Roman superstition, however, found nearer sources of in* 
formation respecting the will and declarations of the gods. Besides 
the use of their augurium and extispiscium, they had recourse to the 
Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of Cumae. 

lu. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus 
fsee P. II. § 16;. They were kept with great care in a stone vault under 
ground in the Capitol, in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis 
' § 219). In important emergencies, in general disasters, when omens were in- 
auspicious, or circumstances were perplexing, they consulted the Sibylline 
predictions and endeavored thence to ascertain, how the offended deities could 
Le appeased, 

2u. The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of 
46* 



570 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

these books ; there were attempts to restore some parts of them from fragments 
and quotations. The pieces now extant under this name, however, are in all 
probability not genuine, but of later origin. 

§ 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of 
an affair or undertaking, was very common with the Romans. They 
were small tablets or blocks (tali) of wood or metal, on which cer- 
tain words or marks were inscribed, which were kept in an apart- 
ment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous were those in 
the temple of this goddess at Prseneste, which in early times were 
very frequently employed. 

lu. Those at Antium were also renowned ; those at Caere and Falerium 
disappeared, as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of this sort 
were provided and kept for domestic use. Those, who foretold the future by 
means of lots, were called Sortilegi. — Cf. Cic. de Divinat. ii. 41. — Liv. xxi. 
62. xxii. 1. 

2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (§ 209), other arti- 
fices were employed among the Romans by those, who pretended to foretel 
the future. Some professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called 
Jlstrologi Mathematici, or Geneihliaci, and sometimes Chaldcei or Babylonii, as 
the art was first practiced in Chaldeea. Others professed to interpret dreams, 
Conjectores ; others to have an internal afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Va- 
ticinatores. Insane persons were supposed to foreknow the future ; in 
which class were the Ceriti, those rendered insane by Ceres ; the Lymphati, 
rendered so by the water-nymphs ; Lunatici, by the moon ; Fanatici, by the 
spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane (fanum). In 
short many of the Grecian arts of divination (§ 75) were practiced among 
the Romans. 

3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among 
the Romans; perhaps, however, chiefly by Greeks and other foreigners. 
Some passages in Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were open- 
ly avowed at Rome. Pliny speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that 
has had sway in all the world. — The Romans generally admitted the notion 
that certain persons had the power of fascinating others ( fascinatio ) , by dart- 
ing an evil look upon them ; which the Greeks termed Baaxaviu (cf. § 75. 6). 
To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was sometimes 
worn on the neck, called fascinum (cf. P. III. § 88). 

See JtrchcEolog-ia (as cited P. I. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Bas-relief supposed 
to represent the fascination by the evil eye. — Class. Journ. vol. xxxvr. p. 185, on the magic 
of the Greeks and Romans. — Le Blond, sur Magie, in the Mem. de Plnstitut, Classe de Lit. et 
Beaux Arts. i. 81. — Bonamy and Blanchard, La Magie &c. in the Mem. Acad. laser, vn. 23. in. 
49. Cf. Hor. Epod..5. and Yl.—Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. 1. 

§ 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the 
priests, and therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. With- 
out noticing the various changes in this, we may remark that Romu- 
lus, Numa, and Julius Caesar, were the authors of the principal meth- 
ods of dividing and computing the year. The month was divided into 
three parts by the Calends, Nones and Ides, and in computing the 
days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these 
three fixed points (P. V. § 191). 

lu. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided 
into twelve hours Choree) which of course were of different length at the dif- 
ferent seasons of the year; hence the phrase hora hiberna, equivalent to hora 
brevissima. The sight was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. V. § 187), 
aad also into four watches (vigilice). The use of sun-dials (solaria), and 
of water-glasses (clepsydrce), seems to have been introduced at a comparatively 
late period. 

2. The dial is said to have been inventsd at Lacedaemon in the time of 
Cyrus the Great. The first one at Rome was set up B. C. about 260. — The 
clepsydra (rJ.styvSQa) was invented at Alexandria, and carried thence to Ath- 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF TIME. FESTIVALS. 571 

ens and afterwards, B. C. about 160, introduced at Rome. " It was formed 
by a vessel of water, having a minute perforation in the bottom, through 
Which the water issued (stealing out, yJJipis i'dwQ) drop by drop, and fell into 
another vessel, in which a light body floated, having attached to it an index 
or graduated scale. As the water increased in the receiving vessel, the float- 
ing body rose, and by its regularly increasing height furnished an approxima- 
tion to a correct indication of time." ( ' Bigeloto 's Technology, p. 365 J — It 
was so constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accom- 
modated to the varying length of the Roman hours. A servant wag employ ed r 
whose business it was from time to time to examine the water-clock, and re- 
port the hour to his master. 

§ 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for 
the service of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets,, 
and games. These were called dies festi. The days called dies 
fasti were those on which no assembly of the people or senate was 
held, but the prsetor administered justice. Days, on which he could 
not do this, were termed nefasti. Days, of which only a part of 
each could be appropriated to business, were called inter cisi; those 
wholly resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered in- 
auspicious were called dies rdigiosi ; among these they reckoned es- 
pecially the first days after the Calends, Nones, and Ides ; which they 
named postridiani. The festival days were termed also ferice, dies 
feriati, from the cessation of common business. 

\u. The Roman festivals were public or private. The public were either 
of regular occurrence (ferice stativcc), or annually fixed by the magistrates or 
priests (jus pontijicium). Private and domestic festivals, e. g. for birth-days 
and marriages, depended of course on the pleasure of the parties interested. 

2. Ferise Nundinal were regular days, on which the people from the coun- 
try assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, market days ; 

called JYundina, because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). 

It was the business of the Pontifices to prepare annually a register called Kal- 
endarium, or Fasti Kalendares, in which the days were marked in each month 
and distinguished according as they belonged to the different classes above 
named ; and the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place 
through the year. 

Couture, Les Fastes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 60.— De laNauze, Calendrier Romain,inthe 
same, Mem. &c. vol. 26. p. 219. — cf. Port Royal Lot. Gramm. — Ai.nsworlh, Lat. Diet. 

§ 230 £. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some 
of thepricipal in order of the months. 



January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on 
the first day of the year, on which, in later 
times, the Consuls entered upon their office. 
The presents customary on this day were called 
strence ; they were sent from clients to their 
patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and 

from friends to one another. 9th. The 

Agonalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and 

15th. The Carmcntalia, to the goddess Car- 
menta, an Arcadian prophetess, mother of 

Evander. 25th. The Sementince, or festival 

of seed, accompanied with the Ambarvalia, 
Which differed from the festival of the same 
name in May ; on which they passed over the 
fields with the animals to be slain in sacrifice 

< 30th. The festival of Peace (Pax), first 

established by Augustus. 31st. The festi 

val in honor of the Penates, or household gods 

February. 1st. The Lucaria, in memory of 
the asylum formed by Romulus, or of the 
refuge (lucus) of the Romans after the sack of 
their city by Brennus — This day was also ded- 
icated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia, in 

honor of Faunus and the Sylvan gods, repeated 
5th December. • 15th. Lupercalia, to Lycrean 



Pan ($216). 17th. Quirinalia, to Romulus 

deified by th3 name (iuirinus 18th. Fcra~ 

lia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn 
expiation or purification of the city, called 
februatio, whence the name of the month it- 
self. It continued, from the 18th to the end of 
the month, during which time presents were 
carried to the graves of deceased friends and 
relatives, and the living held feasts of love and 
reconciliation. 21st. Terminalia, to Term- 
inus, the god of boundaries. 

March. On the first day, with which in 
early times the year began, a festival to Mars, 
on which the procession or war-dance of the 
Salii was made ($215) ; called also the festival 

of the shields; it lasted three days. 6th 

Vestalia, different from thaE held in June. 

!7th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different from 

the Bacchanalia. 19th. Qninqnatria, to 

Minerva, named from its duration of five days;, 
the last day called Tubilustrium, because the 
trumpets used in sacred rites were then purifi- 
ed. 23d. Jlilaria, to Cybele, whose sacred 

mage was during it sprinkled and purified 5 
called also Lavatio Matris Deum. 



572 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



April, On the 1st day, Veneralia, the festi- 
val of Venus, to whom the whole month was 
'dedicated. (Cf. Sch'oll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 
in. p. 24).— — 5th. Megalesia, to Cybele, 
"whose priests, the Galli (§ 217), on this made 

their procession. 12th. Cercalia, to Ceres, 

attended with games. 15th. Fordicidia, to 

The goddess Tellus, for the purpose of averting 
^a dearth or scarcity, on occasion of which Nu- 
raa instituted the festival ; each Curia furnish- 
ed a pregnant cow (furdaj to be sacrificed to 
Tellus. 21st. Palilia, a rural, country festi- 
val, to Pales, goddess of cattle. 22d. Vin 

'alia, repeated in August, to consecrate to Ju 

piter the growth of the vine in Italy. 23d 

Mobigalia, to the god Robicus, that he might 
protect the grain from blighting (a rubigine). 
28th. Floralia, to Flora, orChloris, attend- 
ed with games (cf. § 236).— 30th. The festival of 
the Palatine Vesta, instituted by Augustus. 

May. On the first day the Festival to the 
Lares Praistites, and the ceremonies by night to 
Bona Dea, performed by the vestais and wo- 
men alone 2d. Compitalia, to the Lares in 

the public ways. 9th. Lemuria, to the 

Leraares, or wandering spirits of deceased an- 
cestors aad relatives on the father's side (P. III. 

§§ 110, 111). 15th. Festum Mercatorum, to 

Mercury, for merchants (P. III. §56). 23d. 

Valcanalia, to Vulcan, called also Tabilustria 
from the purifying of the sacred trumpets. 

June.. On the first day were several festi- 
vals, to Dea Carna, Juno Moneta, Mars Ex- 
tramurancus, and Tempestas. 3d. The fes- 
tival to Bellona. 4th. To Hercules 

9th. Vcstalia, to Vesta, in memory of the gift 
of bread to men. Food was sent to the Vestals 
lo be offered to the gods ; and the asses 
which turned the mills, were decked with gar 

lands and led in procession. 10th. Matralia 

to Matuta, celebrated by Roman matrons ; also 
a festival, on the same day, to Fortuna Virilis, 

•by women ; and to Concordia. 13th. Quinqua 

t.ria (parva), designed for the improvement and 
pleasure of those, who had the care of the mu- 
sic in the worship of the gods. 16th. Puri- 
fying of the temple of Vesta. 19th. To 

Summanus, i. e. probably to Pluto. 24th. 

To Fortuna Fortis, for people of the lower 

classes. 30th. To Hercules and the Muses. 

July. On the first day the occupants of 

hired houses changed their residence. 5th. 

Ludi Apollinares, with sacrifices. 6th. To 

Female Fortune, in memory of Coriolanus with- 
drawing his army from the city (Liv. ii. 40). 
7th. To Juno Caprotina, for young wo- 



men. 15th. To Castor and Pollux. 23d, 

JVeptunalia. 25th. Furinalia, to the goddess 

Furina. 

August. On the 1st day a festival to the 
goddess of Hope ; and gladiatorial sports and 

games in honor of Mars. 13th. To Diana. 

17th. Portumanalia, to Portumnus, the god 

of harbors. 18th. Consualia, to Consus, the 

god of counsel or rather to Equestrian Nep- 
tune. The seizure of the Sabine women was 

commemorated the same day. 21st. Vina- 

lia (the second), or festival of the vintage to 

Jupiter and Venus. 23d. Vulcanalia, to 

Vulcan as the god of fire, for security against 

conflagrations. 25th. Opeconsiva, to Rhea, 

or Ops, or fruit-bearing Earth. 

September. On the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- 

mactcs. 4th. Ludi Magni, or Romani, in the 

Circus, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva ; they 

lasted from the 4th day to the 12th. 13th. 

The ceremony of fixing a nail (clavus figendus) 
in the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appoint- 
ed for the purpose, to avert contagious pesti- 
lence. 25th. To Venus Oenetrix. 30th. 

Meditrinalia, for tasting new wine before the 
vintage ; that this festival was sacred to a god- 
dess of health, named Meditrina, is as doubtful 
as the existence of the goddess herself. 

October. 12th. Augustalia, properly games 
n honor of Augustus, instituted after the close 
of his campaigns, particularly the Armenian, 

B.C. 19 or 20. 13th. Foniinalia, in which 

the public fountains were crowned with gar- 
lands. 15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race 

on the Campus Martius, at the end of which a 

horse was offered in sacrifice. 19th. The 

Jlrmilustrium, or review-muster, celebrated on- 
ly by soldiers, and in full armor. 

November. 13th. A feast dedicated to Ju- 
piter, Epulum Jovis. 15th. Ludi Plebeii, in 

the theatre, or the circus ; they were also fre- 
quently held at other times not defined. 

December. 5th. Fatmalia, kept by the peo- 
ple of the country, as the same in February 

was by the inhabitants of the city. 17th. 

Saturnalia, one of the most famous festivals of 
Rome, originally limited to a single day, after- 
wards extended over three, four, and more. It 
was a festival of leisure and general joy, in 
memory of the golden period in Italy under the 
government of Saturn. During it slaves were 
placed on a footing of equality with their mas- 
ters. 19th. Opalia, to the goddess of Ops. 

The Compitalia, to the Lares of the cross- 
ways, were often held shortly after the Satur- 
nalia, as well as in other months. 



§ 231. The public games (ludi) among the Romans, as well as 
among the Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part,, 
were viewed as festival occasions in honor of the gods. These 
games were usually at the expense of the state, sometimes at the ex- 
pense of individuals, particularly the emperors. They were different 
in their character, as well as in the time and place of their celebra- 
tion. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, 
at a time fixed or variable ; many also arose from particular occa- 
sions; hence the variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi stati, 
imperativi, instaurativi, votivi, quinquennales, decennales, seculares, 
lustrales, &c. Names were given also in reference to their charac- 
ter, and the place where they were celebrated ; e. g., ludi circenses, 
capitolini, scenici, piscatorii, triumphales , funebres. Only the most 
famous of these games can here be noticed. 

§ 232. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi Circcnses, or by 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 573 

way of eminence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the 
Circus Maximus, which was not merely a large free place, but, taken 
in its whole, formed a superb edifice ; it was a kind of theatre, com- 
menced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged and adorned by Julius 
Caesar as dictator. 

lw. Its breadth was more than a stadium and its length was three and a 
half stadia (2187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) for spectators, so as 
to accommodate at least 150,000 persons. In the middle, extending length- 
wise, was a wall, called spina circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in 
length. At each end of the wall were three pyramids on a single base, which 
were the goals (metce), around which the horses and chariots turned. The 
wall had many other oraments. The whole edifice also was highly ornament- 
ed ; it was altogether the largest of the kind, although there were in Rome 
eight other places for races and games, called Circi. At one end were 12 
openings or parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and 
chariots stood waiting for the signal to start. [Not far from the carceres, a 
whitened rope (alba tinea.) was drawn across the circus; one half of it mark- 
ing the commencement, and the other half the end, of the race.] Those who 
governed the chariots, were divided into certain classes (factiones or gregesj, 
distinguished by dresses of different colors. The whole circus was dedicated 
to the god of the sun. 

2. Of the other structures of this class the following were the principal: the Circus Flamin- 
ius ; the Circus Mexandrinus ; the Circus SaUusticus ; the Circus Florialis, or Vaticanus, fin- 
ished by Nero in a splendid style, and signalized as the scene where numbers of the early 
Christians suffered martyrdom under that emperor ; the obelisk in the centre of the peristyle 
of St. Peter was taken from the spina of this circus ; the Circus Caracallcs ; the Circus Domi- 

t'ue. Ormvius, as cited § 197. 1, vol. ix. ; and Polenus as there cited, vol. v. — Q. L. Bian- 

coni, Discrizione dei Circhi particolarmente di quello di Caracalla &c. Con note C. Fca. Rom. 
1780. fol. — Burgess, The Circus on the Appian Way. 

§ 233m. The Ludi Circenses were commonly held but once a year ; some- 
times they were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they 
were maintained at public cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, 
pompa circensis, moved from the Capitol. The images of the gods were borne 
in splendid carriages or frames (in thensis et fercuiis), or on men's shoulders 
( in humeris ) , followed by a great train, on horseback or on foot, with the com- 
batants, musicians, &c. Sacred rites were then performed, and the games 
opened. 

The games or shows (spectacula) in the Circus were of four kinds ; chariot- 
races, with two or four horses; contests of agility and strength, such as 
wrestling (lucta), boxing (pugilatus), throwing the discus (disci jactusj, leap- 
ing (saltusj, and running (cursus) ; representations of sieges and of battles on 
foot and on horseback, including the Ludus Trojaz (Virg. JEn. v. 545) ; fight- 
ing of wild beasts (vena.tio). — To describe these particularly would exceed 
our limits. Many of the exercises, however, corresponded to those of the 
Greeks (cf. § 78, 83). The victors were rewarded with crowns and some- 
times with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a 
pahn-branck, which he bore in his hand. 

Fig. B, of Plate XIII., is a victorious Roman charioteer, with the palm in his right hand, and 

the reigns is his left ; he is closely girded about the chest and body. Brutticr, Le jeux du 

Cirque, in the Mem. de VJicad. des Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 487. — Mongez, Sur les animaux pronie- 
nes ou tues dans les Cirques, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, Oasse d'Hist. ct Lit. Anc. vol. x. p. 360. 

At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibited, not in 
the Circus ; particularly the Naumachia, or representations of naval battles. 
These originally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or 
excavations made for the purpose and filled with water, which were also called 
Naumachia. The vessels were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, 
slaves, or conquered foes, and many lost their lives or were severely wounded. 
This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in the Circus Maximus, water being 
introduced into it for the purpose. 

§ 234. The Ludi Sa-culares, or centurial games, were solemnized 
with much ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the 
lapse of a century, but sometimes a little earlier, or a little later; 



574 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

usually in the month of April. For this occasion long preparations 
were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted, and a sort of 
general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously 
made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal 
world as well as those of Olympus, and while the men attended ban- 
quets of the gods in their temples, the women assembled for prayer 
in the temple of Juno. Thank-offerings were also presented to the 
Genii. 

lu. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a large 
theatre on the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor 
of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the Roman matrons were collected 
to offer sacrifice in the Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a 
song of praise to Apollo and Diana was sung in the temple of Palatine Apol- 
lo, by a select band of young men and virgins, of Patrician rank. The car- 
men scBculare of Horace was prepared to be thus sung, at the command of 
Augustus, in whose reign the games were celebrated. 

2u. To the religious solemnities, which were held for the purpose of secur- 
ing the safety of the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, 
which rendered this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions 
were pantomimes, histrionic plays, and the feats of jugglers (prcestigiatoresj, 
persons who seemed to fly in the air (petauristcE), rope-dancers Cfunambuli) f 
and the like. 
On the chronology of the secular games, Class. Journ. xvh. 351. 

§ 235. The gladiatorial shows, Ludi Gladiatorii, were greatly 
admired in Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would 
impart pleasure to the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of 
regard to whom they were held ; in the latter view they were ap- 
pointed, e. g. at the funerals, or in commemoration, of the deceased. 

1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the 
ancient custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the 
departed. At Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals ; after- 
wards they were given by the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls in the 
amphitheatres, especially on the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. 

The gladiators were supported at public expense. Their residence or place 
of instruction was called ludus, a name often given to any arena or building, 
where such exercises were learned or practiced ; their overseer was termed 
procurator, and their instructor, lanista. In the public spectacles, the combat 
was often carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator 
begged his life of the crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was 
originally indeterminate, and until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore va- 
rious names according to their armor and their mode of fighting. 

2. The gladiators termed secutores were armed with helmet, shield, and 
sword. They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a 
short tunic with nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed 
lance (tridens), and in the right a net (rete) in order to throw it over the head 
of their adversary. The mirmill ones were armed like Gauls, and took the 
name from the image of a fish on their helmet, and were usually matched with 
those termed thraces. The essedarii fought from chariots, and the andabatce 
on horseback. — It is to be observed that the term gladiator es included those 
who fought with beasts as well as those who fought with men ; although the 
former were termed distinctively bestiarii. 

3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves ; but 
afterwards free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. 
— An advertisement or public notice was put up by the person who intended 
io exhibit a gladiatorial show (editor), with an account of the combatants and 
sometimes a delineation or picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the 
gladiators were led along the arena in procession, and then matched for the 
contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it was a sign of being van- 
quished; his fate depended on the spectators ; if they wished him to be saved> 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. GLADIATORIAL SHOWS. OTO 

they pressed down their thumbs • if to be slain, they turned up their thumbs 
(pollicem premebant or vertebant). — Vast numbers of men and of brute ani- 
mals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the triumph of Trajan over the 
Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 animals were 
killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully suppressed 
until the time of Honorius. 

In Plate XXIII. are several figures illustrating this subject, which are taken from sculptures 
on a tomb found at Pompeii. Fig. 1 represents an equestrian combat ; the andabatce are clothed 
in the short cloak (inducula), and armed with the lance, round buckler fparmaj, helmet with 
a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on the right arm. — Two gladiators on foot appear 
in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet and the subligaculum, a short apron fixed above the 
hips by a girdle. Fig. 3 has armor on the right arm, and holds the scutum, or long shield ; on 
his right leg is a kind of buskin, and on his left the ocrea or greave ; the rest of the body is 
naked ; he has lowered his shield as being vanquished, and raised his hand to implore mercy 
of the spectators. Fig. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from them, whether to spare 
his antagonist or strike the death blow ; he carries a smaller shield, has armor upon his thighs 
and the high greaves upon his legs. — Fig. 6 presents a group of four gladiators ; two are fol- 
lowers (secutores), and two net-men (retiar'd). One of the secutores is wounded in the leg, 
thigh, and arm, and, having in vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee ap- 
parently to receive from the swoi'd of his comrade a more speedy death than would be likely 
from the trident of his antagonist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to insult his con- 
quered rival. The other retiarius is waiting to fight in his turn with the secutor who is hasten- 
ing to end the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures 
are the sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by 
them on the arena. — The small figure with a lance in each hand is from a group on the same 
tomb representing a young bestlarius preparing himself to contend in the arena. — Fig. 5 is 
also from a sculpture on this tomb, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven 
through his breast, and rushing towards the man by whom he is Wounded. — See Mazois, as 
cited P. I. §243. 2. — Pompeii, p. 291, as cited P. L*§226. 1. — For minute details respecting 
gladiators, cf. J. Lipsius, Saturnalia, in his Works, Ant. 1637. 6 vols. fol. 

§ 236. The Ladi Florales were united with the festival of the 
goddess Flora, held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were insti- 
tuted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; afterwards they were discontinued for a 
period, but were renewed again in consequence of a sterility of fruit, 
which was viewed as the punishment for their omission. They last- 
ed from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d of May* 
no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged in the celebration 
wore garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and 
often descended to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and 
dancing were also formed ; and the cediles curules, who had the care 
of the plays, distributed vast quantities of peas and beans among the 
populace in the Circus. 

§ 237 1. There were other games or sports (ladi), which we may 
just mention here. 

The Ludi Megalenses, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated 
with shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (mutitare) between 
persons of the higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the mem j 
ory of the rape of Proserpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ce- 
res. — The Martiales, dedicated to Mars' Ultor, or the avenger. — The JlpollU 
nares, in honor of Apollo, and generally scenical. — The Capitolini, to Jupiter, 
in memory of his preserving the Capitol from the Gauls. — The Plebeii, ill 
commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the recovery of freedom. 
— The Consuales, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the seizure of the 
Sabine women. — Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludi vo- 
tivi, the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in 
war; among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quin- 
quennales , d,ecennales, &c. given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty 
years. — To the class called extraor dinar ii, belonged such as Were held at fu- 
nerals, the Funebres, and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing 
their minority in age, the Juvenales. 

§ 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dra- 
matic (scenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and amphitheatres were 
used. — In the first ages, theatres were constructed merely of wood, 



£76 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

and were taken down after being used. Afterwards they were built 
of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor, Their con-* 
struction was similar to that of Greek theatres ; one side or end had 
"the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other 
was rectangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre 
was that buiit B. C. 59 by the aedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, 
partly of marble, and so capacious that 80,000 spectators could sit 
in it. The theatres of Pompey and Marcellus were also very large 
and celebrated ; the latter in part still remains. 

1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf. P. I. § 235), consisted of three 
parts, the scena, orchestra, and cavea; but the two latter are sometimes includ- 
ed under one (the cavea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians 
Were placed on the stage (or scena) ; and the rows of seats in the orchestra 
were occupied by the senators, foreign ambassadors, and specially distin- 
guished personages. The next fourteen rows of the cavea were assigned to 
the equites, and the rest of the people. Women occupied the portico sur- 
rounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augustus. — The stage, or portion 
allotted to the performers, had several parts distinguished by name ; one part 
Was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a 
Whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or scenery ; the part sometimes 
concealed by a curtain (aulaum), which was fastened not at the top but at 
the bottom, and, when it Was necessaiy to hide the scene, was drawn up by a 
machine for the purpose (called exostra) ; columns, statues, pictures, and va- 
rious ornaments of the most magnificent character were exhibited, according 
to the nature of the plays, The postscentum was a place behind the scene, 
where the actors changed their dresses, and the proscenium was the space in 
front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when speaking 
Was termed pulpitum, (J.oyuov, § 89). 

A plan of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate VI. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle 
BHBH is the orchestra ; the circle is presented complete with the fotir equilateral triangles in- 
scribed, in order to show the manner of determining the places for the scena, the postsce- 
nium, and the cunci; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall severally on the 
ends of the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits required ; 
the diameter (HH) of the orchestra was usually one third (or more) of the whole diameter of 
the theatre. The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of the orchestra. 

2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans have 
already been mentioned. See P. II. § 308-320. —Masks in great variety were 
Used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian (cf. § 89). — Among the 
musical instruments employed were the flute) and the lyre or harp, and in 
later times the hydraulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common ac- 
companiments of comedy were the flutes termed tibia dextra or Lydia, and 
tibia sinistra or Serrana or Tyria ; the terms pares and impares are also ap- 
plied to them. There has been some disagreement as to what these terms 
mean. It is most commonly supposed, that the musician used two flutes at 
Once or a double flute ; that the sinistra had but few holes and sounded a sort 
of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when these 
two were united they were termed impares, and took the other names because 
one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dex* 
tra or two sinistra were united and played upon by the musician, they were 
called pares. 

A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute. See 
our Plate XXI. fig. a, and cf. § 180. <2. — Bbttiger, Die Erfinduflg der Flbte, in vol. n» of Wi(h 
land's Attisches Museum. 

On theatres, plays, masks &c. cf. Bernardi, Les jeux Sceniques chez les Romains. in the 
Mem. de PInstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. .inc. vol. vin. p. 250. — Dunlop, as cited P. II. $ 299. 8. 
^—Bottiger, Prolus. de Personis scenicis, vulgo Larvis. Vinarite, 1794. 4. — Francisco de Fico- 
roni, on theatrical Masques of the Romans. Rom. 1736. 4. with Plates. — Boindin, Sur les 
Masques &c, in the Mem de PAcad. des Tnscr. vol. iv. p. 132. 

§ 239. The first amphitheatre was built B. C. 45 by Julius Caesar, 
but merely of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, 
the ruins of which, under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum 
(from a colossal statue of Nero, which stood near it), constitute still 



PLATE XXIII. 




578 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome. The form of am-- 
phitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were generally used for gla-> j 
diatorial shows and the fighting of wild beasts. Both theatres and 
amphitheatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods. 

The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus 
Curio actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in ex- 
hibitions of this sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking op- 
posite ways, in which dramatic plays were performed in the morning ; then 
by machinery for the purpose he suddenly wheeled them round so as to look 
at each other, thus constituting an amphitheatre, and presented a show of 
gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is sometimes put for the amphi- 
theatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the gladiators 
fought, and was so called from its being covered with sand. The arena was 
surrounded with a wall, guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sock- 
ets, to prevent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was com- 
pletely surrounded with a ditch filled with water (euripus). Next around the 
arena was the podium, raised 12 or 15 feet above it, projecting over the wall 
and protected by a sort of parapet. The fourteen seats next to the podium 
were occupied by the equites, and the rest (called popularia) by the people. 
There were, as in the theatre, passages running In the direction of the seats 
(called by the same name, prcecinctiones), and others running transversely 
(scalce), by which there were formed several compartments in the shape of 
wedges CcuneiJ. The women, after they were allowed to attend the amphi- 
theatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to the whole of these, and 
servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the 
amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled Villicus amp kith eatri, and 
persons, called designator es, were employed to superintend the seating of the 
spectators. — — By a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in 
secret tubes around these structures, and scattered over the audience, some- 
times from the statues which adorned the interior. — The Romans had also a~ 
remarkable contrivance for covering the vast area embraced in such a build- 
ing ; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes stretched across the build- 
ing and attached to masts or spars, which rose above the summit of the walls. 
Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 200 projecting 
blocks of stone, with holes cut to receive the ends of the spars, which ran up- 
through holes cut in the cornice. 

Comte de Caylus, Theatre of Curio, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxui. 369. — Cf. Pompeii, as cit- 
ed P. I. $ 226. 1. — Oh various existing ruins of amphitheatres, Stuart's Diet, of Architecture. 
Lond. 1832. 3 vols. 8, 

In our Plate XXIII. fig. 1, is a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Its extreme length,- 
from outside to outside of the exterior arcade, is 430 feet ; its greatest breadth is 335 feet. It 
consists chiefly of the rough masonry called opus incertum 7 with quoins of squared stone, and 
some trifling restorations of rubble. This rude mass was probably once covered with a facing 
of hewn stone. — At each end of the ellipse are entrances into the arena for the combatants ; 
through these also the dead bodies were dragged out into the spoliarium. On the podium were 
found several inscriptions containing the names of duumvirs who had presided ; there were 
also fresco-paintings, which soon disappeared on being exposed to the atmosphere. There are 
twenty-four rows of seats ; and the building, as has been estimated, would accommodate 
above 10,000 persons sitting, besides sach as might stand. 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§ 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of 
Rome, it is necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of 
its history; particularly to notice the three different forms of govern- 
ment which were successively established, the regal, consular, and 
imperial. The first continued 244 years to B. C. 510 ; the second 
479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the overthrow of 
the western empire, A. D. 476, and afterwards in the eastern. — Under 
the Kings the government was of a mixed character, and we should, 
estimate the powers of the kings by a reference, to the early kings 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. KINGS. CONSULS. 579 

and princes among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), 
rather than according to more modern ideas of an unlimited author- 
ity. The essential prerogatives of the Roman kings were the con- 
trol of the religious worship, the superintendence of the legislation 
and of judicial decisions, and the assembling of the senate and the 
people ; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in 
most cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the peo- 
ple had in the public concerns. 

lie. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and 
consisted of a golden crown, a chair (sella) of ivory, or highly ornamented 
with ivory, a sceptre of the same material, with an eagle on its extremity, a 
white robe (toga) with purple embroidery or borderings &c, a body of twelve 
attendants (lictores), who went before the king, carrying each a bundle of rods 
{fasces ) with an axe (securis) in the middle. 

In our Plate XXIV, fig. 1. is a cut representing the securis bound up in the fasces Fig. 3, 

is a group of royal sceptres, drawn from Egyptian monuments ; showing various forms and or- 
naments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI. figT 1, and fig. 3. 

2 ?/. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too 
long for the probable reigns of only seven kings, which is the number specified 
in the traditions respecting this period. But it must be remarked that the 
whole of the early Roman history is at least uncertain, and is by some consid- 
ered as purely fabulous. Cf. P. II. § 510. 

§ 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution became 
aristocratical. Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the au- 
thority and influence which the kings had possessed, and called Con- 
suls (consules). No particular age was originally requisite for this 
office, but a law [lex annalis) was enacted 180 B. C, that it should 
be held by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought the 
office, were called candidate, from their peculiarly white shining robe 
(toga Candida). The election took place, in the assembly of the 
the people, voting by Centuries, usually towards the end of July or 
the beginning of August. From that time until January of the fol- 
lowing year, the person chosen was called consul designatus, and then 
he entered upon his office under many solemnities. The two consuls 
had equal power. At first, both were chosen from the patricians ; 
afterwards, however, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from 
the plebeians. 

lu. Their badges of office were the same as those of the kings, excepting 
the golden crown, and the robe with purple ornaments ; the latter was allow- 
ed them on certain public solemnities, as e. g. a triumph. 

2 u. The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, assembling 
the senate, declaring the votes, among which they first gave their own, in pro- 
posing business to the senate and the people, fixing the comitia, appointing 
the judges, and preparing declarations of war. They were also usually com- 
manders of the army, and were required to attend to all its wants, and inform 
the senate of all important occurrences. After completing the year of their 
office they were usually proconsuls or governors of provinces. The power of 
the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution of the office of 
dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which authorized appeals from the 
decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more than 
the mere name remained ; they were merely the agents to execute the imperi- 
al will, to whom a few privileges were secured. In the later ages also, their 
number was increased, and the term of continuance very short. The office 
was preserved until A. D. 541 (after the overthrow of the western empire, cf. 
§ 240 and P. V. § 215), when it was conferred upon the reigning emperor 
for life. 



580 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C. 48, between Pompey and 
Caesar, prepared the way for introducing the imperial government ; which was 
established in the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, 
B. C. 31. The government now became in /act, a military monarchy; al- 
though the first emperors adhered, in form, to the old usages and customs in 
a great degree. But under Tiberius, the immediate successor of Augustus, 
the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under succeeding 
emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated in • 
their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices 
were created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government 
was at length turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and 
luxury. 

De la Bletterie, on the Roman Government under the Emperors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr* 
vol. xix. 357, and xxi. 299, power of Emperors j vol. xxiv, 261, power of Consuls; vol. xv. 
392, of Tribunes ; xxvn. 438, of Senate. 

§ 243. Prcetor was in early times the name for any magistrate, 
signifying merely an overseer, superintendant, or leader (from prceire). 
But, in the year B. C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer 
appointed to attend to the administration of justice. The Praetor was 
at first chosen from patricians, when the consulship was communi- 
cated to the plebeians. Two Praetors were chosen after the year B. C. 
243, one to attend to the business of the citizens (Praetor urbanus), 
the other the business of strangers (Prcetor percgrinus). Afterward 
there were four Praetors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, and 
even eighteen, until Augustus, it seems, limited the number to twelve. 

lit. The dignity of the city-Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his 
principal business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal (in or pro tri- 
hunali), a building appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (§ 261). The 
Praetor on entering upon his office, always published a statement of the rules 
and principles, by which he should be guided in his trials and decisions ; this 
was called his edict (edicturn Pratoris). The usual form in giving his decisions 
was do,dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, the city-Praetor took his 
place ; he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Comitia; he had the 
care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the Praetor were 
the toga prcetexta, a sword and spear (gladius et hasta), and an attendance of 
six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, 
in the same manner as the Proconsuls took the place of Consuls. 

2. Besides the general edict above mentioned,the Praetor published particu- 
lar edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predeces- 
sors were termed tralatitia ; those framed by himself, yova. An edict publish- 
ed at Rome, edicturn urbanum ; in a province, provinciate ; sometimes named 
from the province, as edicturn Sieilicnse. Other magistrates (honor ati) publish- 
ed edicts also. The law derived from all the various edicts was termed ji^s 
honorarium; this term or phrase, in later times, was applied to a collection of 
Praetor's edicts regularly arranged by order of the emperor Hadrian ; the same 
was also called edicturn per petuum. 

Bouchard, Sur les Edits des magistrats Romains, Mem. Acad. laser, vol . xxxix. 279. edicts of 
Consuls ; vol. xxi. p. 1, of Praetors ; xlu. 149. of iEdiles ; xlv. 439. of Prsefects. 

§ 244. JBdiles were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the 
care of the buildings (cedes). They were of two classes, plebeii and 
curules, two of each. The former were created first, B. C. 493 ; th,e 
latter, B. C. 266. At a later period, Julius Caesar added two others, 
called Cereales, who had the oversight of the stores of grain and provis- 
ion. In the Roman provinces, also, there were ^Ediles, whose office was 
usually but for a year. — The office seems to have continued until the. 
time of Constantine the Great. 

lu. The Mdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public and private 
buildings; and were required to make arrangements for the public ga,mes. ? ggf 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ^DILES. TRIBUNES. QU.ESTORS. 581 

to the preservation of the public roads, regulate the markets, prove the just- 
ness of weights and measures, and in short attend to the police of the city. 

2 u. The JEdiles Curulcs were distinguished from them by the toga pratexta, 
and the sella curulis. They were at first taken solely from the patricians, 
but afterwards also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public 
games. They had also the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, 
which always belonged to the plebeian yEdiles, with whom the Curules proba- 
bly shared, without distinction, the business of the police. 

§ 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes 
of the people (tribuni phbis) were the most remarkable. The office 
originated from the general disaffection and secession of the plebe- 
ians, B. C. 493. The number was first two, then five, finally ten. 
One of them always presided at the Comitia for electing tribunes. 
Their proper object was the protection of the people against the en- 
croachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this 
office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian fam- 
ilies. In the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but 
had their seats before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard 
all the deliberations, and could hinder the passage of any decree by 
the single word veto. By the Atinian law, B. C. 131, it was decreed 
that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Senators. Their power 
and influence constantly increased, although it was confined to the 
city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not 
be absent over night. 

1m. The Tribunes had no lictors,.nor any insignia of office, except a kind of 
beadles called viator es, who went before them. Their persons were regarded 
as inviolable. Sylla abridged their power; he took from them the right, 
which they had exercised, of assembling the people by tribes, and thereby 
passing enactments (plebiscita) binding upon the w r hole nation, and left them 
only the power of their negative or intercession {inter cedere). Their authori- 
ty, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under Julius Csesar it w 7 as 
small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf. § 242), who 
appropriated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes annually 
elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished 
in the time of Constantine the Great. 

2. The office of the Military Tribunes was highly important, but is not ranked among the 
permanent offices. Cf. § 248. 

§ 246. The Qucestors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, 
first appointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the 
people. They were charged with receiving and managing the reve- 
nues, and with the scrutiny of certain kinds of blood-shed. Those 
for the city were called Qucsstores urbani ; those for the provinces, 
QiMEstores provinciates ; and those for the examination of capital 
offences, Qucestores rerum capitalium, or parricidii. Originally there 
were but two, afterwards four, and then eight ; Sylla raised the num- 
ber to twenty, and Julius Ceesar to forty. 

\u. The Quaestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of foreign 
ambassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect 
publicly authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. 
They were at first taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from 
the Plebeians. 

Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called qucestores candi- 
date, who were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or 
secretaries, and were afterwards called juris interpretes, prccum arbitri, &c, 
from their employment. Still later there was another kind, cf considerable 
importance, styled Qucestores pal a til, or Magistri offciorum. 
49* 



582 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

2. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by 
Augustus to 22. The office was one of the first steps to preferment in the 
commonwealth, although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. 

Dodwell, de Quffisturae obeundce tempore legitimo, in his Pralect. Acad. p. 362, as cited P. II. 

$542,7. 

§ 247. The office of the Cmsors (Censores) was established at an 
early period, B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their 
office originally for five years, but afterwards only a year and a half. 
Their duties were various ; the following were some of the principal ; 
to take the census of the people, an accurate account of the age, pro- 
perty and descent of each head of a family, to divide the people into 
their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution, to decide the 
taxes of each person, to enrol those who were obligated to military 
service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect 
the morals of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, 
to attend to contracts respecting public works, such as streets, brid- 
ges, aqueducts and the like. 

1m. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace (notacensoria, 
ignominia), from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to therrr 
suitable. The luxury of the Romans, which in later times became so exces- 
sive, was considerably restrained by the censors. In order to escape the Cen- 
sorial rebukes or punishments, the office seems to have been left vacant for 
some time. 

2. The censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with 
the title of Prafectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Au- 
gustus also assumed the power, although he declined the title. The same 
was done by several of his successors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, 
when the corruption of morals was too great to allow any magistracy or power 
of the kind. 

De Valois, On the Roman Censors, in the Mem. JScad. laser, vol. i. p. 63. 

§ 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common divis- 
ion was into ordinary and extraordinary (Magistrutus Ordivarii and Ex* 
traordinarii). The chief of the former have been noticed; Consuls, Praetors, 
iEdiles, Tribunes of the people, Quaestors, and Censors. — The chief of the 
extraordinary magistrates (whose office was not permanent, but occasional T 
being necessary only in particular circumstances) were the following ; Dicta- 
tor, Decemvirs, Military Tribunes, Prasfect of the City, and Interrex. 

1 u. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or in- 
surrection which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (§245); 
and similar disturbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies oc- 
casioned the appointment of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were 
appointed for less important reasons, e. g. for regulating the public games and 
sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by the people, but by one of the 
Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by the Consul, by order 
of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The power of 
the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and 
the decision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who 
were condemned to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf. Liv. viii. 33). 
The power and office of the Dictator was limited to six months. He could 
not appropriate without consent of the senate or people any of the public 
money. As commander of the army, he was confined to the limits of Italy. 
No one ever abused the power of this- office so much as Cornelius Sulla. 
Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and after his death the 
dictatorship was abolished;. It was, however, offered to Augustus, who re- 
fused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 

2. Plutarch and Polybius state that the Dictator was attended by 24 lictors ; but in the epito- 
me of the 89th book of Livy, Sylla is said to have unwarrantably assumed this number (Ken- 
nett, p. 123). The Dictator appointed (usually from among those of consular or praetorian dig- 
nity) an officer, styled Magister equitum, whose business was to command the cavalry, and ex- 
ecute the orders of the Dictator; but this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, o; 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. EXTRAORDINARY MAGISTRATES, 58$ 

the people ; he was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the- 
order of the people. — Sometimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was invested with 
the power of Dictator, by decree of the Senate ( ne quid detrimcnti capiat respubUca). 

3u. The discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made 
of their power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B.C. 451, that 
of the Decemviri, with consular authority (decemviri consular i potestate, s. 
legibus ferendis). They were appointed for the special purpose of forming' 
a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws of the twelve tables (§ 265). As- 
they soon began to abuse their great power, the office was abolished, B. C. 
449, and that of Consul restored. 

4 u. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of 
Military Tribunes (tribuni militum consular % potestate) ', who, in the year B. C. 
445, were appointed in the place of Consuls ; but were dismissed after three 
months. Originally they were six in number, three patricians and three ple- 
beians ; afterwards the number varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six 7 
or eight ; sometimes military tribunes and sometimes consuls were elected, 
as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed, until the year B. C. 366 r 
when the plebeians were quieted by the choice of a consul from among them- 
selves. 

5u. The Prsefect of the city (Prarfectus urbi) was the officer to whom the 
Consuls in their absence, especially in war, entrusted the charge of the po- 
lice. Under the emperors this became a regular and permanent office of 
great influence. 

6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there was no 
consul or magistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn 
from the title of the temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there 
was a vacancy in the throne under the regal government. 

§ 249. Less important occasional magistrates were the following ; the Pr<e- 
fectus annonce, charged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases 
of scarcity ; the Quinqueviri mensarii, whose chief business was to reduce 
public expenses (minuendis publicis sumtibus) ; the Quinqueviri muris turri~ 
busque rcficicndis, to see to repairs in the walls and fortifications ; the Trium- 
viri mdibus sacris refciendis, to repair the sacred buildings ; Triumviri mone- 
tales, having charge of the mint ; Triumviri nocturni, to superintend the 
nightly watch ; Duumviri navales (classis ornandce rejicienda;que causa), for 
equipping and repairing the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not 
magistrates in the proper sense, but they were chosen from among the most 
respectable men. 

The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparito- 
res ; under which were included scribre, notarii, actuarii, accensi, prsecones, 
lictores, viatores, &c. — The Carnifex was the executioner or hangman. 

§ 259. Besides the magistrates which have been named, perma- 
nent or occasional, there were various others whose authority per- 
tained to the provinces of Rome, provincial magistrates. These 
were in part such as have been named. Among them were the pro- 
Gonsuls, propraetors, proqusestors, the legates, conquisitors, &c. 

Proconsuls were either (1) such as being consuls had their office prolonged 
beyond the time fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private sta- 
tion to govern some province or to command in war ; or (3) such as having 
been consuls went, immediately on the legal expiration of their consulship, 
into provinces assigned to their charge under the commonwealth ; or (4) such 
as were appointed governors of the provinces under the empire ; as all these 
Were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly belonged to the 
third of these classes. — The senate decided from year to year what provinces 
should be consular ; and then the consuls, while only designati (§242), agreed 
by lot which of them each should take on the expiration of his consulship. 
A vote of the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in 
their provinces. Their departure to their provinces and return to the city was 
often attended with great pomp. They enjoyed very absolute authority both 
civil and military , but it was limited to a year, and they were liable to a rigid 
trial on their return ; the offences most commonly charged were (1) crimen 



584 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

peculatiis, ill use of the public money, (2) majestatis, treachery or assumption 
of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repetundarum, extortion 
or oppression towards the inhabitants. 

The Propraetors were such as, after their praetorship, received provinces, in 
which for a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. 
Their creation, administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the 
Proconsuls ; only they had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praeto- 
rian provinces were usually smaller than the consular (cf. § 260. 3.(4")). 

The Legati were the chief assistants of the Proconsuls and Propraetors. The 
number depended oil the rank of the chief officer, and the circumstances of 
the provinces. They at length obtained important authority as military com- 
manders. One Quiestor or more attended each Proconsul or Propraetor. 

His business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the 
army. Proquaestors were such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on 
the absence or death of the provincial Quaestor (§ 246). The duties of the 
Quaestor were assigned under the emperors to the officer styled Procurator 

Cazsaris. The conquisitores were inferior officers not properly civil, who 

were employed to raise soldiers, and by force if necessary. 

§ 251. We may notice here the division or classification of the 
people, which had throughout an important influence on the govern- 
ment. — At the beginning, Romulus divided the city itself and the 
whole people into three tribes, and each of these into ten Curice. 
The tribes were the Hhamnensis, consisting of native Romans, the 
Tatiensis, of Sabines, and the tribus Lucerum, of all other foreign- 
ers. — Servius Tullius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 
of the city (tribus urbance), and 26 for the territories (tribus rus- 
tics). The latter at length gained the precedency of the former, 
and were considered as more honorable. Five tribes were added at 
a later period ; and also others, which were not permanent. 

The four city tribes were Suburana or Succusana, Esquilina, Collina, Palatina ; the rustic 
tribes, Rom ilia, Lemonia, Pupina, Galena, Pollia, Voltinia, Claudia, ^Emilia, Cornelia, Fabia, 
Horatia, Menenia, Papiria, Sergia, Veturia, Crustumina ; these belonged to the proper Roman 
territory ; in addition there were the Etrurian tribes, Vejentina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Saba- 
tina, Arniensis, Pomptina, Publilia or Papilia, Mcecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Falerina ; and the- 

Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Quirina ; making thirty-one. Boivin, On the 

Rom. Tribes, in the Mem. Acad. laser, vol. i. 72. 

§ 252. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman citizens, for the 
sake of an equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six 
classes according to property. These classes were subdivided into 
centuries amounting in all to 193. In order to preserve this distri- 
bution, an ordinance was established requiring the census and valu- 
ation to be taken every five years (§ 247). 

u The first class consisted of those whose estates in lands and effects were 
worth at least 100,000 asses, or pounds of brass ; or 10,000 drachma according 
to the Greek way of computing; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to 
£322 18s. 4d. sterling ; but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 
asses, as was the case afterwards, it will amount to £7750. This first class 
was subdivided into eighty centuries or companies of foot, forty of young men 
(juniorum), from seventeen to forty -six years of age, who were obliged to 
take the field Cut foris bella gererent), and forty of old men (seniorum), who 
should guard the city Cad urbis custodiam ut praisto essentj. To these were 
added eighteen centuries of Equites, who fought on horseback ; in all ninety- 
eight centuries. — The second class consisted of twenty centuries, ten of young 
men, and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To 
these -were added two centuries of artificers (fabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. 
to manage the engines of war. — The third class likewise contained twenty 
centuries ; their estate was 50,000 asses. — The fourth class likewise contained 
twenty centuries; their estate was 25,000 asses. To these Dionysius adds 
two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — The fifth class was divided into thirty 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS. PLEBEIANS. 585 

centuries ; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dionysius, 12.500. 
— The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or were 
not worth so much as those of the fifth class. The number of them was so 
great as to exceed that of any of the other classes - , yet they were reckoned 
as but one century. — Thus the number of centuries in all the classes was, 
according to Dionysius, 193. 

Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army ac- 
cording to the valuation of their fortunes. — Those of the first class were 
called Classici; all the rest were said to be Infra Classem. A. Gell, vii. 13. 
Hence classici auctores, for the most approved authors. lb. xix. 8. 

By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who 
composed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more 
centuries than all the rest put together ; but they likewise bore the charges 
of peace and war (munia facis et belli J in proportion. For as the votes of the 
Comitia. so likewise the quota of soldiers and taxes, depended on the number 
of centuries. Accordingly the first class, which consisted of ninety-eight, 
or, according to Livy, of one hundred centuries, furnished more men and 
money to the public service than all the rest of the state besides. But they 
had likewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by centuries. 
For the Equites and the centuries of this class were called first to give their 
votes, and if they were unanimous, the matter was determined ; but if not. 
then the centuries of the next class were called, and so on, till a majority of 
centuries had voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they 
came to the lowest (Liv. i. 43. Dionys. vii. 59)." (Adam.) 

§ 253. Another division of the Romans, existing from the earliest 
times, was into Patricians and Plebeians, according to family de- 
scent. The Patricians were the descendants of the Senators ap- 
pointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Patres, of whom he selected three 
from each tribe, and three from each curia, making ninety-nine ; to 
these he added a man of distinguished merit, so that the Senate orig- 
inally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were ad- 
mitted into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus 
increased this number by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who 
were termed Patres minorum gentium, to distinguish them, from the 
original Senators, and their descendants were called Patncii mino-* 
rum gentium. 

§ 254. The word populus had among the Romans a more genera^ 
meaning than plebs ; the former signified the whole body of the Ro», 
man people ; the latter, a particular portion distinct from the sena^ 
tors and the knights, and called also, ordo plcbeius. In early times x 
this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, hut in the 
times of the republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, 
which we denominate the populace. The patricians and plebeians, 
were from the beginning greatly at variance. The former were such 
as sprang from the noblest families, particularly the oldest senators 
under the kings, and at first held all the public offices exclusively. 
The plebeians gained a share in them B. C. 493, as has been already 
mentioned (§ 245). After this the patricians often allowed them- 
selves to be adopted into plebeian families, in order the more easily 
to secure offices, which were common to both ranks, or confined to 
plebeians, as was the office of tribunes. The power of the people 
rose to a great height during the time of the republic, and often was 
perverted to the greatest abuses. 

1m. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. '145. Pre- 
viously to intermarriages the only mutual relation w^s that of patron an_d cli*. 



586 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ent ; in which the plebeian made free choice of some patrician as his guardian 
and patron, and this patrician in turn was obligated by certain duties to the 
plebeian as his client. At last this relation existed chiefly between masters 
and freedmen. 

2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many clients, 
both hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of the relation 
were considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil {JEn. vi. 605) joins the crime 
of injuring a client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other 
hand was expected to serve his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst 
all the dissensions which marks the Roman history, there seems to have been 
a mutual and faithful observance of these duties. In later times cities and 
nations chose as patrons distinguished families or individuals at Rome. 

§ 255. It is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, 
and what was called Roman nobility [nobilitas Romano). The lat- 
ler was a dignity resulting from merit, either personal or derived 
from ancestors, and acquired especially by holding a curulc office. 
Patrician descent was not necessary for this, although when united 
with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired this nobili- 
ty themselves, were styled novi homines. 

lu. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility (nob- 
ilesj was the jus imaginum, which allowed them to form images or busts in 
painted wax of their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls (atria), 
and carrying them in funeral processions (§ 340. 3), and at other solemnities. 
The right was sometimes conferred as a reward, by an assembly of the peo- 
ple, and received with public thanks. The Roman history is filled with con- 
tests between the old and the new nobility. 

2. A curule office was one which entitled the person holding it to use the 
sella curulis or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, 
censor, and curule aedile. 

The chair was composed of ivory, or least highly adorned with it, commonly being a sort of 
" stool without a back, with four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross pieces, joined 
hy a common axis, somewhat in the form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that 
it might be folded together," and thus easily carried by the magistrate in his chariot ; hence 
the epithet curulis. (Aid. Ocll. iii. 18.) In our Plate XXIV. fig. 9 is a representation of one 
answering the above description. But the sella appears to have been sometimes of a less port- 
able form and size, as seen in fig. 2 of this plate. These two figures are from monuments 

found, the one at Pompeii, the other at Herculaneum. The chair above described must be 

distinguished from the sella poTtaturia, or cathedra ; this was a sedan in which a person sat and 
was carried by slaves, in the manner still common in the east. They were used by private 
persons as well as rulers and officers. They were very frequent in the time of Caesar. (Suet. 
Cres. 43. Claud. 28.) — Fig. 10, in Plate XXIV. is from an Egyptian monument, and serves 
well to illustrate the subject. There are four bearers ; a fifth attendant bears a staff in his 
right hand, perhaps the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol 
richly embroidered is stretched behind the occupant of the chair, on a frame for the purpose. 
The sedan itself is of elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devices. The 
magistrates in the colonies and municipal towns sat on public occasions in a large chair called 
bisellium; two of these have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of ex- 
traordinary workmanship. Pompeii, p. 265, as cited P. I. §226. 

§ 256. The Equites formed a distinct body of high rank in Rome 
(ordo cquester). They were originally composed of 100 young men 
taken from each of the three tribes, thus making three centuries 
(300). Their number was greatly increased by the kings, so that 
there were 18 centuries (1800) under Servius Tullius. They became 
at length a distinct order, not including all who served on horseback, 
but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, 
the order received some important prerogatives, being chosen to act 
as judges, and to farm the revenues. The property requisite to qual- 
ify one for election as a knight, at this period, was 400 thousand ses- 
terces {census equester) ; the age about eighteen ; nobility of descent 
was not sufficient to secure it. The Censors were entrusted with 
the scrutiny, and they presented to those found worthy, a horse at 



PLATE XXIV, 




-588 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the public expense ; hence the phrase, equo publico merere. The or- 
der was under the constant supervision of the Censors. 

1. Plebeians as well as Patricians were eligible to this order. The term il- 
lustres was applied to those descended from ancient families. 

2 u. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring (annulus aureus) or 
rings, and by the tunica angusticlavia, a white tunic with its purple stripe, or 
border, narrower than that of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was 
next to the senators, who were frequently chosen from the equestrians. They 
made annually, on the 15th of July, a splendid procession (transvectio) through 
the city to the Capitol. 

§ 257. The Senate, as has been already stated (§ 253), originally 
consisted of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the 
regal office was abolished, of 300. Sulla added 300 Equites, raising 
the whole number to 600. Towards the end of the republic,the number 
was as great as 1000. Augustus reduced it to 600. Under his suc- 
cessors the number was not uniformly the same. — The Senators when 
assembled in council, were called Patres Conscripti. Their elec- 
tion was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards 
by the censors, and in one instance, after the battle of Cannae, by a 
Dictator. Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed 
to attend to the election. In the choice of senators regard was had 
to character, property, and age which must not be less than twenty- 
five. 

1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two 
things ; the tunica laticlavia, a tunic or waiscoat with a broad stripe of purple 
(lotus clavus) attached to it, and high black buskins Ccalcei or ocrea nigri co- 
lorisJ, which had the letter C marked on them. At public spectacles the Sen- 
ators also sat in the foremost part of the Orchestra. 

2u. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Praetors, 
or Tribunes of the people, by public summons (edictum), or by means of a 
herald. In the former case the object of assembling was specified. There 
were, besides, certain days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Ca- 
lends, Nones, and Ides of every month. On festivals and in time of the Co- 
mitia where the whole people were assembled, the senate could not meet. 
Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the Calends and Ides. The place 
of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be set apart and conse- 
crated for the purpose by the Augurs. The temples, and the Capitol amongst 
them, were usually selected, excepting always the Temple of Vesta. — The 
number of members necessary (numerus legitimus) to pass a decree (Senatus 
consultum) was 100 ; and from the year B. C. 67, 200. The meetings were 
opened early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before 
and after the light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices 
were always offered and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to 
hold the senate, before entering the place of meeting. The magistrate, then, 
Consul, Praetor, or whoever assembled the senate, proposed the business, and 
the members gave their opinions usually in an established order. In impor- 
tant or interesting cases, questions were decided by the Senators separating 
into two parts (itio in partes). The emperors had the right of proposing ques- 
tions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission. — 
A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Senatus consultum, 
and a judgment or opinion, Senatus auctoritas ; the latter term was applied, 
when the sentence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's 
intercession or veto, or was attended with some informality ; decrees were 
ratified by being engrossed or written out, and lodged in the treasury (in 
JErarium condebantur ) in the place of public records (tabularium), in the 
temple of Saturn. 

3. " Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they 
seldom enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. 589 

affairs, the method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliber- 
ate and decree, and then the people order. But there were many things of 
great importance which the Senate always determined itself, unless when 
they were brought before the people by the intercessions of the Tribunes. 
This right the Senate seems to have had, not from any express law, but by 
the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed to themselves guar- 
dianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be introduced, nor 
altar erected, nor the Sibylline books consulted, without their order. — 2. The 
Senate had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at 
pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers, and provis- 
ions and clothing for their armies. — 3. They settled the provinces, which 
were annually assigned to the Consuls and Proetors ; and, when it seemed fit, 
they prolonged their command. — 4. They nominated out of their own body 
all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave to foreign ambassadors what an- 
swers they thought proper. — 5. They decreed all public thanksgivings for 
victories obtained ; and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph, with 
the title of Imperator, on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the 
title of King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an ene- 
my by a vote. — 7. They inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in 
Rome or other parts of Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes 
among the allied and dependent cities. — 8. They exercised a power, not only 
of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men from the obligation of them, 
and even of abrogating thern. — 9. They could postpone the assemblies of the 
people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases of any imminent 
danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous in 
civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn 
decree, Ultimum or Eztrernum, used to be passed (§ 248. 2), That the consuls 
■should take care that the republic should receive no harm." (Adam.) 

C. Middlelon, Treatise on Rom. Senate. Lond. 1747. 8. Also in his Miscell. Works. Lond. 
1755. 5 vols. 8. — Chapman, Essay on the Rom. Senate. — Spelvian, Dissertation &x. in his 
Trans, of Dlonys. Hal. cited P. II. §247. 4. — Bletterie,&s cited $242. 

§ 258. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Com- 
itia. The word comitium originally signified the place of assembling, 
which was an open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court- 
house of Hostilius ; it was afterwards applied to the assembly itself, 
consisting of three ranks or orders of the Roman people, and held 
at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the Capitol. Assemblies of 
one or two orders were called Concilia ; and less formal ones, where 
merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing was 
decided, were termed Condones. The Comitia were appointed only 
by the higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's ab- 
sence, a Praetor. The most important subjects were considered in 
these assemblies, some of which have been already mentioned inci- 
dentally. 

§ 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be 
held, 184 in number, were called dies comitiales. Romulus establish- 
ed the Comitia Curiata, in which the votes were given by Curies 
(§ 251) ; Servius Tullius the Comitia CeJituriata, in which the peo- 
ple voted by centuries, and which were the most important ; and the 
Tribunes, B. C, 491, instituted the Comitia Tributa, in which the 
the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last men- 
tioned were termed Plebiscita, and at first were binding only on the 
plebeians. — The election of officers, which became the principal busi- 
ness of the Comitia, was chiefly made at the Comitia Centuriata, 
These were held in the Campus Martius, where more than 50,000 
persons might assemble. 
50 



59$ ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, 

1m. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries dCC*t2-» 
pied an elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips 
or narrow passages (pontes, ponticuli) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend 
upon as they went to vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by 
a balustrade, forming what was called the Septa or Ovile. Outside of this the 
people stood until they were called in (intro vocatce) to vote century by centu- 
ry through the six successive classes. The order, in which the centuries voted, 
was determined by lot (sortitio)^ the names being thrown into a box (sitella) 
and drawn out by the presiding magistrate. The votes were by means of bal- 
lots (tabellce), which were given to each citizen by persons (diribitores) stand- 
ing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the citizens 
into a box or chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting 
was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing de- 
crees or judicial sentences. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age 
were allowed to vote. 

2. " By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking 
out the tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or point (punc- 
tum) in another tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being 
decided by most points gave occasion to the phrase, Omne tulit punctum, and 
the like." (Kennett.) — It is obvious, that in the Comitia Centuriata the mode 
of voting must give the higher classes an entire preponderance over the others 
(cf. § 252). 

§ 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several impor- 
tant privileges, especially during the freedom of the state. The life 
and property of a citizen were in the power of no one but of the 
whole people appealed to thereon ; no magistrate could punish him 
by stripes ; he had a full right over his property, his children and his 
dependents \ he had a voice in the assemblies of the people and in 
the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full author- 
ity after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full 
citizenship including this could be bestowed only by the people; cit- 
izenship embracing the other rights could be conferred by the senate 
also. All freedmen and their children were excluded from this right, 
which is what was properly meant by the Jus Quiritium. 

lu. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, 
even by banishment; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a 
foreign allegiance. The Jvs Quiritium privatum, conferred on the colonies 
and municipal towns, comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; 
in the case of the Latin colonies it was called Jus Latii or Latinitatis ; of the 
Italian, Jus Italicum. Still more limited were the privileges included in the 
Jura provinciarum and Jura prcefecturarum. 

2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public ; 
both are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and some- 
times under that of Jus civitatis ; and sometimes these phrases seem to be 
limited respectively to the rights termed private or public. — To the private, 
belonged the following; 1. Jus libertatis, which secured to each the control 
of his person; 2. Jus gentis et families, which secured the peculiar privileges 
of his descent; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control over his children; 4. Jus 
dominii legitimi, the possession of legal property; 5. Jus testamenti and kcered- 
itatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by WiH; 6. Justutelce, the right 
to appoint by will guardians for his wife and children. To the public, be- 
longed the following; 1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled by the cen- 
sor ; 2. Jus militice, none but citizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which 
was afterwards abolished ; 3. Jus tributorum, which secured to the citizen 
taxation proportioned to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting, so 
highly valued; 5. Jus honorum, eligibility to public offices, a right originally 
confined to patricians, but finally extended to plebeians also; 6. Jus sacrorunt 1 
which included certain rights in relation to religious worship. — Those who 
did not possess the rights of citizens (cives) were generally termed foreigner's 
(jperegrini) wherever they resided. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. RIGHTS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 591 

3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights and privileges, which 
were allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The 
forms of government established in such eases maybe divided into four. — 
(1) The Colonics or colonies were cities or tracts of country, which persons 
from Rome were sent to inhabit. These persons, although mingling with the 
conquered natives and occupants, gained the whole power in the administra- 
tion of affairs. In the later periods of the republic and under the emperors, 
many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served out their legal time 
(twenty years, in the foot, or ten in the horse, cf. § 277), and who after thus 
laboring for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, 
and spend their age in ease and plenty. — The colonies were scattered over the 

empire, and governed by laws prescribed to them by the Romans. (2). 

The Munieipia were cities, which enjoyed the right of governing themselves 
by their own laws ; retaining, if they chose it, such as were in use before their 
subjection to the Romans. They were in some respects like the corporate 
cities of our country, and their inhabitants had the name and some of the 
rights of Roman citizens. Qrignally confined to Italy, they were subsequent- 
ly formed even in the provinces. The colonise and munieipia had similar 
magistrates ; the Duumviri were the chief officers; the senators were called 
Decuriones. (3). The Prefecture? were certain towns in Italy, whose priv- 
ileges were curtailed for offences against the Roman government. They were 
not suffered to frame their own laws as did the munieipia, nor to choose their 
own magistrates, as did both the munieipia and the coloniae. They were gov- 
erned by a prefect sent annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, 

which were not either colonial, munieipia or praifecturai, were called civitates 
fader atm. enjoying their old rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only 

by confederacy or alliance. (4.) The Provincial were foreign countries of 

larger extent, which, when conquered, were remodeled as to their govern- 
ments, at the pleasure of the Romans. They were compelled to pay such 
taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually 
sent out from Rome. The provinces were termed Praetorian or Proconsular 
according as Praetors or Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the 
emperor were governed by propraetors ; those belonging to the senate, by 
proconsuls (cf. § 250j. These governors were often tyrannical and always 
oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious fea- 
ures in the Roman administration. 

For illustrations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cicero's Orations against Verres. — Middleton's 
Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 94, as cited P. II. § 404. 1. — Burigny, on Gov. of Rom. Provinces in 
the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvu. 64. 

§ 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of 
public and private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved 
the general peace and security ; the latter, the claims and rights of 
individuals. The public or criminal trials (judicia publico) were 
either ordinary or extraordinary. — The latter were such as belonged 
not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed time or place, but had a spe- 
cial day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- 
pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as 
a sort of commissioners in cases of this kind ; such were the Duum- 
viri perduellionis or Qucesitores. — The ordinary public trials were 
also called qucestiones perpetual, and were first established in the year 
B. C. 149, for the most common state offences. In these the Praetor 
presided (§ 243), by whom assistant judges (judices assessores) were 
chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from the knights, 
and at last from all conditions. The judges were divided into sever- 
al decurice, from which the requisite number of them were taken by 
iot for each trial. Under the emperors the judges were appointed by 
themselves. 

lu. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of establish- 



592 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ed usages were observed. The plaintiff (actor, accusator) commonly spoke 
against the defendant (reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion ot 
the judges was given orally or in writing, and judgment was pronounced. 
The person acquitted could, when he had ground for it, bring his accuser to 
trial for slander (calumnia) ; the person condemned, on the other hand, was 
punished according to the law. 

2. Public trials of a capital kind were held before the Comitia Centuri- 
ata ; such as involved only the question of some minor punishment, before 
the Comitia. Tributa. In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. 
Having called an assembly, he announced that on a certain day he should ac- 
cuse the person of a certain crime ; doing this was expressed by the phrase 
dicere diem ; the person named must procure bondsmen (zades, prades) or be 
kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the magistrate made his accu- 
sation, which was repeated three times, each after one day intervening ; then 
a bill (rogatio), including the charge and the punishment proposed, was post- 
ed up for three market-days ; on the third market-day, the accuser again re- 
peated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (advocatus, patronus) made 
a defence ; after which the Comitia was summoned, for a certain day, to decide 
the trial then by suffrages. 

On the judicial affairs of the Romans, the fullest authority is C. Sigonius de judiciis (in his 
Opp. vol. in. — Also in 2d vol. of Graivius cited \S 197). — Cf. Beaufort, Republique Rouiaine* 
2d vol. — Dunlop, Rom. Lit. vol. ii. p. 141, as cited P. II. § 299.8. 

§262. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called pe- 
tit™ ; the plaintiff petitor, and the defendant, is uncle petitur. The 
plaintiff could compel the other party to appear at court, not usually 
however without calling in some one as witness to the step (antesta- 
tio). If the defendant chose not to go, he must give security or bail 
(satisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter or object of his 
complaint (causa) ; if the defendant denied the thing charged, it led 
to a formal trial (actio). — There were two principal kinds of ac- 
tions ; viz. actiones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of ob- 
ligations ;. and actiones in rem, which related to the recovery of pro- 
perty in possession of another, The proceeding, in a case of the 
latter kind, was termed vindicatio. All private trials belonged to the 
jurisdiction of the Prcetor. 

lu. The Praetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the 
restitution of property, were called recuperatores. Often for this purpose a hun- 
dred or a hundred and five were appointed from the different tribes, called 
centumvir ale judicium. The judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, 
were put under oath. Then the action was carried forward orally, and after 
examination, judgment was pronounced, and provision made for its execution. 
It may be important to distinguish judges properly so called from arbitra- 
tors (arbitri causarum) , who made awards in cases which were not to be de- 
cided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommodation, 
or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa jidei bona et arbi- 
tration. 

2u. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Cam- 
pus Martins, and in private, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica: 
(Cf. P. V. § 61). 

§ 263. Among the principal penal offences, which demanded pub- 
He trials, were the following ; Crimen majestatis, or an offence against 
the dignity and security of the state and its magistrates ; perducllionis, 
high treason against the freedom of the people ; peculatus, embezzling 
in any way the public property, sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or 
falsifying records ; ambitus, bribery or corruption of the people to 
procure votes in an election ; repetundarum, extortion, when a Prsetor, 
Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, for 
Which compensation was demanded ; vis public cd, public violence, jn> 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS. 593 

eluding conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. 
— There were various more private offences of which cognizance 
was taken in public trials ; e. g. crimen inter sicarios, assassination ; 
crimen veneficii, poison ; parricidii, parricide ; falsi, forgery ; adul- 
ter ii&L plagii, adultery and man-stealing. 

§ 264. The punishments inflicted on those found guilty were vari- 
ous. The following were the principal ; damnum, mulcta, fines, 
which at first never exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value 
of them, but afterwards were increased ; vincula, imprisonment with 
bonds, which were cords or chains upon the hands and feet ; verbe- 
ra, blows inflicted on the free-born with the rods of the Lictors 
.(virgis), upon slaves with whips (flagellis) ; talio, satisfaction in 
kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an 
eye ; infamia or ignominia, disgrace or infamy, which generally ren- 
dered the person incapable of enjoying public offices; exilium, ban- 
ishment, which was either voluntary or inflicted, and was attended 
with a deprivation of all honors. When the person was banished to 
no particular place, he was said to be interdictus ; when banished to 
a certain place, relegatus. The form termed deportatio was the most 
severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant 
and desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be 
noticed ; servitus, slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were 
sold ; and mors, death, inflicted for heinous crimes. 

1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties; as catena, 
chains ; bolts, cords or thongs ; manicce,, manicles for the hands ; pedicce, fet- 
ters for the feet ; ncrvus, iron shackles for the neck ; columbar, a sort of stocks, 
a wooden frame with holes in which the feet were fastened and sometimes the 

hands. The confinement of criminals was either in prison, or in private 

custody under a soldier or officers (cf. Acts, xxviii. 16). The ancient state- 
prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamertine Prison, is still pointed out to 
travelers. 

In our Plate XXIV. fig. A is a cut showing a kind of stocks now used in the East, in which 
the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands ; it may serve to illustrate 
the Roman stocks above named. — Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut representing one of the 
stories of the Mamertine Prison. This structure is under a small edifice called the Church of 
St. Joseph ; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called Tullianum, after Servius Tullius, 
who is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without ce- 
ment, and defying the assaults of time ; here Jug-urtha was stoned to death, and according to 
tradition Paul and Peter were imprisoned ; the dungeon presents a most appalling aopearance. 
Cf. Eustace, Tour &.c. cited P. I. § 190. 1. —Fish, Travels &c. p. 300, as cited P. I. § 185. 6. 

2. The flagellum was made of leathern thongs or twisted cords fastened to 
the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. The 
scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the jenda a mere rod or stick. Cf. 
Hot. i. iii. 119. 

3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually cruci- 
fied Ccruci affigerej ; others it was customary at first to hang (arbori suspen- 
dcre), afterwards to behead (securi percutcre), or to strangle in prison (stran- 
gulare), or to throw from the Tarpeian rock Cde saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast 
into the sea or a river Cprojiccre in profluentcm). The latter mode was used 
in the case of parricide, or the murder of any near relative. The criminal 
was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack (culeus, cf. Dionys. Hal. 
iv. 62). sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a dog and a cock, and 
then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals were not 
burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased 
the privilege of doing it; but were usually exposed before the prison, on cer~ 
iain stairs CscalceJ called gemonicv, or gemonii gradus ; down which they were 
dragged with a hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popu~ 
lar violence or civil war were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy 

50* 



594 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

(Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other modes of capital punishment were also prae* 
ticed, especially under the emperors ; ad ludos, in which the criminals were 
obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre (bestiarii), or with each 
other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders were condemned to 
work in mines ; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild beasts to be 
devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those, who embraced and 
would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more 
horrid, which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and 
set it on fire ; thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his 
own crime of burning Rome. 

§ 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefi- 
nite in the early times of Rome. The kings,, and likewise the first 
consuls, decided all cases according to their own judgment, or ac- 
cording to usage in similar instances. The abuses growing out of 
this state of things occasioned, according to the common accounts, 
the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to Athens and Spar- 
ta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They returned 
B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (§ 248. 3) were 
appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 

1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, 
then in twelve tables, and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopt- 
ed and established as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. 11. 
§ 561). — To these were afterwards added many particular laws, which were 
usually named from their authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who pro- 
posed them ; e. g. LcxAtinia, Lex Furia, &c. ; also from their contents; e. g. 
Leges agrarim, frumentarice, &c. 

2 u. It was necessary, that every law proposed for enactment should be 
previously posted up in public for 17 days (per trinundinum), and then be 
submitted to the decision of the people in the Comitia Centuriata, that they 
might adopt it (legem jubere, accipcre), or reject it (legem antiquare). When 
a previous law was abolished, they were said to abrogate it (legem abrogate). 
Laws thus adopted were engraved on brass, and lodged in the archives. — 
Under the emperors, however, their own ordinances had the force of laws, 
called Constitutions principales, and including not only their formal edicts 
(edictaj, but answers to petitions (rescripta), judicial decisions (decreta), and 
commands to officers (mandata). 

3. The several early collections of Roman laws and usages have been be- 
fore mentioned (cf. P. II. § 561). Besides these collections and the constitu- 
tiones and leges above named, Roman law included also the plebiscita (§ 259), 
the senatus consulta (§257), and the jus honorarium (§ 243). It is obvious, 
therefore, that in the lapse of years the system of laws must have become 
exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. The emperor Justinian first reduced 
the Roman law to something like order. Cf. P. II. § 569. 

§ 266 m. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular poli- 
cy of the Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain. A 
general scarcity, as in the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned the 
appointment of a special officer to attend to the subject, called Prcefectus an- 
nonce, although the iEdiles had previously been charged with this care, and 
it continued afterwards to be a duty of their office (§ 244). Augustus or- 
dained, that two men should be annually elected to perform this duty, duum- 
viri dividundo frumento. The annual contributions in grain, which were ex- 
acted of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a scarci- 
ty of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Qucestors (§ 246), were 
required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect, Egypt was the 
most productive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual 
voyage was made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was 
afterwards joined. The distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, 
was practiced in Rome from the earliest times. 

§ 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (ccrarium) r 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. REVENUE. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 595 

and afterwards to the imperial exchequer (Jiscus), were the tributa, 
taxes imposed on the citizens according to their property, or on the 
provinces as an annual tribute, and the vectigalia, which included 
all the other forms of taxes. There were three principal kinds or 
branches of the vectigalia ; the portorium, duties on exports and im- 
ports, the person taking lease of which was called manceps portuum ; 
decwiKS, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce ; and the scriptura, or 
pasture tax, paid for feeding cattle on the public lands. There were 
also taxes on mines (especially the silver mines of Spain), and on 
salt, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were the 
taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves (viceswia, a twentieth), 
on aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 

1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (locabantur sub hastaj. Those who 
hired or farmed them were called j)ublicani, the rent or hire paid being called 
publicum; they were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed prop- 
erty, and on taking the lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities 
(prcedes). Leases of the revenues of whole kingdoms and provinces were 
often taken by several knights associated, who had in Rome a superintendent 
of the concern fmagistcr societatis publicanoruvi) , with a subordinate one in 
each province or region (promagister), and a multitude of subalterns to collect 
the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. 

The publicans so often mentioned in the New Testament were of the class of subaltern col- 
lectors above described, who were guilty of great extortion in all the provinces. — Bouchard. 
Sur les Publicains &x. in the Mem. Acad. Inscrip. xxxvn. 241. 

2. After the conquest of Macedonia the revenue from the provinces became 
so great, that the taxes previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. 
They were renewed again by Augustus, and continued by his successors. 
Caracalla bestowed the name and privilege of Roman citizens on all free in- 
habitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these taxes ; 
this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial 
subjects. 

D. H. Hcgeicisr.h, Histor. Versuch tiber die Rbmischen Finanzen. Altona, 1804. 8. — R. Bosse, 
Grundziige des Finanzwesens im Rom. Staate. Braunschweig, 1803. 4. 2 bde. 8.— Cf. Gibbon, 
Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii. — On income from mines of Spain, Rollin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed, 
N. Yk. 1835. 

§ 268. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in 
early times, when the spirit of war and conquest engrossed every 
thing, yet there existed a body of merchants, who were Roman citi- 
zens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the expulsion 
of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial 
pursuits were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who 
nevertheless covertly and through agents not unfrequently engaged 
in them and indulged in speculations. They did this especially in 
connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. 

\u. The merchants at Rome were styled mercatores ; those abroad in the 
provinces, negotiatores. There were also brokers and bankers (argentarii and 
mensariij, and contractors of various kinds, besides the publicani mentioned 
in the preceding section, whose contracts may be viewed as a sort of com- 
mercial transactions. Yet Rome never acquired a high rank among the states 
of antiquity in point of commerce. 

Dc Pastoret, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaines &c. Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'Hist. 
tt Lit. Anc. Vol. iii. p. 285, Vol. v. p. 76. and vii. p. 125. — On commerce &c. among the Ro- 
mans, Gibbon, Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. ii. — The Hist, of Rom. Emp. (given in Lardner's Cab. Cy- 
clopaedia) bk. iii. ch. 9. 

2u. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics 
and artisans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired 
Roman citizenship. Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of 
them, or colleges (collegia), which afterwards became more respectable and 



596 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

numerous. Of this kind were the collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendro- 
phororum, sagariorum, tabular iorum &c. The overseer of such a body was 
called prcefectus ; they had also their decuriones and magistri, whose office 
was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, or for indi- 
vidual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. 

0. Pancirollus, De corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Gravius, cited § 197. 

3. Several arta were nevertheless much cultivated It has been a question of some interest 

how far the ancients understood the making of glass. Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 19. xxxvi. 26.) 
states that the art originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass ves- 
sels were first made in Sidon. It was known however in Egypt, for pieces of blue glass 
have been found in the tombs at Thebes, and some of the mummies are decorated with glass. 
(Cf. Belxovl, cited P. I. $231. 1.) Lachrymatories and paterae of glass have been discovered 
in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. Jones, vol. i. p. 60. as cited $ 341. 7). The allu- 
sions and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Virg. M\\. vii. 759. Hor. Od. i. xvii. 20. Sat, 
n. iii. 222.) indicate an acquaintance with ^glass (vitrea) in a state of at least considerable per- 
fection. Colored glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf. P. I. § 220. 2.) in 
the time of Augustus. Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. I. 210). 
The story related by Tacitus (Ann. v. 42.) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, 
however incredible, shows that glass-making had been introduced at Rome. Numerous ves- 
sels of glass have been found at Pompeii (cf. §325). The celebrated Portland Vase has lately 
been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. I. $ 173) ; this was found in the tomb of Alexander Severus, 
in whose reign a special tax was laid, A. D. 220, upon the glass makers of Rome, who were 
then so numerous, it is said, as to require the assignment of a particular quarter of the city for 

the place of their labors. The art of pottenj also was practiced by the Romans. This was 

early known among the Jews (Jerem. xvm. 3, A). The vessels found at Volaterrae and 
other places (cf. P. I. $ 173. 3.) prove its existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks in 
Italy. There can be no doubt it was early introduced among the Romans. According to Vi- 
truvius they made their water-pipes of potter's clay. They established potteries in England ; 
vestiges of which, it is said, are still discernible in some parts of the island, especially in Staf- 
fordshire. Tf their vasamurrhina were porcelain (cf. P. I. $ 195. 4.), the art must have reached 
a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that these vessels were made of a 
transparent stone dug from the earth in the eastern part of Asia. — The manufacure of bricks 
(lateres coctlles) was well understood. Bricks are found in very ancient Roman runrs t 
which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. — Cf. Lardner's Cah. 
Cyclopaedia, vol. on Porcelain and Glass. — S. Parkes, Chemical Essays &c. Lond. 1830. p. 304. 
346. — Notices of Roman earthern vessels are found in W. Skerry, Description of the discov- 
eries at Heraclea, translated &c. Lond. 1750. 8. 

§269. Agriculture was in much higher estimation, and the fields 
of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war, were 
chiefly possessed by respectable Roman citizens. Many noble Ro- 
mans lived upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and im- 
provement of them a special study. The ornamenting of their es- 
tates proved, in the flourishing periods of the state, an important 
part of Roman luxury. 

Elsewhere we have spoken of the attention paid by the Romans to agriculture as a science, 
and of the care taken in defining the boundaries o'f lands by means of professional survey- 
ors (agrimensores). See*P. II. § 483—489. P. III. §88. Here we will notice some of the pro- 
ducts and implements of agriculture. 

1. The grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of various kinds; triticum 
was a common name ; far is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. 
Barley, hordeum, and oats, avena, were also raised. Flax, linum, was an ar- 
ticle cultivated considerably. Meadows, prata, were cultivated for mowing; 
they seem to have yielded two crops of ha.y,fcenum. The breeding of cat- 
tle was an object of attention usually included under husbandry ; chiefly, 
oxen, horses, sheep and goats. Much care was also bestowed on bees (apes). 
Trees, also, both forest, fruit and ornamental, received their share of atten- 
tion. The Romans were acquainted with most of the various methods now 
practiced for propagating the different species and varieties. — But the culture 
of the vine finally took the precedence of all other cultivation (cf. § 331b). 

2. Among the agricultural instruments the plough, aratrum, ranks first ; its 
chief parts were the temo, beam, to. which the jugum or yoke for the oxen 
was attached : stiva, plough-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (man- 
iculaj of which the ploughman took hold to direct the instrument; buris, a 
crooked piece of wood between the beam and ploughshare ; dentale or dens. 
the piece of timber which was joined to the buris and received on its end the 
share ; vomer, the share ; aures, affixed to the buris, and answering to mould- 
boards to throw the earth back ; cultcr, the coulter. The rallum was a staff 
used for cleaning the plough, or beating off clods from it. In some ploughs 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. AGRICULTURE. CARRIAGES. WEIGHTS. 597 

wheels were attached; but the plough most commonly used was more simple, 

having neither coulter nor mould-boards. Other instruments were the ligo, 

spade ; rastum, rake ; sarculum, hoe or weeding-hook ; bidens, a sort of hoe. 
with two hooked iron teeth ; occa and irpex, different kinds of harrows ; mar- 
ra, a mattock or hoe for cutting out weeds ; dolabra, a sort of adz ; securis, 

axe ; falz, pruning knife ;falx messoria and falcula, sickle. The implements 

for beating out grain were the perticce, a sort of flails ; traha, a sort of sledge ; 
tribula, a board or beam, set with stones or pieces of iron, with a great weight 
laid upon it, and drawn by yoked cattle. These were all used upon the thresh- 
ing-floor, area, which was a round space, elevated in the centre ; sometimes 
paved with stone, but commonly laid with clay carefully smoothed and hard- 
ened. Sometimes the threshing was done by merely driving oxen or horses 
over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and Jews. 

Fig. 2. in Plate XXV, exhibits the Roman plough ; T is the tcmo ; B, the stiva ; A, points to 
the aures on the buris ; D, to the dentale ; V, is the vomer ; C, the cidter. In fig. iii. are seen 
forms of the Syrian plough, cf. § 172, 3. — On the Roman plough, cf. Dickson, as cited P. II. 

§ 489.3. Fig. 8, in Plate XXV, is a cut showing varieties of the falz, pruning knife, and 

sickle. Fig. 5, is from an Egyptian monument, and shows the use of the sickle in cutting wheat 

in the field Fig. 7, is a Persian drag-, for the purpose of threshing grain ; a roller with teeth, 

fitted so as to be drawn by cattle over the grain ; it is taken from Sir R. K. Porter. — Fig. iv. is 
another instrument for the same purpose taken from Niebuhr ; it has three wheels with iron 
teeth, or with serrated edges, drawn by cattle, the driver sitting on it. These figures may 

partiallv illustrate the Roman traha and tribula. Pontedera, Antiquitatum Rusticarum &.C. 

Patav. 1738. 

3. The carriages used for agricultual purposes were chiefly the plavstra or 
vehce, which had usually two wheels, sometimes four, and were drawn com- 
monly by oxen, but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without 
spokes, called tympana. The body of these carriages (and indeed of any car- 
riage) was termed capsum, and the draught-tree or beam, temo. The jugum 
was the yoke, fastened to the beam and also to the cattle by thongs, lor a sub- 
jugia. — Pack-horses (caballi) were sometimes used for carrying burdens ; more 
frequently asses or mules; called clitellarii, from the packages (cl it ell a) on 
.their backs. 

We may remark in this connection, that the Romans had various carriages 
for convenience and amusement. The chariot, currus, was the most common : 
always with two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses. 
Those with two were termed bigai ; those with four, quadriga. ; in the races, 
the horses were always yoked abreast. — The carruca was a sort of private 
coach of the rich, sometimes of solid silver, curiously carved. — The pilentum, 
was an easy soft vehicle with four wheels, used in conveying women to public 
games and rites. The carpcntum was a carriage with two wheels and an 
arched covering. The thensa was a splendid carriage with four wheels and 
four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the pulvinaria in 
the Circus, at the Circensian games (§ 233). The cisium was a vehicle with 
two wheels, drawn by three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was 
a larger traveling carriage with four wheels. — The horses were guided and 
stimulated by the bit (frcenuvi) and reins (Jiabena) and whip (flagellum). — 
Conveyance was also made on horseback, in which case the spur (calcar, 
y.irToor, cf. Virg. Mn. xi. 714) was the stimulus. Saddles of some kind 
{ephippia, uf'nrniov), perhaps merely of cloth (vestis stragula), were used ; 
stirrups (stapim) were also known, in later times at least (cf. § 329. 3). 

It has been questioned whether the ancient3 used to shoe their horses. But the allusions of 
the classical writers seem to indicate clearly the fact that they did, although, in the remains of 
ancient art the shoe is scarcely found, if ever, in the representations of the horse. Some have 
supposed that a plate of metal was attached to the roof, not by nails, but by some other means. 
: — See Arclueologla, vol.m .p. 35. as cited P. I. §242, 3. — See the same work, vol. vm. p. 111. on 
ancient spurs. 

Fig 6. in our plate XXIV. is an ancient biga, preserved in the Vatican at Rome ; it is cover- 
ed with leather. Fig. 5. shows a triga, and fig. 4. a quadriga. 

§ 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important re- 
specting the weights and circulating coins of the Romans. 

1. The principal Roman weight was the libra or pound. This was divided, 
like the as, into twelve ounces ; and the parts bore the same names with those 
of the as, mentioned below (2). Various weights, both parts and multiples of 
the pound, were used in transacting business. They were often made of a 



598 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

black stone which some have called Lydius lapis. Scales (libra) and steel- 
yards (trutina), like the modern, were employed in weighing. 

Various specimens of Roman weights are given by Montfaucon, vol. in. p. 166, as cited § 13. 
Some are rectangular solids ; but most of them are in a degree spherical. — Fig. 7, in our Plate 
xxiv, is a steelyard found at Pompeii ; the original has an inscription, bearing a date which cor- 
responds to A. D. 77, and asserting that the instrument had been legally tested and proved in the 
Capitol. — Fig. 8, is the moveable weight belonging to another steelyard found at the same 
place. — Roman steelyards and weights have been found also in England. Archceologia, cited 
P. I. $243. 3, vol. ix. p. 131. 

2u. Servius Tullius was the first who caused money to be coined (cf. P. I. 
§ 134), by stamping on brass the image of cattle (pecudes whence the term pecu- 
nia). Previously, exchanges were made by barter, or by means of uncoined met- 
al. The most common brass coin, the as,was originally a Roman pound in weight 
and was divided like that into twelve ounces {uncice). Two uncice made a 
sextans ; three, a quadrans ; four, a triens ; five, a quincunx ; six, a semis ; seven, 
septunx ; eight, bes (bis triens) ; nine, dodrans ; ten, decunx ; and eleven, deunx. 
Afterwards the as was gradually reduced (Plin. H. JV*. xxxm.3) to an ounce 
in quantity, and finally even to a half-ounce. Silver coin was first stamped 
B. C. 269; the most common coins were the Denarius, Quinarius and Sester- 
tius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as equal to ten pounds of brass, 
and marked X, or \, but after the reduction of the as to an ounce B. C. 217, 
it passed as equal to sixteen asses. The proper value of it also varied at dif- 
ferent times. The Quinarius was half the Denarius, and marked V. The 
Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2 1-2 asses 
(hence its name semis tertius), and marked LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, ab- 
breviated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sester- 
tius passed for 4 asses. The Sestertius was often called JYummus. — Gold 
coin was first stamped at Rome B. C. 207; the most common coin was the 
Aureus or Solidus, equal in weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in 
value to 25 Denarii. 

3- The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where 
their money was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally 
to the image, or stamp, impressed on the coin and reminding one of the per- 
son or thing represented. The mint was under the care of the Triumviri 
monetales ; the coins were examined by the Nummular ii. The impressions of 
the As or Assipondium was a Janus bifrons on one side and on the reverse the 
rostrum of a siiip ; on the Semis and Quadrans (called also Sembella and Ter- 
iincius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver coins Denarius, Quin- 
arius and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two or four horses, 
and on the other the head of Roma with a helmet ; but other devices were 
sometimes impressed (cf. P. I. § 139.2). — The value of the Denarius was 
about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments of Letronne who carefully 
weighed 1350 consular denarii ; that of the Sestertius, being one fourth of it, 
was therefore about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the 
republic was about 10 to 1. 

Conger, as cited § 174. — Mongez, sur Fart du Monnoyage chez les anciens et chez les mod- 
erns <kc. in the Mem. de P Institut, Classe d' Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. ix. p. 167. 

4. The usual rate of interest (fanus) was one as for the use of a hundred a 
month, or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was 
called usura centcsima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the 
capital (caput or sors). Horace speaks (Sat. i. iii. 12) of a ususer, who took 
60 per cent. 

§ 271m. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 
1000 Sestertii they called Sestertium ; duo Sestertia, e. g. signifies the same as 
bis mi\le sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they 
used the word Sestertium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral ad- 
verb for the first number, ten, twenty &c. and leaving the hundred to be sup- 
plied by the mind ; e. g. Decies Sestertium signified 10,00,000 Sesterii ; Quad- 
ragies Sestertium signified 40,00,000, or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes 
reckoned by talents, in case of large sums. The talentum was equal to 60 
libra or pounds. 

1. Kennet gives the following rule for interpreting the Latin expressions 
for sums of money ; if a numeral agree, in case, number and gender, with Ses- 



PLATE XXV. 




600 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tertius, then it denotes precisely and simply so many sesterces ; if a numeral 
of another case be joined with the genitive plural, Sestertium, it denotes so 
many thousand sesterces ; if a numeral adverb be joined to the same, or be 
nsed alone, it denotes so many hundred thousand sesterces. 

We have on record some statements, from which we may form a notion of the Roman wealth 
and luxury. Crassus, for instance, is said to have possessed lands to the value of bis millies i. e. 
by the above rule, 2000 Xi00,000=^200,000,000 sesterces ; taking the value of the sesterce obtain- 
ed as mentioned in the preceding section we have 3,8X200,000,000-:-1000=$7,600,000, for the 
value of the land owned by Crassus ;. he is said to have had, in slaves, buildings, furniture and 

money, as much more Caligula laid out upon a single supper ccnties, i. e. 100 X100,000 ses- 

terces=3.8X 10,000,000-:-1000=$380,000. — Cleopatra is said to have swallowed, at a feast with 
Anthony, a pearl worth the same sum, centies HS. — Cicero is said to have had a table which 
cost centum sestertium, i. e. 100X 1.000 sesterces=$3800. — Cf. Jldam, Rom. Ant. (ed. Boyd) Edinb. 
1834. p. 432. — Perhaps these sums would be much larger, if due allowance were made for the 
depreciation in the value of the precious metals. Cf. Say's Polit. Economy, bk. i. ch. xxi. 
sect. 7. 

2. In the Roman system of notation, seven letters of the alphabet were employed for express- 
ing numbers ; viz. I for 1, V for 5, X for 10, L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. In- 
stead of D v they sometimes used IC to signify 500 ; and instead of M, they also used M or C1C, 
or O O , to signify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn over a letter indicated that it was to be mul- 
tiplied by one thousand ; e. g. x stood for 10,000 ; L, 50,000 ; c, 100,000. — Combinations of 
these letters usually signified the sum of the numbers represented by the several letters separ- 
ately ; e. g. VIII, 8 ; XV, 15 ; LX, 60 ; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X was placed before a let- 
ter representing a larger number, the combination expressed the difference ; e. g. IV, 4 ; XL, 40 ; 
XC, 90 ; and when to IC another C was annexed it indicated a multiplication by 10 ; e. g. IC, 
500 ; ICC, 5000 ; ICCC, 50,000 ; in order to signify the same multiplication of CIC, a C was 
also prefixed as well as O annexed ; e.g. CIO, 1000 ; CCIOO, 10,000; CCCIOOO, 100,000, 
For any multiple, however, of this last, 100,000, the Romans did not employ letters ; but pre- 
fixed to this expression a numeral adverb ; as bis, to signifying 200,000 ; ter, "to signify 300,000 ; 
decies, to signify 10,00,000, &c. 

§ 272. It may be in place to speak here of the modes of acquiring or trans- 
ferring property (res private?). The following may be named ; (1) Mancipatio, 
when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the transfer was attended 
with certain formalities used among Roman citizens only; (2) Cessio injure, 
when a person gave up his effects to another before the Prsstor, or ruler of a 
province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; (3) Usucapio, when one ob- 
tained a thing by having had it in possession and use (usiis auctoritate) ; (4) 
Emptio sub corona, the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at spe- 
cial auction, with garlands (corona) on their heads ; (o) Audio, public sale or 
auction ; (6) Adjudicatio, which referred strictly either to dividing an inheri- 
tance among co-heirs or dividing stock among partners, or settling boundaries 
between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of property by sent- 
ence of a judge or arbiter ; (7) Donatio, when any thing was given to one for 
a present. Property was also acquired by inheritance, and this was either (1) 
by bequest from a testator, who could name his heirs in a written will (testa- 
mento) or in a declaration (viva voca) before witnesses, or (2) by law, which 
assigned the property of one dying intestate to his children and after them to 
the nearest relatives on the father's side. 

§ 273. The public sale of property [audio, also called pros criptio) 
was very common among the Romans. In the place where such sale 
was held, a spear was set up, whence the phrase sub hasta venire or 
vender e. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be sold (tabula 
proscriptions, tabula auctionaria) was previously suspended upon a 
pillar in some public place. Permission for such sales must be ob- 
tained of the city Praetor. The superintendent of the sales was term- 
ed magister auctionum ; in cases where the sale was to meet the de- 
mands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, and was generally 
the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of 
confiscated goods was termed sectio ; the money arising therefrom 
went to the public treasury. 

§ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity 
should be explained here ; although the best view of such a subject is 
obtained by means of tables. 

lu. The measures of length and surface were the following; digitus, a fin* 



M1LITAY AFFAIRS. 601 

get's breath ; jour of which made a palmus, or hands breadth; and sixteen^ a 
pes or foot; 5 feet were equal to a passus or pace ; 125 of the latter formed 
a stadium, and 1,000 of them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. — In land-measures, the 
following were the most common denominations ; jugerum, what could be 
ploughed in a day by one yoke (jugo ) of cattle, 240 feet long, 120 broad, or 
containing 28,800 square feet; actus quadratics, equal to half the jugerum, be- 
ing 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet; clima, equal to an eighth of 
the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3.600 feet. 

The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 
4 of which made a cyathus, and 6 an acetabulum ; the acetabulum was the half 
of a quartarius, which was the half of a hemina ; and the hemina, half of a 
sextarius nearly equal to our pint. For dry things there was also the Modius y 
equal to 16 sextarii. In liquids the sextarius was a sixth of the congius; 4 
congii made an urna ; two urnse, an amphora ; and 20 amphorae, a culeus. 

2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of the Roman 
foot, which is important in learning the values of the several measures of 
length, extent, and capacity. 1. One means is furnished by specimens of the 
Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these preserved in the Capito- 
line Museum. 2. Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot- 
rules were bars of brass or iron of the length of a pes, designed for use in 
actual measurements. 3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been 
deduced from the distances between the milestones on the Appian Way. 4. 
Attempts have been made to ascertain the Roman foot likewise from the con- 
gius, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at 
Rome, the other at Paris; the solid contents of the congius are said to have 
been the cube of half a. pes. From the same measure, it may be remarked in 
passing, there have been attempts to deduce the value of the Roman libra, 
as the congius is said to have held 10 pounds of wine or water. 5. The ac- 
tual measurement of ancient buildings now standing at Rome is a method 
which is thought to be most satisfactory. By these various methods the Ro- 
man foot is made nearly equal to 12 inches. 

Conger, before cited. — Gassendi's experiment to ascertain the Libra from the Congius is re- 
lated in Diss. I. appended to vol. in. of Goguet's Origin of Laws, &c. Among the authori- 
ties on the Roman money, weights, and measures, the following may be named. — Kastner, 
MatthitB, fy Warm, as cited § 174. — G. Bvdceus, De Asse et partibus ejus, libri v. Lugd. 1551. 
■8. — J. F. Gronov, De Sestertiis. L. B. 1691. — R. Beverini, Syntagma de ponderibus et mensu- 
ris Rom. Leipz. 1714. 8. — The treatises of Fcetus and others in the 11th vol. of Gr&vius, cited 
$ 197.— G. Hooper, State of the Ancient Measures, the Attic, Roman, and Jewish, with an 
Appendix concerning the old English Money, &c. (published 1721). Also in his works. Oxf. 
1757. fol. — J. Greaves, Description of the Roman Foot and Denarius. — J. Arbuthnot, Tables 
of Ancient Coins &c. Lond. 1727. 4. — Of later authors in Metrology, Letronne and Warm (cf. 
$ 174' are most eminent. Cf. Bouillefs Dictionnaire Classique ; in which (as also in Conger's 
Essay) are good tables of the Greek and Roman weights and measures. — Cf. also Freret, Les 
r.iesures Iongues des anciens, in the Mem. Acad. laser, vol. xxiv. p. 432. — Gosselin, Systemes 
metriques lineares d'antiquite, in the Mem. de VInstitut, classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 44. 
— R. Hussey, Essay on the ancient Weights and Money, with an Appendix on the Roman and 
Greek Foot. Oxf. 1837. 8. 

(3) Affairs of War. 

§ 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity preemi- 
nently warlike ; and by an uninterrupted series of great military en- 
terprises made a rapid and remarkable advancement in power and 
dominion. Hence an acquaintance with what pertains to their mili- 
tary antiquities must aid in forming a just idea of their character and 
the original sources of their greatness. 

1 u. This knowledge is to be drawn from their chief historians as the pri- 
mary source ; particularly from the commentaries of Julius Ctesar, and the 
historical works of Livy and Tacitus ; to which we may add the Greek writers 
on Roman history, Polybius and Appian, on account of their constant refer- 
ence to military affairs. Besides these sources, there are the Roman writers 
who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman art of war, in its 
various particulars ; viz. Hyginus, Frontinus, and Vegetius. 
51 



602 HOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

2 u. It is from these sources that those who have formed treatises and mafl- 
lials of Roman antiquities, have derived their materials on this branch of the 
subject. 

J. Lipsius, de Militia Romana (a comment, on Polybius). Antv. 1606. 4. — Nast $ Rosch f 
Romische Kriegsalterthiimer, aus ecbten duellen geschbpft. Halle, 1782. 8. A good manual or! 
this branch of antiquities. — The 10th vol. of Orcevius (cited § 197) consists of treatises by R, 
H. Schelius and others, on the military affairs of the Romans. — Cf. also Rollin, on the Art mil- 
itary, in the History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients ; found in his Ancient History. N. Y* 
1835. 2 vols. 8. — Duncan's Disc, on the Rom. Art of War, in his Transl. of Caesar, cited P. II. 
§528. 7. — C. Ouiscard, Memoires crit. et hist, sur plus, points d'antiquites militaires. Berlin, 
1773. 4 vols. 8. Cf. $ 42. — Le Beau, Memoirs on Roman Legion &c. in the Mem, de VAcad. des 
Inscrip. in different vols, from 25th to 42d. — Be Maizeroi, to complete the design of Le Beau., 
in same Mem. Sfc. vol. xlii. — Heyne, on the Roman Legion &c. Cf. Class. Journ. xi. 169. — 
Gibbon, in his Rom. Emp. ch. i. 

§ 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system 
of the Romans in the successive periods and revolutions of their his- 
tory, the antiquarian must in treating of this subject pay constant at- 
tention to the order of time. Of the Roman art of war in its earli- 
est state, we have but imperfect accounts ; but we know that the 
warlike spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings, and gave 
no dubious intimations of their future career. In the division of the 
people into three tribes, made by Romulus, a thousand men for foot 
soldiers and a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, 
and thus originated the first Roman legion. The 300 horsemen, 
called celeres, and constituting in time of peace a body-guard of the 
king, were disbanded by Numa, but reorganized by Tullus Hostilius, 
and increased by the addition of 300 noble Albani. The whole 
number thus made was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, and the body 
at last comprised 2,400 men. 

§ 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 
and 45 were enrolled among the class of younger men, and liable to 
service ; while those over 45 were ranked among the elder men, ex- 
cused from military duty. They were always received to service un- 
der a formal oath (sacr amentum). The regular time of service was 
16 years for foot soldiers, and 10 for horsemen ; il was not customa- 
ry, however, to serve this number of years in succession, and whoev- 
er, at the age of 50, had not served the prescribed number of cam- 
paigns was still excused from the rest. Persons of no property (cap~ 
ite censi) were not included in the rule of requisition as to service, 
because having nothing to lose, they were not supposed to possess 
sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted wars the time of 
service was sometimes extended four years longer, and under the em- 
perors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial 
guard, who were required to serve but 16. As all the soldiers were 
Roman citizens and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high esti- 
mation ; and their peculiar rights and privileges were termed jus 
militia. Freed-men could be admitted only into naval service. — Ik 
the earliest times the Roman order of battle resembled the Grecian 
phalanx. Subsequently it was a custom to form several platoons or 
divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted^ 
which will be described below (§ 286). 

§ 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the 
army was usually commanded by one of the consuls. A consular 
army commonly consisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred 
horse, all native Romans. For two consuls a double number wa£ 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF THE ARMY. 603 

requisite, 4 legions and 1,200 horse. The legion contained origin- 
ally 3,000 men, but gradually increased to 6,000 and higher ; in the 
second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse, and each 
legion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of course 
as many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the people, 
partly from the equites, partly from the plebeians. 

1 u. In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were 
over six and forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their country, and 
to fill vacancies in the city legions ; in such emergencies, freed men and slaves 
were sometimes enlisted. Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm 
CtianultusJ were called tumultarii or svhitarii ; those of them enlisting volun- 
tarily were called volones. 

2 u. Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, 
augurs and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily 
weakness or defect. Remission of some part of the legal term of service 
was, however, often granted as a reward of bravery ; this was called vacatio 
konorata. 

§ 279. Ill the levying of the soldiers (delectus), the following were 
the usages most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a her- 
ald the time of a levy (diem edicebant) ; then every citizen, liable to 
service, must appear, on peril of his property and liberty, at the Cam- 
pus Martius ; each consul elected for himself two legions, asssisted 
by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were taken from all 
the tribes, which were called successively and separately in an order 
decided by lot. Four men were selected at a time, of which the tri- 
bunes of each legion, in rotation, took one. Afterwards the oath of 
fidelity (sacr amentum) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, 
then by the Centurions and the Decuriones, and lastly by the com- 
mon soldiers. Then the names of the latter class were placed in the 
roll of the legion, and under the emperors a mark was branded on 
the right hand, that they might be recognized, if they attempted de- 
sertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, was called 
conquisitio; the same thing among the allies was termed conscriptio. 

§ 280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to an- 
other place of assembling, in which they were formed into divisions 
and furnished with arms. The younger and feebler were placed 
among the light troops, velites ; the older and richer among the 
heavy-armed ; to which class belonged the hastati, principes, and 
triarii. 

1 u. The hastati were young men in the flower of life, named from the long 
spear used by them at first, and occupying the foremost line in battle ; the 
principes were the men in full vigor of middle age, standing in the second 
line in battle ; the triarii the more advanced in age, veterans, constituting 
the third line in battle and taking thence their name. A legion, when it con- 
sisted of 3,000, had ] ,200 hastati, 1,200 principes, and 600 triarii. The last 
number always remained the same ; the two former were variously increased, 
and light armed troops were added according to pleasure. 

On the three ranks, hastati, &c, Le Beau, as cited $ 275. Mem. fyc. vol. xxix. p. 325. 

2u. On this occasion the colors or standards were brought forth from the 
capital and treasury, and committed to the proper officers. (Cf. § 282.) 

§ 281. The subdivisions were originally manipuli or centuria, 
containing each a hundred men ; and the leader and captain of this 
number was called Centurio. — When the legion was divided into 
the three ranks of the hastati, principes, and triarii, each rank had 



604 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

at first fifteen maniples j and the whole legion, of course, forty-five 
maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 regular 
privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The maniples of 
the hastati had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally among 
them ; to the triarii also were allowed thirty, companies of the same ; 
the principes had none. 

lu. In the time of the second Punic war, the legion was divided into 30 
maniples, and each of the three ranks into 10. The maniples of the triarii 
contained still the same number, 60 in each, 600 in all ; those of the hastati 
and principes contained double the number, 120 men in each, 2,400 in all of 
both ranks ; among these were divided 1,200 light-armed soldiers; thus mak- 
ing a legion of 4,200. Each maniple was now divided into two centuries, 
sometimes called ordines. The tenth part of a legion, three maniples of each 
fank, and therefore including 300 men, was called a cohors, and from the 
number of men contained, tricennaria ; when the legion contained 4,200, the 
cohort had 420, and was termed quadrigenaria ; so also when larger, quinge- 
naria and sezcenaria. 

On the cohort, Le Beau, as cited § 275. Mem. Sfc. vol. xxxn. p. 279. 

2ti. Each maniple had now two centurions, distinguished as prior and pos- 
terior ; and every centurion had his assistant, called uragus, subcenturio, and 
optio. — The 300 horsemen belonging to a legion were divided into 10 turmce, 
and each turma into 3 decuria:, consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief 
was called decurio. 

§ 282. Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when in 
battle. The chief standard was always in the first maniple of the 
triarii, which was styled primus pilus. The images and figures upon 
the Roman standards were various ; but the principal standard, com- 
mon to the whole legion, was a silver eagle on a staff or pole, some- 
times holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an emblem of the Roman 
power or success. Those of the infantry were usually termed signa; 
those of the cavalry, vexilla ; the bearers, signiferi, or vexillarii. 

1. The vexillum, a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a 
bar fixed across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for foot- 
soldiers, especially for veterans, who were retained after their term of ser- 
vice ; these were by distinction called vexillarii, as they fought under this pe- 
culiar standard (sub vexillo) ; they were also called subsignani. On the flag 
were commonly seen the abbreviations for Senatus populusque Romanus, or 
the name of the emperor, in golden or purple letters. — The signum was orig- 
inally a handful of hay, expressed by the word manipulus, and it was from 
this circumstance that a division of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards 
it was a spear or staff with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure 
of a hand above it, in allusion perhaps to the word manipulus ; having below 
the crosspiece a small shield, round or oval, sometimes two, bearing images 
of the gods or emperors. Augustus introduced an ensign formed by fixing a 
globe on the head of a spear or staff, denoting the dominion of the world. — 
The standards and colors were regarded with superstitious veneration by all 
classes of the army. 

In our Plate XXVI., eleven different forms of Roman standards are given, in the figures 
markedly the letter C. — Fig. D is the hand of Mohammed, a sort of sacred standard or sign of 
the prophet's power among his followers ; it is taken from Marie?- (cited P. I. 243. 3), who rep- 
resents it as carried in religious processions in Persia. Two forms of ancient Persian stand- 
ards are also given, in the figures marked B. — The eight marked A are Egyptian. 

The term Labarum was employed in later times to designate the imperial standard, which 
was richly embroidered and ornamented. Cf. Class. Journ. vol. iv. p. 222. 

2. Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — " The Ro- 
mans used only wind music in their army ; the instruments which served for 
that purpose may be distinguished into the tuba, the cornua, the buccinai, and 
the litui. — The tuba is supposed to have been exactly like our trumpet, running 
on wider and wider in a direct line to the orifice. — The cornua were bent al 



PLATE XXVI. 




606 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



most round ; they owe their name and original to the horns of beasts, put to 
the same use in the ruder ages. — The buccince seem'to have had the same 
rise, and may derive their name from bos and cano. It is hard to distinguish 
these from the cornua, unless they were something less and not quite so 
crooked. — The litui were a middle kind between the cornua and tuba,, being al- 
most straight, only a little turning in at the top, like the lituus or sacred rod 
of the augurs ; whence they borrowed their name. — These instruments be- 
ing all made of brass, the players on them went under the name of cencatores, 
besides the particular terms of tubicines, cornicines, buccinator es, &c. ; and 
there seems to have been a set number assigned to every manipulus and tur- 
ma ; besides several of higher order, and common to the whole legion. In a 
battle, the former took their station by the ensign and colors of their particular 
company or troop ; the others stood near the chief eagle in a ring, hard by the 
general and prime officers ; and when the alarm was to be given, at the word 
of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common sound 
of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this 
classicum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout at the first encounter, 
which in later ages they called barritus, from a German original." (Kennet.) 
Oaland, La Trompette chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104. 

§ 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed acccording to the 
class to which they belonged. The velitcs had a round shield (pai*- 
ma), about three feet in diameter, a spear for hurling (hasta vctita- 
ris), a helmet of ox-hide (cudo), or of the skin of a wild beast (ga- 
lerus), and in later times a sword. — The hastati bore a large shield 
{scutum), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin boards 
covered with leather and iron plate ; a short but stiff and pointed 
sword (gladius), on the right hip ; two javelins of wood with iron 
points (pila), one longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen 
helmet (galea), with a crest adorned with plumes (crista) ; greaves 
for the legs, plated with iron (ocrece), used in later times only for the 
right leg ; a coat of mail (lorica), formed of metal or hide, worked 
over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the breast to the 
loins, or a breastplate (thorax) merely. — The principes and triarii 
used weapons of the same kind ; excepting that the triarii had longer 
spears, called hastes longce, in later times lancece, and long swords, 
called spathce, or when of smaller size, semi-spathtB. — The shield 
was marked by the name of the soldier and the number of the legion 
and maniple to which he belonged. Whoever returned from battle 
without his shield, forfeited his life. — The weapons of the cavalry 
were similar to the Grecian (§ 133) : a war cap (cassis), a coat of 
mail, an oblong shield, grieves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword 
and dagger, which last was used only in close fight. 

The horsemen in fig. 1, of Plate XXIIL, have a small round shield. Cf. §235. 3. A sort of 
shield is also seen in fig. 2 of the same plate ; which represents a Roman knight attacking a 
barharian soldier ; from an antique gem. Both these figures show the horseman's spear.— The 
scutum and gladius of the soldier are seen in Plate XXVI. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, 
taken from Trajan's Pillar (cf. P. I. §188. 2). — The shield is likewise seen in fig. 2, which 
represents a legionary with the accoutrements and baggage, which he was obliged always to 
carry in marching (cf. §298. 2). — The lurica or coat of mail may be seen in Plate XVII. fig. 5, 
in which the legs as well as the body are defended by mail ; this is the figure given in Calmet 
to illustrate the armor of Goliah, the Philistine ; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. 
Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 4-7. — In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends 
down behind to defend the neck as well as head ; the figure is drawn from Trajan's Column. 
In Plate XXIIL fig.n, is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scale armor ; as is his 
horse also. — For other articles of armor, see Plates XIV. and XVII. — Cf. Le Beau, as cited 
§ 275, Mem. §c. vol. xxxix. p. 437. 

§ 284. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery 
received no pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and 
wages (stipendium) were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUNISHMENTS. 607 

horsemen 3 years after. Each soldier had a monthly allowance {di~ 
mensum) of 4 bushels of corn, and a stipend of three asses per day. 
The stipend was afterwards greater ; Julius Caesar doubled it, and 
under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. The wages were 
sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as a re- 
ward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixed for the 
distribution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of 
his pay was called peculium castrense ; half of which was always de- 
posited with the standards, until the term of service expired. 

1 u. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished 
themselves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativa, on the other 
hand, were gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occa- 
sions, as e. g. in cases of success, when also sacrifices and games were cele- 
brated. Among the rewards, golden and gilded crowns were particularly com- 
mon ; as, the corona castrensis or vallaris to him who first entered the ene- 
my's entrenchments ; corona muralis, to him who first scaled the enemy's 
walls ; and corona navalis, for seizing a vessel of the enemy in a sea-fight ; 
also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms ; as the corona civica, 
oi oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity at the 
hands of the enemy ; the corona obsidionalis, of grass, for delivering a be- 
sieged city ; and the corona triumphalis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing 
general. 

The various crowns above named are exhibited in Plate XIII. Fig. 1 is the civica; fig. 2, 

the castrensis ; 3, the obsidionalis ; 4, the muralis ; 5, the navalis ; 7, triumphalis Fig. 6 is the 

radiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors. 

2. " There were smaller rewards (premia minora) of various kinds; as a 
spear without any iron on it (hasta pv.ra) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer 
on the end of a lance or spear (vexillum), of different colors, with or without 
embroidery ; trappings (phalerce), ornaments for horses, and for men; golden 
chains Caurece torques), which went round the neck, whereas the p'halerai hung 
down on the breast ; bracelets (armillcej, ornaments for the arms ; cornicula, 
ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; catellce. or catenulm, chains 
composed of rings ; whereas the torques were twisted (tortce) like a rope ; fibu- 
la, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." (Adam.) 

See Jlrchcp.ologia (as cited P. I. §243. 3), vol. xxn. p. 285, on an ancient bronze bracelet 

The torques is seen on the Dying Gladiator (cf. P. I. § 185. 9). 

§ 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes 
were very severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testi- 
mony, neglect of watch, leaving a post assigned, or cowardly flight, 
was visited with the punishment called fustuarium, in which, on a 
signal from a tribune, the whole legion fell to beating the offender 
with sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his disgrace was 
scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this 
punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and 
the rest were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead 
of wheat for their allowance. Often disgrace was inflicted in other 
ways, as by loss of pay (stipendio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when 
a soldier of the triarii was degraded into the hastati. The tribunes 
could inflict punishments only after investigation of the case ; the ~ 
genera], on the other hand, could immediately and absolutely pro- 
nounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for 
wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrecction and desertion. The 
mode of inflicting death was not uniform. 

§ 286. Of the Roman order of battle (acics) a general idea may 
be given here ; a minute detail would belong rather to a system of 



608 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tactics. The legions were commonly ranged in three lines, the fore- 
most occupied by the hastati, the next by the principes , and the last 
by the triarii. Between each two maniples a space was left, so that 
the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces of the first, 
and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. 
These spaces were termed rectce vice,, and were as broad as the man- 
iples themselves. 

lu. This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage hoth of 
stability and of being easily changed; it avoided all confusion and interrup- 
tion, and was especially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (§ 142), 
which it could easily penetrate and route. Against a violent attack it was 
therefore often, in the anticipation of an onset of the enemy, changed so as 
to close up the spaces. But in this form of arrangement the soldiers were 
mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and by means of 
their separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and de- 
fence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and the men in the 
maniples three feet from each other; in later times the space was diminished 
till the soldier had scarcely more than room for his shield. 

2. There were other methods (§ 295) of drawing up the army for battle, 
occasionally used. We mention here the cuneus, in which the army was ar- 
ranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and break the enemy's lines ; 
the globus, in which the troops were collected into a close, firm, round body, 
usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfex, in which the army took a 
form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in order 
to receive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge; the serra, in 
which the lines were extended, and in making the engagement some parts of 
the front advanced before the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a lit- 
tle like the teeth of a saw. 

§ 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the 
light-armed troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the 
first line ; but afterwards they were stationed in the intervals between 
the maniples, behind them, or on the wings, and made attack in con- 
nection with the hastati. A considerable part of the light armed 
were stationed behind the triarii, to support them. The attack com- 
menced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from 
the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the 
hastati advanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. 
If the enemy were not forced to give way, or they were themselves 
pressed hard, the signal was given for retreat ; on which the light- 
armed and the hastati drew back through the intervals of the second 
line, and the principes advanced to the fight. In the mean while, 
the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their right 
knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their 
shields, and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points 
upwards .; the line thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. 
If the principes were compelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and 
both the principes and the hastati being received into their intervals, 
renewed the action with close ranks (compressis ordinibus) and all 
three in a body {uno continente agmine). This united attack was 
then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. 

§ 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be no- 
ticed. They were commonly called velites ; in early times, however, 
rorarii and accensi, sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and feren- 
tarii. They carried no shields, but slings, arrows, javelins, and 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. LIGHT TROOPS. CAVALRY. 609 

swords. They were usually divided into fifteen companies (eapediti 
manipuli, or expedite cohortes), and besides these there were 300 
usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The light- 
armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached 
the enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the 
javelin and sword. 

lu. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three 
lines, about forty being joined to each maniple. — ■ They were of three differ- 
ent classes, designated by their principal weapon ; jaculatores, who hurled 
the javelin ; sagittarii, who shot the arrow ; and funditores, who cast stones 
or balls with the sling. There were also afterwards tragularii and balistarii, 
who threw stones by the aid of machines. 

In Plate XXVII. fig. a, is a Roman funditor ; fig. b, a Sagittarius. 

2 m. Those called antesignani were not the light-armed, but probably were the 
soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. — The position of the light- 
armed during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that most com- 
monly they stood in three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the tria- 
rii, and rushed forward to their attacks through the intervals between the 
maniples. 

§ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their 
army, especially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and 
this class of citizens enjoyed a high estimation and rank already no- 
ticed (§ 255). Even before the regular establishment of this order 
in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted chiefly of the 
noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case on 
the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most 
noble youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ; the same was 
true under the following kings, who increased their number. To- 
wards the end of the republic, the Roman knights began to leave 
the military service, and thus the cavalry of the later armies was 
made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken into pay in the 
provinces where the legions Mere stationed. The knights of later 
times served only among the Prcetorians, or the imperial body-guard 
(§ 309). 

§ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from 
the legions, while previously they had been regarded as the same ar- 
my, and been stationed especially on the wing. — The forces, com- 
monly called aim were different from the legionary cavalry ; they 
were bodies of light horse, composed of foreigners and employed to 
guard the flanks of the army. — The usual number of horsemen 
commonly connected with a legion has already been named (§281); 
in the first periods of the republic it was 200, afterwards commonly 
300, sometimes also 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (§ 292) 
had the same number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a 
greater number of horsemen ; although the ratio was not always the 
same. 

1 u. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 titrmce, corresponding 
to the number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to the 
number of maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. 
Each turma had three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the 
whole turma ; three uragi (ovQttybi) were under them. In how many lines the 
cavalry used to be drawn up for battle is not known. In an attack, the first 
line of turmce. endeavored to break the ranks of the enemy : and were sup- 



610 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ported therein by the second. If the enemy were arranged in the wedge-form, 
the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 

On the Roman Cavalry, Le, Beau, as cited § 275, Mem. fyc. vol. xxyiii. 

2u. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron 
on their heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal 
service in protecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitring the enemy, 
collecting forage, occupying remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing 
the routed foe. Where the ground was uneven, the horsemen dismounted 
and fought on foot. 

§ 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet three- 
fold, but the foot were ranged in a single line, the horse were placed 
in a second to support them. In the year of the city 500, B. C. 252, 
the threefold arrangement of the legion seems to have been adopted. 
The cohorts have already been mentioned (§281); these also had 
their particular arrangement, which probably was formed originally 
by uniting the maniples, a thing not common until later times, since 
in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was 
still practiced. Towards the end of the republic, the threefold di- 
vision of the legionaries was abolished ; and the legion now consist- 
ed of ten cohorts, each of which contained 400 or 500 men. After 
the time of Caesar, the more frequent order of battle was to place 
four cohorts in the front line and three in each of the two others. — 
Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more like 
the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was a single 
compact line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian 
phalanx was adopted, but it was soon renounced. 

§ 292. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that 
these consisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at 
an early period, either of choice or after subjection, entered into 
treaty with the Romans, and bound themselves to furnish for the field 
as many foot-soldiers as the Romans, with more than the Roman pro- 
portion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied the two wings 
when drawn up in battle array. 

1m. A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied 
states, contained eight legions ; although the number of allies was not always 
exactly the same. When in process of time the allies CsociiJ were admitted 
to Roman citizenship, the distinction made between them and the Romans 
ceased. 

2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different 
at different times. " During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted 
up every year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet in cases of necessi- 
ty we sometimes meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Au- 
gustus maintained a standing army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 le- 
gions." (Kennett.) 

Respecting the military establishment of the emperors, see Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. i. 

3. The forces of the allies were termed alee, from the circumstance of being 
usually placed on the flanks. They were under command of officers appoint- 
ed for the purpose, called preefecti. A portion of the foot and horse of the 
allies, called extraor dinar ii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, 
called ablecti, served him as a special guard. 

§ 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of 
attendants, and baggage and machines of war. Among the numer- 
ous attendants were the following ; the fabri, mechanics, workers in 
wood and metal ; Uxcb, sutlers, holding a sort of market ; chirurgi, 
field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed ten to a legion ; metatores, 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF MARCH. CAMP. 611 

whosex business was to mark out and fix the ground for encampments ; 
frumentarii, who had the care of furnishing provisions ; librarii and 
scriba, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care of 
a quarter-master. — The proper baggage of the army (impedimenta) 
consisted partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (sarci« 
tub), partly of weapons, military engines, stores, provisions, and the 
like, which were carried in wagons and on beasts of burden. Each 
person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant (agaso) to carry his 
baggage. The servants and waiting boys of the legions were termed 
calones. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but in 
later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of 
proper soldiers. 

§ 294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the 
field or into the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed went 
in advance ; then followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse ; 
then the persons needed to pitch and prepare the camp, to level the 
grounds and perform other necessary work ; then the baggage of the 
general (dux) and of his lieutenants (legati), guarded by horsemen ; 
then the general himself under his usual escort ; then 124 horsemen ; 
after w 7 hich came the military tribunes and other officers. After 
these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, 
and last the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This 
seems to have been the usual order of march ; but it was of course 
changed and modified in different cases in reference to the nature 
of the ground, the country and other circumstances. The order in 
marching out of camp was also somewhat different. And in order 
to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions 
also were required to relieve each other in position. 

§ 295. Besides the most common arrangement for battle mention- 
ed already (§ 286), there were some others which should be mention- 
ed. The triplex acies was not the division into three lines that has 
been described, but, as an order for battle, was one which contained 
three times as many men as usual ; and, as an order of marching, was 
a sort of side-march (Seitenmarsch). The agmen quadratum was 
when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that of 
a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the 
enemy, or on a retreat ; the agmen pilatum,, or justum, was a close 
array in marching. Orbis signified not a circular form, but such a 
four-sided arrangement as presented a front on every side. The tes- 
tudo was also an arrangement of the soldiers, in which they stood 
close together, raising their shields so as to form a compact covering 
over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they ap- 
proached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at 
a certain distance. The turris was an oblong quadrangular form, 
with the end or narrow side presented to the foe; laterculus was the 
same, considered only in its breadth. 

§296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars 
the Grecian, but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied 
only for a short time during a march was called castra, and in the later 
ages, mansio; castra stativ a signified a more permanent camp, in 
which the army remained for a length of time; e. g. over a winter, 



612 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

therefore termed castra hiberna, or through summer, castra cestiva, 
The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw and 
rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp, 
The highest and freest part of it was chosen for the head quarters of 
the general. This was called the pratorium, and occupied a space of 
400 feet square. Here the council of war was held. A particular 
spot in it was appropriated for taking the auspices, augur ale : and 
another for the erection of the tribunal, whence the commander some- 
times addressed the army. In this space were the tents of the contu- 
bernales of the general (the young Patricians who attended upon him 
as volunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train. Near 
the prcetorium were the tents of the officers, andt he body-guards. 
The entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy. 

§ 297t. On the right of the Praetorium ^e), was the Forum (v), an open 
space for a market, and for martial courts •, and on the left the Qucesto* 
rium (w), where the stores, money, arms, and the like were kept. A select 
portion of the cavalry, equites ablecti et evocati (o, o) were also stationed on 
each side of the Prcctorium, and behind them the pedites ablectiet evocati (p, p). 
Next were the tents of the Tribunes (**) and of the Prefects (tt). Then was a 
passage, or free way, called principia (u), 100 feet wide, extending through 
the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d). The rest of 
the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the centre of this 
lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending m the opposite direc- 
tion. On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the 
triarii (I) were cast ; then beyond these tents, on each side, was another pas- 
sage 50 feet wide, and then the tents of the principes (k) and hastati (l) ; and 
after another similar passage beyond these on each side, the tents of the aux- 
iliaries, both cavalry (m) and infantry (n). These five passages were cross- 
ed at right angles, in the centre, by another of the same width, termed Via 
quintana (t) because five maniples were encamped on each side of it. In 
each tent there were eleven men, which formed a contubernium, one of them 
having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tentsj was a free space 200 
feet wide, which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and serv- 
ed also for defence in case of an attack from an enemy. 

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. 
The ditch or fosse was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep ; the rampart 
three feet high ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The 
rampart was formed of the earth thrown (agger) from the ditch, with sharp 
stakes (sudes) fixed therein. On each of the four sides was an opening or 
gate,^0?-ta, guarded by a whole cohort. These gates were called porta prceto* 
ria (a), being near the head quarters towards the enemy ; porta decumana (b), 
on the opposite side of the camp, called also qucsstoria as in earlier times the 
qua3storium was near it ; porta principalis dextra (d), and porta principalis 
sinistra (c), being near the principia. 

A plan of a consular camp is seen in Plate XXVII. fig. P, as given in Boyd's ed. of Adam. 
^-The letters and signs included in parentheses in the above description refer severally to the 
corresponding marks in the Plan. The letters Q, Q,, in the Plan, designate the tents occupied 
by the extraordinary cavalry of the allies ; R R, by the extraordinary foot of the allies : ,S S, by 
strangers and occasional allies. — In fig. R is a section of a fossa, here given as 12 feet broad 
and 9 deep ; showing also the agger and sudes. 

§ 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed 
vigilies ; excubice also signifies properly night-watches, but is used in 
a more general sense; statio was the name for each single post. Two 
tribunes had constantly the oversight of the whole camp, which the 
same two retained, at the longest, for two months. At their tents all 
the officers and leaders were required to assemble at day-break and 
with them go to the general to receive his commands. The watch- 
word (symbolum) was called tessera, from the four sides or corners of 
ihe little wooden block on which it was written* 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. CAMP EXERCISES. SIEGES. 613 

I u. The watch- word was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them 
to the centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the 
tribunes to the centurions were called tcsserarii. Short commands were often 
Written on similar tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the 
army. Before the head-quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by 
night. The outworks of the camp were occupied by the light-armed. Every 
maniple was obliged to place four men upon guard, so that 240 men were al- 
ways on the watch in a camp of two legions. The night was divided into four 
parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end of which the guards 
(vigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxiliaries had also 
their guards and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the watch 
on duty, and make the formal round (circuitio vigilumj or visit the several 
posts or stations. 

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in vari- 
ous exercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exercitus. These exer- 
cises included walking and running completely armed ; leaping, swimming, 
vaulting upon horses of wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carry- 
ing weights, attacking a wooden image of a man as an enemy, &c. — It was 
essential to the comfort of the soldier, that he should be able to walk or run 
in his full armor with perfect ease ; in common marching he was obliged, to 
carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions and custom- 
ary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. — The 
exercises were performed' under the training of the campidoctores. 

3. The winter quarters (castra Mberna) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under 
The emperors particularly, were furnished with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses, 
workshops (fabrica), an infirmary fvaletadmariumj, &c. Many European towns are supposed 
to have had their origin in such establishments ; in England, particularly those whose names 
end in Chester or center. — ddam. 

§ 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encir- 
cling it with troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case 
of populous cities, sometimes double or triple. In the attacks upon 
the city they employed various methods and engines of various sorts. 

lu. The testudo before mentioned (§ 295) was frequently used; upon the 
shields thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the 
walls. Higher walls they mounted by the help of scaling-ladders (scalce). — ■ 
The crates, hurdles, were a kind of basket-work of willow ; they were at- 
tached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the hands of those who used this 
shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack ; they were also em- 
ployed by the besieged as a breast-work on their walls, and on marches they 
served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places. — Vinece, were portable 
sheds or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and six- 
teen long. They were filled out and covered with wicker-work or hides, and 
served to protect from the arrows of the enemy while the soldiers were un- 
dermining the walls. 

Fig. 1, of Plate XXVII., shows the use of the testudo hy a body of soldiers approaching a 
wall according to the statement above. — Fig. 2 shows the manner of forming the crates, and 
the vinece. 

2u. For a similar purpose were the plutei, wooden shelters, covered with 
hides, and moved upon wheels or rollers. Under these the slingers and arch- 
ers especially placed themselves, and sought to force the defenders from their 
walls, in order that the scaling ladders might be the more easily and effectu- 
ally applied. Of the same kind, yet stronger were the musculi ; and also the 
testudines (wooden shelters to be distinguished from testudo before mentioned) ; 
these were most commonly used to protect the workmen in erecting a fortifi- 
cation, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some of these shelters they 
often covered the battering ram. 

Fig. 8, Plate XXVII., is apluteus, advancing against a wall. 

3w. The battering ram was a large beam employed to break in the walls of 
the besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was managed immedi- 
ately by the hands of certain soldiers without protection, but was afterwards 
placed under the shelters just described, which covered the men who thrust 

52 



614 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

it against the walls. Its name, aries, was derived front its front end, which 
was covered with iron in a form resembling a ram's head. Sometimes it wag 
composed of several pieces united, and so large that 125 men were required 
to work it. 

The falces murales and asseres falcati were beams with iron hooks, to break 
and tear down the upper breastwork of the walls ; they were managed by the 
aid of ropes. — Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use? 
were termed the grus and the corvus. — The terebra was an instrument em- 
ployed for opening a hole in the walls. 

In fig. 4, of Plate XXVII., is the battering-ram in its simple form, suspended by ropes from 
a cross-beam fixed above two posts driven into the ground. In fig. 5, it is attached to a com- 
plete and substantial frame placed upon rollers. In fig. 10 it appears under a shelter as above 
mentioned. — Fig. 9 shows the asser falcatus. 

Au. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to construct mounds 
(aggeres) as high as the walls of the city, or higher. On these mounds were 
placed the military engines, also moveable towers and other shelters of the 
soldiers. By means of boards, palisades, and wooden grapnels, they were 
made capable of sustaining such vast weights. Oft account of the great quan- 
tity of wood work in them, the besieged generally strove to destroy them by 
fire, which was often applied by mining under ground. 

These towers (turres) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet 
high, and often or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollers. 
From the upper stories were usually cast arrows, javelins, and stones ; from 
the middle, abridge or passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls j and 
in the lower one the battering ram was brought forward. When they reached 
the slope of the mound, they were taken to pieces by stories and reconstruct- 
ed on its summit. To protect them from fire, they were guarded by plates of 

iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened with a solution of alum. A long; 

iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow, smeared with pitch and 
resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower, was called 
falarica, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which they were 
thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or bunches of 
tow attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy. 

Fig. 3, Plate XXVII., is a specimen of the moveable towers. 

5«. One of the most common and largest engines was the catapulta, by 
which arrows, javelins, and particularly stones were hurled a great distance. 
Stakes, sharp-pointed and hardened in the fire (called aclides or sudes missiles) 
Were also thrown from the catapulta. — In a siege there were usually a multi- 
tude of these machines. Their construction is not well understood ; we only 
know that ropes and cords or sinews were used in order to shoot the arrows 
and other weapons, which they threw with fatal efficacy. — Of a similar kind 
was the balista ; called also in later times onager, and designed chiefly for 
throwing the javelin. — For shooting arrows, sometimes poisoned, the Romans 
made use of an engine termed the scorpio, which could be managed by a sin- 
gle man. 

Fig. 6, of Plate XXVIL, is the scorpio. — Fig. 7 is the balista, but on a scale more reduced. 

§ 300. The modes of defence on the part of the besieged were 
various. 

3 u. They hurled rocks, often of more than a hundred pounds in weight, 
upon the besiegers, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil, and endeavored to 
thrust down the scaling-ladder by means of iron hooks, and to kill, force back, 
or pull up to themselves the soldiers attempting to mount. The thrusts of the 
battering-ram they sought to baffle or weaken by hanging sacks before it, and 
in various other ways, and even to seize and draw it up by their ropes and 
springs. They likewise cast burning torches upon the wooden engines of the 
besiegers, and in other ways attempted to set them on fire. 

2. " Where they apprehended a breach would be made, they reared new* 
walls behind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed various meth-" 
ods to defend themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. (Liv. 
xlii. 63.) — But these, and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be* 
best understood by reading the accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges^ 



PLATE XXVII. 




616 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

particularly of Syracuse by Marcellus (Liv. xxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Ful- 
vius (Id. xxxviii. 4), of Alesia by Julius Csesar (de Bell. Gall, vii.), of Mar- 
seilles by his lieutenants (Cms. B. Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titus Vespa- 
sian (Joseph, de Bell. Jud)." 

§ 301. In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fight, 
and only in special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a 
permanent naval power, and always kept two fleets ready for sail, 
each manned with a legion, at the two harbors of Misenum and 
Ravenna. 

lu. The warriors engaged in this service were called classiarii, and were 
enlisted in the same way as the legions of the land forces, but often taken 
from among them. The highest officers or commanders of the fleet CclassiS) 
were originally the Duumviri navales, afterwards a Consul or a Prestor, who 
was called prmfectus classis, and stationed in the most distinguished vessel 
(navis prmtoriaj known by its flag (vexillum purpureumj. Every other ship 
had a tribune or centurion for its particular commander (navarchus). Upon 
the upper deck (stega, constratum navis J stood the fighting men. 

2. Besides the navarchus or commander (called also magister navis), each 
ship had a pilot (gubernator, rector) and sometimes two, who had an assistant 
(jyroreta) to watch at the prow. Besides the classiarii or fighting-men (mari- 
nes, called also epibatmj, there were also the rowers (remiges) who were more 
or less numerous according to the size of the galley ; these were under a leader 
or director (hortator, xtltvar^g, cf. § 158), who with his voice and a little mal- 
let (portisculus) guided their motions. 

3u. War-towers were often placed on board the vessels, commonly two, 
one in the fore part, the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding 
a vessel of the enemy the ferrem manus, harp agones, and corvi were employed ; 
there were also other instruments of this sort ; combustible materials and the 
like were used in order to fire the ships of the enemy. 

§ 302 u. On engaging in a fight, the sv<\\s(vela) were usually furled, because 
they would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed by the rudder alone. 
The fleet was arranged by the commander in a sort of battle array, and each 
vessel was assigned its place, which it must maintain. A position as far as 
possible from land was usually desired. The larger vessels were usually 
placed in front, although the order of arrangement for naval combat was by no 
means uniform, but very various. The following forms are mentioned ; acies 
simplex, cuneata, lunata, falcata. Before the battle commenced, the omens 
were examined, sacrifices and vows were offered. Then upon all the ships 
was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for attack was given 
by a trumpet (classicum). The contest consisted partly in the rapid and vio- 
lent rushing of the vessels against those of the enemy, for the purpose of 
piercing the hostile ships by means of the rostra, which were two strong 
beams at the prow of the galley^ covered with iron at the points, and made 
fast to both sides of the keel ; partly in throwing darts, spears, grappling 
irons, and the like ; and partly in actual close combat. 

§ 303. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similar to those of a Grecian 
(§154). The following were some of the terms; prora, prow; puppis, stern; 
alveus, belly ; statumina, ribs ; sentina, pump to draw off bilge-water (nauteaj; 1 
foramina, holes to put out the oars (rani) ; sedilia, transtra, seats of the row- 
ers ; scalmus, the piece of wood to which the oar was tied by thongs ( stroppi) ; 
gubemaculum, clavus, rudder ; two rudders were common ; insigne, the im- 
age at the prow ; tutela, the image at the stern ; aplustria, ornamental parts at 
the stern, sometimes at the prow, having a sort of staff with a streamer (tm- 
nia) ; malus, mast ; modius, the place in which the mast was fixed ; antcnnm, 
brachia, yards for the sails (vela) ; cornua, extremities of the yards ; pedes y 
the ropes fastened to the cornua. The rigging and tackling in general was 
called armamenta ; the ropes, rudentes, or Junes ; the anchor, anchor a ; sound- 
ing-lead, molybdis ; the ballast, saburra. 

§ 304. The Roman ships were divided into three principal kinds, the war- 
galley, the transport, and the ship of burden ; the first was propelled chiefly 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. SHIPS OF WAR. TRIUMPH. 617 

by oars ; the second was often towed by ropes ; the third depended mostly on 
sails. These classes were called by various names. Ships of burden had 
the general name of naves oneraria ; they were commonly much inferior in 
size to modern trading vessels ; although some ships are mentioned of vast 
bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk in the time of Cali- 
gula, said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often termed naves lon- 
gm, being longer than others ; also rostrata, ceratce, from their beaks ; and par- 
ticularly triremes, quadrir ernes, <y-c. from the number of benches of rowers in 
them severally. As many as ten banks are mentioned ; Livy (xlv. 35) speaka 
of a ship with 16 banks ; and Ptolemy Philopator is said to have built one 
with 40 banks. On the manner in which the benches were arranged in the 
Roman and Grecian galley we refer to § 156. 2. 

The naves Liburnicce were light, fast-sailing ships, made after the model of 
the galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — - 
The phaseli, or naves actuaries,. were a kind of yacht or small bark, with few 
oars, also designed for expedition. — The Camarai were of a peculiar construc- 
tion, with two prows and rudders, one at each end, so that they could at pleas- 
ure be propelled either way without turning ; they could be covered with 
boards like the vaulted roof of a house. (Tac. Mor. Germ. 44.) 

Fig. 1, of Plate XVIII., is a specimen of the phaselus. — Fig. 3 is the Liburnian galley. -~ 
Fig. 2 is the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shows the two rudders t 
attached on each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be 

raised out of water by lashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. Acts, xxvii. 40. See 

Holwell ty De Le Roy, as cited § 156. 2. It was recently announced that the port of Pompeii 

had been discovered, presenting its vessels thrown upon their sides, and covered and preserved 
by the volcanic matter. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing Lond. Lit. Oaz.J 

§ 305. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who 
had gained an important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, 
a pompous show, which was practiced even in the time of the kings. 
This honor, however, could be acquired only by those who were or 
had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors ; it was not awarded to Pro- 
consuls. Yet in later times there were some exceptions to this. 
He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not 
merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victo- 
ry must have been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or 
Praetor. The importance of the campaign and the victory, and its 
advantage to the state also came into consideration, and the general 
must have brought back his army to share with him in the mory of 
the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the victpy con- 
sisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with 
a triumph. / 

§ 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome a/ter a vie* 
tory, was a thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then ifae general 
must apply to the senate in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, 
however, was often given by the people contrary to the will of the 
senate. A law or vote was always passed by the people permitting 
the general to retain his command (imperium) in the cfty, on the day 
of his triumph, because in other circumstances he vy/as required to 
lay down his command before entering the city. T ] ie ajuse of the 
honors of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. (§g ( 6<, of the law 
called lex triumphalis Porcia, which prohibited a trj r iunph, unless at 
least 5000 of the enemy had fallen in battle. e ] 

§ 307. A general enjoying this honor was not t ll er^* the city un- 
til the day of his triumph, and his previous re^jue? to the senate 
must be made out of the city in the temple 6jU g f ona. The ex- 
penses were usually defrayed from the public * tasury, except in 
52* 



618 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession without public 
authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The ex- 
penses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general 
usually distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Sen- 
ate went to meet the triumphing general as far as the gate by which 
he entered the city. 

1 u. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the 
line, ordinarily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. They were fol- 
lowed by the trumpeters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be 
offered in sacrifice, the spoils and booty taken from the enemy, the weapons 
and chariots of the conquered, pictures and emblems of the country reduced, 
the captive princes or generals, and other prisoners. Then came the con- 
queror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by four white horses, robed in 
purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was followed by his numerous 
train, consisting partly of his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn out in 
regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, through 
the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion 
of the spoils of the victory were consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were 
feasting, merriment, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph 
lasted several days. The pomp, expense, and luxury atttending them became 
constantly greater and greater, and the whole custom, on account of its. fre- 
quent occurrence, and the great abuse of it by some of the emperors, was re- 
duced at last to a common and contemptible affair. — The first triumph for as 
victory at sea (triumphus navalis) was obtained by the Consul C. Duillius, 
after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, By C. 261. 

2. Respecting tire pillar and inscription in honor of Duilrius, see P. I. § 133. — For a fuller 
view of a triumphal display, read Plutarch's description of the triumph. of Paulas iEmilius, 
after the capture of Perseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph 
in his Life by Vopiscus (cf. Gibbon, ch. xi). The last triumph. recorded is that of Belisarius, at 
Constantinople, related by Procopius (cf. P, II. §257.— Gibbon,, ch. xli.) 

§ 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, fre- 
quently bestowed on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not 
differ very much inform from the triumph ; the essential peculiarities 
were that the general entered the city not in a chariot, but on foot or 
on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the pr&texta only, and at 
the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep (ovis). 
From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was prob- 
ably taken. The triumph on the Alban mount already alluded to 
(§ 307) was less pompous. It was held only by those to whom the 
senate had refused a triumph in the city, and to whom an ovation 
only had been awarded. The ceremonies were similar to those of a 
triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, marched to the 
temple of Jupiter Latiaris, situated on the mount. 

§ 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes 
under the emperors. 

1 u. By Augustus a standing army was established} he also created an offi- 
cer called Ptcefec'tus prcetorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the 
imperial bod^-grjard and the praetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Ro- 
man militaryWrt ice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became 
merely a systei toV support the authority of the emperors, not to promote the 



welfare of the ounV try ; and to forward this end, many disorders and abuses 
on the part of th g\ ildiers were overlooked. From the same cause, likewise, 
an unhappy lineV (jP istinction was drawn between the military and the other 



classes of citizen^ \ 

The praetorian sdj^, -rs were, under the first emperors, divided equally into 
ten cohorts, containh^ ^OOO men each. Under the later emperors they were 
entirely abolished, af. s 3500 Armenians enrolled in their stead ; these were 
divided into nine schfr.ce, and commanded by the officer styled Magister ojjici- 
orum. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. SYSTEM UNDER THE EMPERORS. 619 

The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, 
distributed among the provinces. Besides these he had the ten praetorian co- 
horts just named, six city cohorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts 
styled cohortes vigilum, which together amounted to 20,000 men. In after 
times, the number of troops was greatly increased, as well as the naval force. 
On the division of the empire, the western comprised sixty-two legions, and 
the eastern seventy. 

At the commencement of civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty le- 
gions, distributed as follows; three in Britannia ; three in Hispania ; eight in Gallia, three of them 
being in the portion called upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P. V. $ 11) ; two 
in Pannonia ; two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Mossia ; four in Syria, with 
three more in Judea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. V. § 173). 

2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which 
guarded the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect 
of the praetorian bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and 
the office was conferred only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. 
The appointment was made or the commission conferred by the emperor's de- 
livering a sword to the person selected. Sometimes there were two praetorian 
praefects. Tfheir power was at first only military and small ; but it became 
very great, and finally trials were brought before them, and there was no ap- 
peal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius committed this 
judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praetorian 
cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates 
Viminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius 16 praetorian cohorts were raised, 
and four to guard the city. Severus new modeled the body and increased 
them to four times the ancient number. Constantine the Great finally sup- 
pressed them and destroyed their camp. (Boyd's Adam, p. 123, 485). 

3. Important changes in the military system were made by Constantine. He 
appointed two general commanders for the wholy army, called Magistri mili- 
tia ', one of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum ; the 
other, of the whole infantry, Magister peditum. 

Constantine did not abolish the title of Prmfectus prcetorio, when he suppressed the praetorian 
cohorts, as above mentioned ; but he changed the nature of the office, making it wholly a civil 
one, and dividing the care of the whole empire between four officers of this title; Prcef ectus 
prcetorio Orientis ; Prcsf. prcet. per Illyricum ; Prcef. prmt. per Italias ; Prof. prat. Qalliarum. The 
city of Rome also retained her special overseer, Prcpfectus urbis Romm ; and a similar officer, 
with greater authority, was appointed over Constantinople, which now became the seat of the 
empire, Prcef ectus urbis Constantinopolis. Under the four praafects were subordinate officers, 
whose authority was limited to particular dioceses, of which there were 13 ; one of them gov- 
erned by the officer styled Count of the diocese of the East ( Comes diwceseos Orientis) ; another 
consisting of Egypt, by an officer styled Prmfectus JEvypti; and the other 11 by officers, styled 
Vicarii or vice-prefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a great number of provinces, whose 
governors were of four different grades, termed proconsules, consulares, correctores, and pro- 
sides. 

4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of 
Constantine. In the western, the military jurisdiction continued to be vested 
in two commanders styled Magister equitum and Magister peditum. In the 
eastern, it was vested in officers styled Magistri militum, and the number of 
them was five in the time of Theodosius the Great, who shortly before his 
death, A. D. 395, united the empire in one ; it was divided again after his 
death and so continued until the final overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. 
The five Masters-general of the military each had command of several squad- 
rons (vexillationes) of horse and several legions of soldiers (palatines comita- 
tenses) and several corps of auxiliaries (auxilia); two of them had also under 
their command a naval force, consisting of 12 distinct armaments or fleets, 6 
being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military es- 
tablishment, in addition to the forces already mentioned, a large body of troops 
designed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and 
commanded by comites and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the 
officer, termed Quaestor sacri palatii. — The Masters -general of the West had 
under their command forces of a similar description, including also troops de- 
signated specially for the defence of the frontier. There was a Magister mili- 
tum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Masters-general. 

For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire under Constantine 
and later emperors, see Gibbon, ch. xvii.— For more minute details, Tableau SysUmatiqUe dta 
Isnpire* d' Orient ct d' Occident &c. in 3d vol. of Sc'uiU's Hist. Litt. Uomaine. Cf. P. II. $ 571. 



620 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



(4) Affairs of Private Life. 

§ 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil 
and social relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice 
the essential distinction, which existed between the freemen* and ihe 
slaves. There were two classes of freemen, the free-born (ingenui), 
whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the free made (liberti) or 
freed men who had been enfranchised from servitude, and who did 
not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of the 
latter class were termed libertini and their grand-children ingenui, in 
early times ; at a later period the freed men were call liberti only with 
reference to their former master, receiving when spoken of otherwise 
the name libertini themselves, while their sons, if born after the fa* 
trier's manumission, were called ingenui. — The slaves were such by 
birth, verncB ; or by captivity in war ; or by purchase, mancipia. Of 
their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of their 
manumission we will speak below ( § 322 ). 

On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, 
we may refer to d' Arnay de" la vie privee des Romains. Lausanne 1760. 12. (Consisting chiefly 
of treatises in the Memoires de V Academic des Inscriptions.) Trans. Germ. Leipz. 1761.8.-— 

Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. 303. Montfaucon, Usage* 

du siecle de Theodore le Grand, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xm. p. 474. — Sketches of the" 
Domestic Manners of the Romans. Reprinted, Phil. 1822. 12. Cf. JV*. Am. Rev. xvi. 163. 

§311. The Romans commonly had three names; the first was 
called the prcenomen and had reference simply to the individual who 
bore it ; the second was called the nomen, and was the name of the 
race or clan (gens) ; the third was the cognomen, which designated 
the family (familia) : thus in Publius Cornelius Scipio; Scipio is the 
CQgnomen indicating the family name, Cornelius the nomen pointing 
out the clan or gens, to which the family belonged, and Publius the 
prcenomen marking the particular man. The distinction between gens 
and familia was, that the former was more general denoting a whole 
tribe or race, the latter more limited confined to a single branch of 
it. — The daughter commonly received the name of the tribe or race, 
e. g. Cornelia, and retained it, after her marriage. Sisters were dis- 
tinguished by adding to this name the epithets major and minor, ot 
prima, secunda, tertia, &c. 

1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the 
agnomen ; this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be pro- 
perly included under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the 
same, although they usually stood as above stated. Under the emperors the 
proper name of the individual was frequently put last. 

2u. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogen- 
eous inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was 
increased by the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following 
were some of the most distinguished races ; Fabia (gens), Junia, Antonia, 
Julia, JEmilia, Pompeia, Tullia, Horatia, Octavia, Valeria, Posthumia, Sulpicia % 
Claudia, Papiria, Cornelia, Manlia, Sempronia, Hortensia. 

It has been observed (P. II. § 483), that the names of families were often derived from the em- 
ployment of an ancestor. Names were also applied to individuals by way of ridicule ; that which 
was at first a mere nickname, or sobriquet, became permanently attached to a person. — See 
Mahudel, De l'Autorite que les Sobriquets ou Surnoms burlesques peuvent avoir dans l'histoire, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xiv. p. 181. — On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see 
Schbll's Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iv. p. 367, and references there given. — Oibbon, Dec. and Fall of R. 
Emp. ch. xxxi. — Boindin, Les noms des Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 1.154. — Port 
Royal Latin Gram. bk. Tin. ch. 1. 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FAMILIES. MARRIAGES. 6'21 

§ 312. The increase of these races was much promoted by mar- 
riages, in regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete 
separation between plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Mar- 
riage was held to be a duty of every Roman, and those who neglect- 
ed it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. Citizens were forbidden to 
marry strangers, except by permission specially granted. Certain de- 
grees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting marriage. 
Marriage took place at an early age among the Romans, the male 
being sometimes but fourteen and the female only in the twelfth 
year. 

1m. The jus Quiritium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marry- 
ing a free-born woman. To freed men this was prohibited, until the enact- 
ment of the Poppsean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting 
senators and their sons, were allowed to marry the daughters of freed men. 

The Lex Papia Poppcea was an enlarging and enforcement of the Lex Julia ' de maritandis or- 
diitibus : ' by it whoever in the city had three children, in other parts of Italy four, and in the 
provinces five, was entitled to certain privileges; while certain disabilities were imposed on 
those who lived in celibacy. This subject is" alluded to by Horace, Carin. Saec. vs. 20. 

2u. Between slaves there was no proper marriage (connubium), but only 
what was called co?ituber?iium. 

See Gicrigr, Excursus de Contuberniis Romanorum, in Lemaire's Pliny, as cited P. II. § 470, 4. 
vol. 2d. p. 231. iijrer, Diss, de jure connubiorum apud Romanos. Gbtt. 1737. 

§ 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or 
betrothment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent (sti- 
pulatio) to the request (sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact 
and the ceremonies attending it were called sponsalia ; it often took 
place many years before the marriage, even in the childhood of the 
parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always present at the 
betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by 
an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was 
necessary only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The 
mutual consent of the parties was the most essential. Friends and 
relations were usually present as witnesses; the marriage contract 
was written and sealed (legitimes tabellce) ; the bride received from 
her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the whole cere- 
mony was concluded with a feast. 

§ 314. In fixing the day of marriage care was taken to select one 
of those esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transference of the bride 
from her father's power to the hands of the husband was called con- 
ventio in manum, and was accompanied by a religious ceremony, and 
a sort of consecration by a priest (confarreatio.) Marriages contract- 
ed in this form were the most solemn and could not be dissolved so 
easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes are mentioned ; 
one was by prescription (usus), the bride being taken home and liv- 
ing with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a pur- 
chase (coemptio), in which each party gave to the other a portion of 
money, repeating certain words. 

§ 315 u. On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil 
or peculiar ornament of the head (luteum jiammeum), and a robe prepared for 
the occasion, which was bound w T ith the marriage girdle (cingulum laneuvi). 
The sacrifice ordered on the marriage day was a sheep of tw T o years age, pre- 
sented especially to Juno as the goddess of marriage. 

The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took 
place in the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was- taken,. 



622 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

as it were forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not 
living, of the next near relative. She went with a distaff (colus) in her hand, 
and was careful to step over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, as> 
it was ominous to touch it with the feet. She was supported by two youth, 
one on each side ; a third preceded her with a lighted torch or flambeau, and 
sometimes a fourth followed carrying in a covered vase Ccumerum) the bride's 
utensils (nubentis utensilia) and also various toys (crepundia). She bound the 
door posts of her new residence with white woollen fillets and anointed them 
with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unxor). She then stepped upon a 
sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bridegroom, who 
immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she delivered 
over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of pu- 
rity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands of 
flowers, the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage 
banquet (ccena nwptialis) was held, which was accompanied with music and 
song. The husband after supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys 
present. Finally the pair were conducted to the bed chamber, by the door of 
which the nuptial hymns ( epithalamia) were sung by young men and maids. 
The next day the bride presented a thank offering to the gods, and the husband 
gave an evening entertainment (repotia), and distributed presents to the guests 
on their departure. 

§ 316. Divorces (divortia) were, especially in latter times, quite 
common. When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized 
in full formality especially with the confarreatio just described, par- 
ticular solemnities were requisite for a divorce, and these were called 
diffarreatio. In case of a less formal marriage contract, the di- 
vorce was called remancipatio or usurpatio. On account of the fre- 
quent abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law ; and properly the 
men only enjoyed the right. The formula, with which one dismissed 
his wife, was tuas res tibi habeto. Sometimes the separation took 
place before marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called re- 
pudium; the customary formula was as follows ; conditione tua non 
utor. If a woman was divorced without having been guilty of adul- 
tery, her portion or dowry was returned with her. 

The condition of females in Rome was similar to their condition in Greece (cf. § 181, 182).— 
On the regard to the sex as illustrated by the writings of Tibullus, Ovid, Seneca &.c. cf. Ram- 

dohr, Venus Urania. Lips. 1798. 8. The social elevation offemales is very justly ascribed, 

in a great degree, to Christianity. Buckmirister's Sermons. Cf. Cashing, Social Influence of Chris- 
tianity, in Bibl. Repos. Sec. Series, vol. i. p. 195. 

§ 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of 
children, that was the most remarkable, which left it to the arbitrary 
will of the father, whether to preserve his new-born child, or leave it 
to perish. In reference to his decision of this point, the midwife al- 
ways placed it on the ground ; if the father chose to preserve it, he 
raised it from the ground, and was said tollere infantem ; this was 
an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his 
own. If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child on the 
ground, and thus expressed his wish to expose it (exponere) ; this ex- 
posing was an unnatural custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which 
children were left in the streets, particularly at the columna lactaria, 
and abandoned to their fate. Generally the power of the father was 
very great, but the mother had no share therein. This power ex- 
tended not only over the life of his children, but the father could 
three times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate 
all his gains as his own. Under tl^ emperors, this power lost much 
of its rigor, by the regulation allowing the children to hold the in- 
heritance left by their mothers. 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 623 

§ 318 m. The freeing of a son from the power of a father was effected by 
what was called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son ; 
the freedom consequent upon this was termed manumissio legitime per vin- 
dictam. The father and the son appeared together with the pretended pur- 
chaser, a friend of the first, and with a body of witnesses, before the tribunal 
of the praetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated sale and thrice repeated 
manumission was completed with certain established usages, sometimes by 
only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the purchaser 
was called pater jiduciarius ; in the first two, dominus. — The power of the 
father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or 
banishment of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman citizen 
(§ 260). By emancipation the son became his own master, and possessor of 
his own property, of which however he must give the father half as an ac- 
knowledgement for his freedom. 

§ 319. Another custom among the Romans in respect to children 
was that of adoption (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child 
renounced his own rights and claims, and committed them to another 
who received the child as his own. 

1 u. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. 
The formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always 
presupposed in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the 
son was sold to the adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third 
time to the real father. There was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will 
or testament (adoptio per testamentum) , in order to preserve a family from ex- 
tinction. In such case the person adopted received a considerable part of the 
estate left by the person adopting him, and bore his name after his death. 

2u. That, which was called arrogatio, differed from adoption only in the 
Formalities connected. The former was not transacted, as was the latter, be- 
fore the praetor, but before the assembled people, in the Comitia Curiata, and 
by the aid of the High priest ; neither was it limited to individuals, but often 
included a whole family. Upon the consent of the people to the arrangement, 
the person or persons adopted into a family took a solemn oath, that they 
Would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; this was call- 
ed detestatio sacrorum. 

§ 320 u. By what was called legitimation, a natural (naturalis) or spurious 
(spurius) child was declared to be legitimate (legitimus), and instated in all 
the rights of such. This affected, however, the relation of the child only to 
the father, not to other relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such 
a child shared in the inheritance an equal portion with the lawful children. 
But this custom was not known to the early Romans ; it came first into prac- 
tice in the fifth century under Theodosius the second, and then scarcely at all 
in Rome itself, but in the municipial towns, where it was introduced to supply 
the want of the decuriones or members of the senate (§ 260. 3). For, as this 
office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was also very burden- 
some, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by them 
legitimated. 

§ 321. Respecting the education of the Roman youth we have al- 
ready spoken, in treating of the Archaeology of Roman Literature 
(P. I. §§ 123 — 125). Here we only remark, that for a long time 
there were no public schools, but the youth received the necessary 
instruction from private or family teachers (pcedagogi). Thef$ were 
however those, who in their houses gave instruction to a number of 
youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early 
times, were viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in edu- 
cation than the study of literature and science. They did not neg- 
lect however an early cultivation of the manners, and of noble feel- 
ings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and heroic courage. 

§ 322 1. The household of a Roman was collectively termed fami* 



624 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Ha, but by this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which 
there was often a large number. Persons in opulent circumstances 
had them sometimes to the amount of several thousands. The Ro- 
man women of rank usually had a numerous body of servants of both 
sexes. — The slaves of a family were divided into different classes or 
decuricB, according to their employments, and a particular registry of 
them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every morn- 
ing. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as mere 
chattels, rather than persons. 

" Slaves in Rome occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate 
superintending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or 
obsequious vice ; from the foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest 
degradation, to which woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the 
oar in the galleys, or labored on the public works. Some were lictors ; some 
were jailors. Executioners were slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen 
and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich palace in the city ; and slaves per- 
formed all the drudgery of the farm. Nor was it unusual to teach slaves the 
arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself was the son of an 
emancipated slave. — The merry Andrew was a slave. The physician, the 
surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader 
and the stage player ; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and the 
smith ; the weaver and the shoe-maker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the 
bier ; the pantomime and the singer ; the rope dancer and the wrestler, all 
were bondmen. The armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an 
occupation connected with agriculture, manufacturing industry, or public 
amusements, but it was a patrimony of slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; 
slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were retailers ; slaves shaved notes ', 
and the managers of banks were slaves." 

The following is a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequent- 
ly mentioned : — 1. Of those employed in the house. The servus admissionalis received the per- 
sons who visited the master of the house, announced their names and conducted them in 5 the 
servi cubicularii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, often enjoying the particular confi- 
dence of the master 5 the tonsores and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the beard and 
hair of the masters ; the amanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagnosta 
were readers ; the vcstiarii attended to the wardrobe ; the balneatores waited upon the master 
at the bath ; the medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; the nutritii and pmda- 
gogi took care of the children. — A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon table 
at meals, and were designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the ser- 
vus lectisterniator, couch spreader ; structor, arranger of dishes ; carptor or scissor, carver ; di- 
tibltor, distributer ; prmgusiator, taster ; pocillator, cup-bearer ; detcrsor, table-wiper, &c. — 
There were others performing another kind of house service ; e. g. the servus ostiarius, door- 
keeper ; atriensis, hall slave ; dispensator or arcarius, keeper of the stores ; cellarius, pantry 
keeper ; puhnentarius, pottage-maker ; dalciarius, confectioner ; tccdiger, torch-bearer ; cuniaria, 

cradle-rocker 5 cusmeta, perfumer ; fiabellifer, fan-carrier, &c 2. "Others were employed out 

of doors ; the servus insularis, who had the oversight over his master's buildings ; the servus a 
pedibus, who went with errands ; the lecticarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c. — A large 
number of slaves were kept at the manors or county seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits ; 
among these were the villici, stewards or superintendents ; aratorcs, ploughmen ; runcatores, 
Weed-pullers ; occatores, clod-breakers ; fanisectorcs, hay-cutters ; vhidemiatores, vintagers ; ju- 
garii, ox-drivers ; opiliones, sheep-tenders ; piscatores, "fish-catchers ; muliones, mule-drivers 5 

gallinarii, hen-keepers, &c. For a full list, see Blair's State of Slavery among the Romans. 

Edinb. 1833. 8. Cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. xv. 71.— On the employment of slaves, cf. Mongez, 
sur les travaux publ. des Romains, in the Mem. de PFastitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, 1. 492. 

§ 323. The slave trade formed among the Romans, as with most 
of the ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave mer- 
chant^/ venalitiarii) were always found attached to the Roman ar- 
mies, and importers of slaves (mangones) often came to Rome from 
Greece and Asia. There were various laws regulating this traffic ; 
which, however, were often left unexecuted, or were evaded by the 
arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves offered for 
sale, scaffolds (catastce) were erected in the market, and commonly 
small tablets were suspended from the necks of the slaves, stating 
their country, age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. HOUSES. 625 

"Was sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were 
such as possessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as 
teachers, readers, accountants, musicians and the like. 

§ 324%. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most 
ancient mode seems to have been by will, manumissio per testdmentum, on 
the decease of the master. There were two other modes ; censu, and per vin- 
dictam ; the former was when the slave, with the master's consent, was en- 
rolled in the taxation-list as a freedman ; the latter was a formal and public 
enfranchisement before the prastor. In the last case, the master appeared 
with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the ceremony by striking' 
him with a rod (vindicta) ; thus treating him as still his slave. Then a pro- 
tector or defender (assertor libertatis) steps forward and requests the libera* 
tion of the slave, by saying hunc hominem liberum esse aio, jure Quiritium; 
upon which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go 
(e manu emittebat), and gives up his right over him, with the words, hunc 
hominem liberum esse volo. A declaration by the prsetor, that the slave should 
be free, formed the conclusion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave 
sometimes went to Terracina and received in the temple of Feronia (P. III. §91) 
a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of liberty. The slave to be freed must not be 
under twenty years of age, nor the person setting him free under thirty. 

On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting arrticle in the Biblical Reposi- 
tory and Quart. Observer, No. xx. Oct. 1835. — Burigny, Roman slaves and freedmen, in the 
Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 328, and xxxvn. p. 313.— Blair, cited § 322. 

§ 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casm) 
and during the first three centuries, even to the capture and plunder 
of the city by the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. I. § 241). 
On its being rebuilt, they were larger and more respectable. As 
luxury increased especially after the second Punic war, so the private 
dwellings (domus) became more and more costly and splendid, both 
within and without; although this was not universally the case. In 
the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extravagance 
in the building and ornamenting of houses. 

\u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were 
the following; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble; the 
use of phengites ((pyytT^c) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis 
■specularis, which was commonly employed for windows ; mosaic work on the 
floors (pdvimenta tesselata) ; and various decorations in ivory, marble, costly 
wood and precious stones, attached to the walls, ceilina and door posts. 

2. The ■phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia 
in the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency. — The lapis specularis was 
found in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, 
like slate, not above five feet long each. Windows (specularia) were formed of this substance, 
yet chiefly, it is supposed, in the better sort of houses. Boyd remarks, quoting the French 
translation of Adam, " it appears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." 
Launay (cited P. I. § 195.2.) after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expres- 
ses in the following words his conclusion ; " que le lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre 
gypse feuillete appelle Selenite " (vol. i. 314). 

3. Horn is said to have been used by the Romans for the windows (corneum 
s peculare) ; also paper and linen cloth ; originally they were mere openings 
(fenestra). It has not been generally supposed, that glass (cf. § 268. 3.) was 
manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for 
windows, until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass win- 
dows Cvitrea specularia), is said to be by Jerome in the middle of the 4th cen- 
tury (a) ; although mirrors (specula) of glass were much earlier. But glass 
windows are said to have been discovered (b) in the buildings at Pompeii. 

(a) Bcckmami's History of Inventions. — (I) " In the vaulted roof (of a room of the thermm 
or baths) is a window, two feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed 
by a single large pane of glass, two fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on 
one side to prevent persons on the roof from looking into the bath : of this glass many frag- 
ments were found in the ruins. This is an evident proof, that glass windows were in use 
among the ancients. The learned seem to have been generally mistaken on the subject of glasg 
Saaaking among the ancients. The vast collection of bottles, vases, glasses and other utensils 

53 



&26 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES* 

discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the ancients were well acquainted with the 
art of glass blowing." It has been suggested, that these vessels may not have been manufac- 
tured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from Tyre, the place where glass is sup- 
posed to have been first made. Another room belonging to the same baths, " was lighted by a 
window 2 feet 6 inches high and 3 feet wide, in the bronze frame of which were found set four 
very beatiful panes of glass fastened by small nuts and screws, very ingeniously contrived, witb 
a view to remove the glass at pleasure." Pompeii, p. 162, as cited P. I. § 226. 1. 

4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (laquearia) on the ceil- 
ings, were among the decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments 
were frequently of a character exceedingly unfavorable to purity of mind. 

On architectural ornaments &c cf. P. I. § 239. — On the Mosaic of the ancients, P. I. § 167- 
189, 220. 

5m, The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much 
better than their exact design and use. The following were the principal 
parts. (1.) The vestibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house door 
and the street. From this, one entered through the door or gate (janua) of the 
house into (2.) the atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed 
the images of ancestors in niches or cases (armaria). From this, one passed di- 
rectly through into (3.) the irnphivium ; called also complumum and cavcedium, 
which was a court, commonly uncovered (subdivale), where the rain water 
fell. In this was the proper dwelling house, which had two wings with a cov- 
ered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed from one apart- 
ment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the principal 
was (4.) the triclinium or dining room ; the others were termed cellce, having 
distinctive names from their use ; as cella vinaria, coquinaria, penuaria &c. 
Besides these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages J 
colonnades, baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments 
were on the lower floor ; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly oc- 
cupied by tenants on lease (and called insula), were higher and had more stories. 
As the population of Rome increased, the houses in the city Were raised to such altitudes as 
to occasion danger, and a maximum of height was established by law ; in the reign of Augus- 
tus it was enacted, that the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy feet from the 
ground.— Gibbon, vol. 3d. p. 216. ed. N. Y. 1822. 

6. The gate or door (janua) was sometimes made of iron or brass often 
highly ornamented, and usually raised above the ground, go that steps were 
necessary to ascend to it. On festival occasions it was hung with green branch- 
es and garlands. It turned on hinges (cardines) and was secured by bars 
(obices, claustra), locks (sera) and keys (claves). Knockers (mar cult, mallei) 
or bells (tintinnabula) were attached to it. — In the atrium was anciently the 
kitchen (culina). Here also the mistress of the house and servants carried on 
the spinning and weaving. In this was the family hearth (focus) near the 
door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf. P. III. § 111) around it. 
The Roman houses, as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but 
merely an opening in the roof to let off the smoke; hence the epithet fumoscB 
applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as much as possible, the 
wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil. Portable hearths or 
furnaces were used for warming the different apartments. In later periods, 
houses were warmed by a furnace below with pipes passing from it to the 
rooms (Beckmann's Hist, of Invention). — The atrium was sometimes divided, 
in later times, into different parts separated by curtains. — In the open court, or' 
impluvium, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The apartments around it, 
excepting the dining room, were usually small and ill constructed, and pro- 
perty called cells. Those designed for sleeping were termed cubicula. The 
solarium was a room on the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof 
Was protected by large tiles (tegulce), and was generally of an angular form } 
the highest part was called fastigium, a term also used to designate the whole 
roof. — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellarii) 
which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases 
do not appear to have been considered of much consequence ; they are found 
in the buildings at Pompeii. 

Fig. a of Plate XXV, represents a key found a Pompeii.— Fig. b. a bolt, found also at Pom- 
peii. Fig. l,in the same Plate, is a plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Arch- 
itecture as according to Vitruvius ; " a, is the vestibulum ; b, the atrium ; c, the tablinum ; d, rf y - 
the alae ; e, e, cellse familiaricEs ; f, cavaedium ; g, vernal triclinium, g, summer triclinium, gj 
■winter triclinium ; Hi, baths 5 kkk, cubiculee j m, pinacotheca j n, bibliotheca ; 0, peristyle > 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTING OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 627 

g, Cyzicene cecus ; rr, courts of the offices ; s, exedra ; 1 1, gardens ; ?t, rooms for embroidery ; 
v v, sudatories." — On the Roman house, cf. Wilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, cited P. 1. § 243. 4. — 
J. Minwtohis de Roman, domibus, in Sallengre cited § 197. — Fr. M. Grapaldi de partibus iEdi- 
um liber. Parm. 1506. 4. 

7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs (sella), 
tables (mensce), couches (lecti), lamps (lucerne*), &c. — A great number of an- 
cient lamps have been found, particularly at Herculaneum and Pompeii ; of 
various forms and sizes, and different materials from the most common to the 
most costly ; many of them, especially those in bronze, are of the most beau- 
tiful workmanship. They were wrought into the most whimsical images and 
shapes ; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or suspended from 
the ceilings. 

Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXV, at the bottom ; in Nos. 1 
and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch (lychnuchusj ; in Nos. 2 and 4, they are placed 
upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella) called candelabrxim. 
Fig. d, is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. 

H. H. Baber, Antique Vases, Lamps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1836. 4. containing 170 

Plates engraved by H. Moses ; with descriptions. — See also Montfaucon (as cited P, II. § 13), 
vol. v. p."202. — Le Antichi d'Ercolano, cited P. I. § 243. 2. one vol. of which treats particularly 
on this subject. 

§ 326. The villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splen- 
did usually than the houses within the city. A complete establishment of this 
kind included several parts. 1. The villa urbana was the chief edifice, with 
its courts, baths, porticos and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. The 
villa rustica was tbe name applied to the buildings designed to accommodate 
the steward (villicus), and numerous slaves of the establishment; and those for 
various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for hens ; aviarium, for bees ; 
suile, for swine &c. 3. The villa fructuaria was another part, including the 
structures designed for storing the various products of the farm ; as wine, 
corn, oil, and fruits, often comprehended under villa rustica. 4. The hortus was 
the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed ; being planted 
with trees, shrubs and flowers, which were often trained into fantastic shapes 
hy slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts, 
adorned with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort of park, of 
many acres, chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophium, in 

which was the fish-pond (piscina) and the oyster-bed (vivarium). Many of 

these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. 
Cicero had abeautiful one atTusculum, besides several in other places further, 
from the city (Cf. Middletori's Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius 
possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli and Laurentum ; the Piscina 
Mirahilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows of arcades, 
under the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond 
of this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 128). In his Tus- 
culan villa he had a single painting, the Argonauts, by Cydias, for which he 
paid, according to Plinjr (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 12J 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above 
$5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tibur, not so splendid, 
yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (Anthon's Remarks in his ed. of 
Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to him- 
self at Laurentum, of great^ extent and grandeur. (Stuart's Dictionary of 
Architecture.) — But the villa of the emperor Adrian, near Tivoli, was proba- 
bly the most magnificent ever erected ; its buildings and plantations covered 
an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference ; its ruins have surviv- 
ed to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient 
art. (Cf. P.I. § 173, 188. — Stuart's Diet.) 

The excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the 
walls of the place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a lively description of it, 
in Johnson' sYhilos. of Trav. p. 235. as cited P. I. § 190.)— Rob. Castell, The Villas of the Ancients 
illustrated. Lond. 1728. fol. — Suiter's Theorie, i. 305. — On Remains of Roman villse discover- 
ed in England, Archaologia (as cited P. I. § 243. 3.) vol. vin. p. 363. vol. xvm. p. 203, and 
xix. 176. with plans. 

' § 327. The manner of life among the Romans underwent many 
changes, in the course of their history. In the early periods these 
were favorable to their morals, but in later times highly injurious. 
Their constant prosperity exerted its influence on their feelings, and 



628 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



these affected their private life and manners, their pursuits, social char- 
acter, and amusements. At first, and even down to the first Punic 
war, their domestic manners were characterised by simplicity in 
thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the 
gratification of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly in- 
dulged. From their primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced in 
refinement and urbanity, and ere long passed into an opposite extreme. 
The more they became acquainted with the conveniences and plea- 
sures of the people they conquered, especially the Greeks and Asia- 
tics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in conse- 
quence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury 
in private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and 
self denial, now appeared effeminacy, vanity and idleness. Magnifi- 
cence in buildings, luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness 
for dress and entertainments, followed of course. 

§ 328. It is not easy to decide, what was certainly a uniform 
course of daily avocations, among a people presenting a great varie- 
ty in pursuits, conduct and manner of life. There was, however, a 
sort of regular routine in the succession of daily employments 
among the Romans, particularly with the more respectable and 
orderly citizens. 

lu. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the tem- 
ples, or their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class; 
were accustomed to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially cli- 
ents upon their patrons. About the third hour (§ 228) the business of the 
courts, comitia, and other assemblies was commenced. Between this hour 
and noon were the promenades for pleasure or conversation in the porticos, 
the forum, and other public places. About the sixth hour or mid-day, they 
had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take a little rest or sleep. 
The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, in visiting-, 
bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ninth or tenth hour was 
the usual time for the evening meal. 

See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. 1) of the manner in which his friend Spurinna 

was accustomed to spend the day. Abbe Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in Hist, de 

VAcad. des Inscr. vol. i. p. 303. 

2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named § 32R). — " The 
private houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at once how the 
people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open court of the house— while 
the masters assembled, and might be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of 
the city ! Such was the state of society among the ancients ; and if we examine the cafes and 
other public places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, 
at the present day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect, has not essentially 
changed. How the women and children contrived to pass their time at home, while their 
husbands and fathers were lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is, 
not easy to say ; but if we may judge by the figures and dSvices on their work-boxes, vases, 
flower-pots, lamps, amulets, and walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narrow and 
darksome cells, the pruriency (I dare not use the proper term) of their minds was at least com- 
mensurate with the inactivity of their bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." 

3. The customary time of day for bathing, both at the public therm ee (cf. P. I. § 241. 3.) and 
the more private balnea, was between 2 o'clock and dusk. Between 2 and 3 o'clock was con- 
sidered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed 
at dusk ; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until 5 o'clock in the evening. The 
price paid for admission was a quadrans or quarter of an as ; the charge for entrance was in- 
creased a hundred fold after 4 o'clock. Nero's baths were heated by 12 o'clock ; and Severus 
allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the night, in summer. The rage 
for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empiie to Constantino- 
ple 5 after which no new therma? were erected and the old gradually fell into decay. It ia 

worthy of remark, that the exercise of swimming was connected with the custom of bathing. 
" This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when 
they wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of 
him, that he neither knew how to read nor swim, a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, 
that a person knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gym- 
nasia and palaestree, were schools for swimming ; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins 
in their private houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." (Bell, as cited P. I. § 241. 3.)— 
Ameilhon, sur l'exercise du nageur chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxyui. p, 
11, and xu p. 96. 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FOOD. EATING-HALLS. BANQUETS. 629 

§ 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) 
was very frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for 
it, and in the better times of the republic, those who took a formal 
meal at noon, were regarded as effeminate. The fifth hour, from 
11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, was the time assigned for it. 

The principal meal was held at evening (ccena), and for this, par- 
ticularly, the guest-chambers or eating-halls {triclinia) were con- 
structed, which in the palaces and manors of the rich were very 
splendid. These apartments were also called, from the use made of 
them, ccenationes ; and among the lower classes, ccenacula. 

lu. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides 
couches, each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. 
Nine persons (§ 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of 
the middle couch or sofa was called locus consularis. Often seven places 
only were prepared, the whole of the middle couch being appropriated to 
some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. Women were not accus- 
tomed to recline at table, but to sit. 

2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed 
at the head of the table was called medius lectus, while the remaining couch 
on the left was termed ivius lectus. The post of honor on each was the central 
place, those who occupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled 
respectively, primus summi lecti, primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecti. 
The most honorable of these three places, and consequently of the whole en- 
tertainment, usually was the primus medii lecti. The least honorable was at 
the end of the left couch farthest from that called medius. As the guests all 
reclined on the same (the left) arm, the bodies of those on the opposite couches 
were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the left from, 
the middle couch. — The rounded table, or semi-circular, was used under the 
emperors, accommodating usually seven persons, and called Sigma, from the 
form C , and also Stibadivm. The tables (mensce) were often highly orna- 
mented. The monopodium, was circular, with one foot; chiefly used by the 
sick ; the tripes (Hor. Sat. i. iii. 13; of the poorer people had three feet. The 
frames (spondee) and their supports (fulcra) were of wood, ivory, or some- 
times metal ; sometimes they were veneered with tortoise-shell ; on these was 
a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing (tomentum) of wool, feathers or the 
like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth (stragula) often of rich 
embroidery and purple dye. 

In Plate XXVIII, fig. 1, we have the ground plan of a summer triclinium in the small garden 
of the house of Sallust, found at Pompeii ; and also a view of the couches and the table in the 
centre. In the plan, A designates the summus lectus ; B, the medius ; C, the imzis. The couch- 
es, in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushions and tapestry. 
The round table in the centre was of marble. 

3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels 
mantilia) for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin 
(mappa) for wiping the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using 
the food (cibum) there were various articles of furniture, as dishes (lances, pa- 
trincej and the like ; but nothing like our fork, it is supposed (cf. P. I. § 135. 
2.) ; although the excavations at Pompeii have shown that the Romans were 
acquainted with many things, which have been considered as modern inven- 
tions. 

" The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic econo- 
my and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Pompeii, where 
they slept since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, 
must be natural, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by 
the almost miraculous preservation of these objects during so many centuries. We are aston- 
ished (though I know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and 
could stamp their names on the loaves — that the cooks had pots, stew-pans, cullenders, 
moulds for Christmas-pies and twelfth cakes — that the aldermen and gourmands stowed their 
wines at the greatest distance from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves for 
supplying mulled wines to their guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of 
e Doctor's stulf,' a box of pills remaining to this day gilt, for the squeamish palate of some 
Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's room displayed a terrific ' armamentum chirurtricvm'' 
of torturing instruments ; among others, ' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in 

53* 



630 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the Strand — that the female toilets disclosed rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the 
hare's foot to lay them gracefully on the pallid cheek— that the masters and mistresses had 
little bells to summon the slaves (for servants there were none) and that the asses, mules, and 
oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn carts and wheelbarrows from entering the 
streets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same time— that play-bills, quack advertise- 
tisements, notices of sights, shows, &c. were pasted up at the corners of the streets, in mon- 
strous bad Latin— that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though at a lower price than 8s. 6d. 
— that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian, who came within the vor- 
tex of the Pompeian gaming-table — that horses had bits in their mouths, stirrups at their sides, 
cruppers on their rumps, though the two latter are omitted in statues, for the benefit of antiquari- 
an disquisitions — that windows were glazed when light was preferred to air, which was rarely 
the case — that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their howlings, and their whis- 
key drinkings at funerals — that the public houses had chequers painted on their walls, as a( 
present — that the chemist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pine-apple, symbolical 
of prudence defeating death— that the Pompeian ladies employed male accoucheurs, who had 
all the implements of their art nearly similar to those of the modern men mid-wives — that the 
houses were numbered, and the names of the occupants painted on the walls — that, in the 
public tribunals, the magistrates protested to Heaven that they would decide conscientiously, 
while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but truth — that 
the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where 
officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their passions- 
and propensities — their cares and their enjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into flame ! " 

(Johnson, before cited.) On curiosities found at Pompeii, cf. Class. Journ. xv. 305. — For an 

interesting account of the luxurious manners of the later Roman nobles, Gibbon, Dec. and 1 
Fall of Rom. Emp. chap. xxxi. 

§ 330. At the suppers of the rich, there were commonly three 
courses. The first was termed gustus or gustatio, designed to sharp- 
en rather than to satisfy appetite ; it consisted of eggs (ova), salad, 
radishes and the like. With this they drank usually, not wine, but 
mead, or a mixture of honey. The second course formed the essen- 
tial part of the meal, and the principal dish was called caput camce. 
The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or vases fitted for the 
purpose (rcpositoria). The third course was the dessert (bellaria)? 
consisting of choice fruits (mala), pastry and confectionary. 

1. Hence the introduction of the phrase, ab ovo ad mala, from the beffinning to the end of 

the feast. Cf. Horace Sat. I. iii. 6. An account of the fare provided for a social supper, is 

given by Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 

2. A great number of servants were employed about the evening meal in 
one way or another ; some of them have already been named (§ 322), e. g. 
the structor, who arranged the tables, the carptor, who divided the food, &c. 
In the times of Roman luxury, there was much demand for skilful cooks; 
(coqui, archimagiri). 

3. It maybe proper hereto advert to the Roman hospitality. The rights of 
hospitality (jus hospitii) were highly respected ; the term hospes was applied 
both to the host and to the guest, and always indicated mutual obligations- 
between them. These rights and obligations were sometimes created be- 
tween persons residing at a distance and even in different countries, by an 
interchange of presents. The joining of right hands was practiced as a sort 
of pledge of this fellowship (arrha hospitalis) ; sometimes a sort of tally was 
used consisting of a piece of wood cut into two similar parts, of which each 
person kept one (tessera hospitalis). 

Fig. 4, in Plate XXVIII, is a copy of a painting found at Herculaneum, which exhibits two 
persons thus joining hands, and one giving to the other the tessera.— Cf. Class. j Journ. ix. 229* 
x. 229. xviii. 75. 

§ 331a. In social banquets, held at evening, it was customary to 
choose a master of the feast, rex or magister convivii or arbiter biben- 
di ; he seems to have been chosen by a throw of dice (Hor. Od. n, 
vii. 25). To his direction everything connected with the banquet 
was submitted, particularly all that related to drinking-, and the so- 
cial intercourse for the time. After the completion of the meal, the 
drinking was continued late in the night. It was customary to drink 
healths, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored 
in the first place. — Not only after the meal, but alsoduring it,, between 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SOCIAL GAMES. WINES. 631 

the different courses and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, 
especially playing with dice. 

1m. There were two kinds of dice, tali and tessera. The former were ob- 
long, with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which 
they might fall, and which were numbered successively one (unio), six (senio) T 
three (ternio), and four (quaternio). Four tali were used in playing ; the 
most fortunate throw, called Jachis Venereus or Venus, was when a different 
number was uppermost on each of the four, and the w r orst throw, called Canis, 
was when the same number was uppermost on all. The tessera, had six sides, 
numbered like modern dice. Three only were used in playing ; and the best 
throw was three sixes, and the poorest three aces or ones. The vessel from 
Which the dice were thrown, was called fritillus or turricula, a box in the form of 
a tower; the board or table on which they were received, was termed foriis, 
ulveiis, tabula lusoria. — Another game not so often played was called Duode- 
na scripta, and was a kind of trick-track or backgammon. It was played with 
fifteen counters or stones (calculi) of different colors, upon a table marked 
with twelve lines. — In the general corruption of Roman manners the love of 
playing at games was carried to the highest extreme. 

Cf. Simon, Jeux de hazard, chez les Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 120. 

2. In the time of the Republic, it was customary for the patron to invite 
all his clients occasionally to a common supper in his halls ; this was called 
cava recta. Under the emperors, it became customary to give to the clients, 
instead of a supper, a portion of food to carry home in a small basket, spor- 
tula. At length a quantity of money was substituted instead of this, to the 
amount of about 100 quadra?ites, or 25 asses, which was also called sportula. 
This word was also employed to designate sums of money distributed by ora- 
tors and others for the purpose of gaining favor. 

Juv. i. 95. 118. — Mart. iii. l.—De Mantour, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 161. 

§ 331b. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially 
at their social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some re- 
marks on the subject. Scarcely anything else seems to have been so impor- 
tant to the rich Roman in all his arrangements for domestic comfort, as to be 
well furnished with choice and approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great 
attention to the cultivation of the vine; even to the neglect of other branches 
of agriculture. The soil of Campania was considered as perhaps the most 
desirable in Italy, for vineyards. Many varieties of grape were cultivated : 
about ffty sorts are mentioned by Columella and Pliny ; no expense was 
spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was common to rear the 
vines by attaching them to certain trees (arbusta), particularly the elm andf 
poplar ; and the vines and trees were thus said to be married : the vines were 
allowed usually to reach the height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes a still greater, 
in the rich soils; in soils less favorable, the usual height was only from 8 to 
12 feet. — 2. The vintage or gathering of the grapes was about the last of 
September, or in October. They were picked in osier baskets (Jiscina corbes) 
and carried directly to the room for pressing {torcularium), where they were 
first trodden (calcabantur), and then subjected to the press ; sometimes in or- 
der to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a few days after 
gathering. The common wine press (torcular) seems to have been simply an 
upright frame, in which was fixed abeam {prelum) loaded with weights, and 
having ropes attached so as to work it more easily. The juice (mustum} 
passed through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (lacus), in which it re- 
mained in order to undergo fermentation about 9 days, or was put into large 
vessels (dolia) for the same purpose. The juice wfiich ran from the grapes 
without pressing (mustum lixivium) was usually preserved separately, and 
often with much pains to avoid its fermentation ; one mode of doing which 
was to secure it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a space of a month or 
more. Sometimes the juice obtained by pressing was boiled down instead of 
being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and called dcfruta- 
rium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one half its original quantity t 
v\ T as termed defrutum ; the carenum was such as had been reduced only to two 
thirds ; sapa was the name w y hen reduced to one third. — 3. Various means 



632 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

were employed for clarifying the fermented must ; eggs particularly were 
used for the purpose. Various methods were devised also for modifying or 
preserving the flavor both of the fermented and the inspissated juice ; aro- 
matic herbs and drugs of different kinds were introduced to effect the object. 
— In order to hasten the maturity of wines, to ripen and mellow them, they 
were often subjected to the action of artificial heat and smoke, by placing the 
vessels containing them in the flues of the furnaces, or in some roohi prepared for 
the purpose (fumarium), where the smoke for a time passed around them. 
These forced wines are said to have been in great request at Rome. It is 
probable that the process tended to give the wines a thicker consistency ; it is 
stated that they sometimes became consolidated to such a degree, that it was 
necessary to dissolve them in hot water. — 4. The vessel most commonly 
used by the Romans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, called also 
quadrantai ; the terms testa, cadus, and diota are applied to the same or a sim- 
ilar vessel. It was made of a sort of clay baked, and held about 6 gallons ; — 
generally of an elegant form, having a narrow neck with two handles, and ta- 
pering towards the bottom, so that they might easily be fixed in the ground 
or sand of the wine cellar, and kept in an upright position. The amphora was 
commonly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and aromatic sub- 
stances, and was covered also with a coating made of pitch and the ashes of 
the vine. When the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover 
'or stopper was confined and made perfectly close by a coating of the same 
kind, or of plaster. Skins (utres), which were originally the only kind of ves- 
sel used for the purpose, seem also to have remained until later times. For 
the richer sorts of wine, glass vessels appear also to have been employed ; but 
probably of a much smaller size than the earthen amphora (Martial, Ep. ii. 40). 
For carrying wine from place to place, very large vessels made of leather or 
hide, supported and guarded by a frame and hoops, seem to have been used. 
A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii exhibits a vessel of this kind oc- 
cupying the whole of a wagon or car with four wheels and drawn by two 
horses. — 5. The better kinds of wine were usually valued more highly in 
proportion to their age. None of the more generous wines were reckoned fit 
for drinking before the fifth year, and the majority of them were kept for a 
much longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, 
was that of a middle age ; although the older might command a higher price. 
The opulent Roman, as has been mentioned, attached vast importance to his 
wine establishment. Hence to the house and villa of every such person was 
attached the wine cellar (cella vinaria). This (called also apotheca, cf. Hor. 
Sat. 11, v. 7) was commonly in part, if not wholly, under ground, and was fre- 
quently very spacious. Here the wine was kept, usually, in amphorce, which 
were ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or less depth in the sand ; each 
one having a mark (nota) indicating the name of the Consul in office when 
the wine was made ; hence the phrase interior nota, sgnifying the oldest and 
choicest; because such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be at 
the remote end of the cellar, or because, on account of these qualities, it was 
lodged in an inner cell or apartment. The cellar of Diomede's villa (cf. § 326.) 
is very large, extending round and under the whole garden, and lighted and 
ventilated by port-holes from above ; " some of the amphorse still stand as they 
were packed and labelled 17 centuries ago." Among the amphorae found, 
some not many years since, at Leptis (cf. Becchy's Travels), was one with the 
following inscription in vermillion, l. cassio c. mario cos. forming three 
lines on the vessel. — 6. Of the Italian wines, the most celebrated was the 
Falernian or Massic (vinum Falernum, Massicum), which seem to have been 
the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinuessa. Others in much 
repute were the vinum Ccecubum, Setinum, Surrentinum, Calenum; of a third 
rank were the Mbanum and Sabinum ; The Sicilian wines were rated general- 
ly after these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seemed to have placed the Les- 
bian, Chian and Thasian, among the first; cf. § 1.61. Different kinds of wine 
were used at the same banquet ; and sometimes the guests were treated with 
different sorts according to their rank. — 7. From the fact that the wines 
were so often inspissated, it was common to dilute them for actual use, among 
the Romans as well as among the Greeks j for this purpose icarmox hot water 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DRINKING-CUPS. COSTUMES. 633 

seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was made in a large vase* 
called crater. From this it was poured into cups (pocula), of which there 
were almost countless varieties. 

Some of the names employed to designate varieties of the drinking cup were the following ; 
calices, phialm, scyphi, cymbia, batiolce. They were made of wood (fagina pocula), or of earth 
(Jictilia) ; of glass (vitrea) and of amber (succina) ; also of bronze, silver and gold, with various- 
ornaments (toreumata vasa, sculpta) ; of gems or precious stones, and of the substance called 
inurrha (cf. P. I. § 195. 4). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great skill in 
workmanship. 

In our Plate XXVIII, areseen a number of the vessels connected with the ancient use of 
wine. Fig. a is ajar filled with grapes, copied from paintings on the walls of an edifice found 
at Pompeii and called the Pantheon. — Fig. 6 is drawn from an Egyptian monument ; and 
shows a mode of obtaining the juice by treading on the grapes collected in a vat. — Fig. 2 is 
copied from the painting mentioned above as found at Pompeii ; it shows a mode of carrying 
wine about for sale ; a slave is filling an amphora from the leathern vessel in the carriage,*and 
another slave holds a second amphora to be filled. — Figs. b, c, and d, are wine vessels, from 
Egyptian monuments ; c very exactly resembling the Roman amphora ; and b, a form still in 
actual use in Egypt for water. — Figs. e,f, g, h, i, represent glass vessels found at Pompeii ; 
h is probably a drinking cup. — Figs, n and o are also drinking cups, and may illustrate the 
Greek crater ; cf. Boyd's Potter, p. 699. — Fig. 7 shows two elegant glass cups which seem to 
have been cut, or else cast in a mould. — Fig. 5 presents in the hand of the Bacchanal a cup 
of another form ; wine vessels also appear on the small table which stands by the splendid 
conch on which he reclines with a garland on his head and the 'thyrsus in the other hand ; a 
monument from Pompeii. — Fig. 3is a vessel of form like one of those seen on the table of the 
Bacchanal, given on a larger scale and showing its ornaments ; it represents the patera, often 

used in libations. Cf. Pownall, on a Roman " drinking-cup wrought of solid chrystal,' 5, 

Jlrchceologia, cited P. I. § 243. 3. vol vn. p. 180. On the topics of the above section, Hen- 
derson's History of wines, cited § 161. 

§ 332. The fashion of dress among the Romans underwent 
changes in different periods, but less in respect to form than the 
quality and expensiveness of the materials, and the ornaments. — The 
most general and peculiar garment of the Romans was the toga, a 
national characteristic, whence the Romans were termed Gens toga- 
ta, and Togati, while the Greeks were termed Palliati. It was a 
loose robe or sort of cloak, extending from the neck to the feet, close 
below up to the breast, but open above the breast, and without 
sleeves, tt was therefore not put on, properly speaking, but thrown 
over the body. It was commonly of wool, and white in color ; black, 
toga pulla, being used only on funeral occasions. The toga worn 
in the house was less loose and ample {toga restricta) ; that used in 
going out, commonly larger and flowing with many folds (fusa). 

1. Some of the priests and magistrates wore it bordered with purple (togaprce- 
texta) ; this was also worn by freeborn youth, who, at the age of seventeen, 
exchanged it for the toga virilis or pura, which was assumed in a very formal 
manner before the Praetor, in the Forum. 

2. A statue of one Marcus Tullius, by some supposed to be a descendant of the great Cicero, 
was found at Pompeii ; "he is represented clothed in a togaprtrtexta, the robe of office of the 
Roman magistrates ; and, which adds value and singularity to the statue, this robe is entirely 
painted with a deep purple violet color. This seems to give reason for believing, that theprae- 
texta, instead of being a garment with only a purple hem, as it is usually explained, was en- 
tirely dyed with this precious color ; at least in the later times of the republic. The price of 
this purple was enormous ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to have been 
worth 100 denarii (about £3 4s. 7d.) the pound ; the red is valued by the same authority at 
1000 denarii. It was obtained from the murex, a shell fish found in various parts of the Medi- 
terranean." Pompeii, p. 205. 

On the age for assuming the toga, cf. Dodwell, de setate tog. vir. sumendas, in his Prailcct. 
Acad, (cited P. II. § 542. 7.) p. 245. — On the color of the toga, Ameilhon, sur la teiuture de3 
anciens, Mem de PTnstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. i. p. 549. vol. m. p. 357. 

§ 333. The garment which the Romans wore under the robe, was 
the tunic (tunica). It was worn close to the body, without sleeves 
and extending almost to the knees. It was entirely open, and fas- 
tened by means of a girdle above the hips. It was commonly, like 
the toga, white. In later times the tunic was worn with sleeves. — 
With slaves and the poorer class of citizens generally, this was the 
only clothing, except the linen under-garment or shirt {indusium, sub* 



634 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ucula) which had small sleeves. The higher classes never appeared 
abroad without the addition of the toga. In winter the latter often 
wore another garment under it, called tunica interior or interula. 

\u. Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the right side 
with a stripe of purple, called clavus; knights (equites) had two such stripes, 
but narrower ; whence the tunic of the senators was called laticlavia, that of 
the knights angusticlavia. 

2. The emperors exercised the prerogative of bestowing the distinction of the laticlave upon 
such persons as they considered worthy of the honor. Cf. Pliny, Ep. ii. 9. 

§ 334?. The women used the tunic, with a girdle, as well as the 
men ; only that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore 
also an over-garment extending to the feet, called stola, having a 
broad border or fringe (linpbus) called instita. Some consider the 
palla to be a robe worn over the stola, others think them both the 
same garment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a circu- 
lar form called cyclas. The mourning robe of women was called ri~ 
cinium or rica, covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was 
a short mantle, or veil, worn by the women. 

" A female statue, of the size of life, was found within the cellar of the tem- 
ple of Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a 
toga. The border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple 
bandeau, an inch and a quarter wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the 
bosom with the hand elevated to the chin, while the left hand holds up the 
toga." 

§ 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less in 
use. The lama was a thick woollen over-coat, used in journeying ; 
this name was also given to the purple robe of the Flamines (§214), 
which was fastened about the neck with a buckle or clasp. The 
paludamentum, or chlamys, was a long Grecian cloak of scarlet color 
bordered with purple, used specially by generals and high military 
officers. The sagum was a soldier's cloak of red color, covering 
only the back and shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was 
a kind of rain cloak, very broad and usually with a hood or covering 
for the head (cucullus, capitium). The pamula was a robe similar 
to the toga, and more frequently used under the emperors. 

The materials of which the Roman garments were made, were chiefly linen 
and woollen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The 
Romans seem to have remained ignorant how silk was produced, for a long 
time after the article was introduced among them by importation from the 
country of the Seres. Nor did they at first use it without intermixing linen 
or woollen in texture with it; for which purpose even the silk stuffs, which 
were brought from the east in a woven state, were unraveled ; cloth of this 
mixed texture is said to have been first fabricated in the island of Cos. The 
Coan vestments (vestes Cocc) appear to have been of a very loose texture, al- 
most like muslin or gauze ; hence called ventus teztilis, woven wind. The 
Seric vestments (vestes Sericce) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure 
silk. The term bombycina was sometimes applied to both, although it seems 
to have been considered as more appropriate for the Coan article ; as that was 
at length known to come from a worm ((36u(lv'£, bombyx), while the Seric was 
still imagined to be gathered from the leaves of trees (Virgil, Georg. ii. 121). 
Silk was considered as proper chiefly for the garments of females. The em- 
peror Heliogabalus is severely condemned as being the first who wore a robe 
of pure silk. 

Cf. Article Seres, in Anthoris Lempriere. On the Roman costume, see Maillot <$- Martin, 

cited § 197. — Ameilhon, L'usage des Soie chez les anciens, in the Mem,. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlvi. 
p. 452.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xl. — Mahudel, Origine de le Soie, in the Mem. &c. vol. v. p. 
218. For some illustrations, see Plate XX. ; cf. § 169. 



PLATE XXVIII. 




!336 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, of 
drew over it a part of the toga ; except at sacred rites and festivals, 
on journeys, and in war. At the festival of the Saturnalia, particu- 
larly, they wore a sort of bonnet or woollen cap (pileus), which, 
however, was allowed only to the free by birth or manumission, but 
forbidden to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad-brimmed hat, 
used in journeying. — There were various coverings for the feet. 
The calcei were somewhat like our shoes, and covered the whole 
foot, and often with their lacings (corrigia, ligula) covered the an- 
cles and the lower part of the leg. Shoes of strong untanned leath- 
er were termed perones. The caligce were a kind of half boot, worn 
by soldiers. The solcce and crepidcR were sandals, covering only the 
bottom of the feet, and were fastened by leather thongs and bands 
{vinculo) passing above. 

The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top 
of the foot a golden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence lunata pellis, patri- 
xia luna). The shoes of the men were usually black ; those of women com- 
monly white, sometimes of a red, yellow, or other color. The mullei were o,f 
a reddish dye ; worn first by the kings, afterwards by those who had borne 
any curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks made of wool or goat's 
hair, udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around with a sort 
of scarfs (fascia), which were all in the Roman dress that corresponded to 
modern pantaloons or breeches (femoralia) and stockings (tibialia). — The 
shoes of comedians were termed socci ; those of tragedians, cothurni (cf. §89, 
169) ; thoseiof pantomimes, or the rattling appendages to them, scabella. 

§ 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the 
more ancient Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In 
the fifth century after the building of the city, it first became a com- 
mon custom to cut the hair more frequently, and also to frizzle and 
anoint it. Young persons were accustomed to draw the hair back- 
wards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament. 

1 u. When the toga virilis was assumed (§ 332), the hair of the youth was 
shorn and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it into 
the water in honor of Neptune. It was also customary, on the first shaving 
of the beard, to consecrate it to some deity. Under the emperors false hair 
were used, by a contrivance like a peruke ( capillamentum, galericulum). 

2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, which 
hung from the neck on the breast. The boys, who were sons of citizens of 
the higher ranks, wore one of gold (bulla aureaj ; it was usually a hollow 
sphere ; but other forms, and particularly the image of a heart, were intro- 
duced. The sons of freed*men and poorer citizens used only a leathern ball 
(bulla scortea). This ornament was laid aside when the toga virilis was as- 
sumed (§ 332), on which occasion the bulla was consecrated to the lares or 
other divinities. 

Baudclot, Bulle que les enfants Rom. portoient au cou, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. m. p. 

211. Fig. 1, of our Plate XX., is an altar-shaped box, worn by loose women of the Hindoo 

temples, upon their necks ; richly ornamented with jewels. Boxes like this, or bags, seem to 
have been formerly worn on the neck to contain perfumes. Cf. Isai. iii. 20 (the tablets), and 
Sol. Song. i. 13. — The figure may serve to illustrate the Roman bulla. 

§ 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the 
dress of their hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, 
and adorned with golden chains, with pearls, rings, and ribands. 
The most modest fashion was the use of a broad riband or fillet 
(vitta), by which they gathered and bound the hair in a bunch or 
knot. Besides the ointments by which they made their hair more 
glossy, it became fashionable in later times to color it, and even to 
scatter gold dust upon it. 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. FUNERALS. 637 

1. The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the 
Face as well as the hair ; both white (cerussa or cretaj and red (minium). Va- 
rious cosmetics and washes (medicamina, smegmataj were likewise used for a 
similar purpose. Effeminate men did the same. The mirrors (specula) used 
at the toilet were made of polished metal, commonly brass or steel, also of sil- 
ver; sometimes of glass (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26, 36). Cf. Menard, cited 
§ 169. 6. Among- the personal ornaments of the Roman ladies were ear- 
rings, necklaces, and finger-rings. The ear-rings (inaures) were of gold, 
pearls, and gems, sometimes of immense value. Necklaces Cmonilia) were 
often of gold set with gems. The men also used an ornament for the neck, 
which was a sort of twisted chain (torques), or a circular plate (circulus auri). 
Finger-rings iannuli) were of various forms and devices, commonly set with 
engraved gems (cf. P. I. § 205, 206), and used not merely for ornaments, but 
for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages or vessels; hence perhaps 
they obtained the name of symbola. The ring was a very common ornament 
among the men ; originally only senators and equites (§ 255) were allowed to 
were gold rings ; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by special al- 
lowance ; those who triumphed also wore an iron ring (ferreus sine gemma). 

2. Specimens of most of these ornaments have been found at Pompeii. A gold ring, with an 
engraved gem set in it, was found near a temple, in a box along with 41 silver coins and above 
1000 of brass. In several of the houses were found skeletons with rings, bracelets (armilla), 
necklaces, and other ornaments. Of these specimens we only mention further an ear-ring of 
gold, which had two pearl pendants; and a breast-pin, to which was attached a Bacchanalian 
figure, with a patera in one hand and a glass in the other, having bat's wings joined to his 
shoulders and two belts of grapes passing across his body. This curious breast-pin is given 
in our Plate V. fig. i. — In the same Plate, figs, o, and h, and r, are ear-pendents, from Mont- 
faucon. Fig. 4 shows the ring which was passed through the ear. — Fig. g is a pendent with 
a pin to attach it to a bandeau or some part of the head-dress. — This plate also shows a varie- 
ty of rings ; cf. P. I. $206. — The torques is seen in fig 1, of Plate IV., cf. P. I. § 186. 9 ; also 
in fig. 5, Plate XXVIII. ; the latter is perhaps the necklace. — A mirror, with a box of pins, 
<fcc. upon a toilet-table, is seen in Plate XX. figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 2 is a metallic purse for coins 
and jewels, from an Egyptian monument. The Plate also shows various forms of the head- 
dress. Cf. R. A. Bottiger, Sabina, oder Morgenscenen im Putzzimmer einer reichen Ro- 

merinn. Leipz. 1806. 2 th. 8. — Nadal, Luxe des dames Romaines, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
vol. iv. p. 227. 

§ 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable 
features in the funeral customs of the Romans. The dying received 
from their relatives and friends present the last tokens of love by em- 
braces and kisses. As soon as they were dead, the nearest relatives 
closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings from their fingers. 
The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by the 
slaves (pollinctores) of the person taking charge of funerals (libiti- 
narius). It was then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of 
the deceased, which, like that of the mourners, sometimes (§ 340. 3) 
was white. Such as had been distinguished by a victory were 
adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The corpse was then brought 
into the vestibulum of the house, placed on a bier, and there left for 
some days. This exposure was termed collocatio, and the couch or 
bier, lectus feralis. During the time of this exposure, there were 
frequent and loud outcries (conclamatio) , accompanied by the strong- 
est expressions of grief and sorrow. A branch of cypress or pine 
was usually fixed before the door of the house. — Children and youth 
of both sexes were interred by night, with lighted torches, without 
attendants ; but adults on the other hand by day, and with more or 
less ceremony according to their rank. 

Claude de Ouichard, On the Funerals of the Ancients. Rom. 1600. 4. — J. Kirchmann, De Fu- 
neribus Romanorum (Libri iv.). Lub. 1672. 12. 

§ 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were 
practiced from the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with 
the funeral (elatio, eicr/uia) were the following, chiefly. The func- 
54 



638 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ral of a distinguished person was previously announced in the city by 
a herald, and therefore called funus indictivum, and, if the expenses 
were defrayed by the city, funus ■publicum. In the procession, the 
musicians and women hired as mourners (prceficGe) advanced first, 
uttering lamentations and singing the funeral songs (ncema, cf. P. 
II. § 333.2) ; then came those who bore the images of the ancestors; 
next the relatives, all in black, with other indications of grief; then 
followed players, mimics, and dancers (ludii, histriones), one of them 
(archimimi) imitating the words and actions of the deceased, and 
others quoting pertinent passages from dramatic writings ; after them 
followed the corpse, carried by bearers ; and lastly a train, frequently 
very numerous, of both sexes. 

1 u. The corpse was borne in a couch (lectica) on the shoulders, usually by 
the freed-men of the deceased, but often, in case of high rank, by senators 
and the most distinguished citizens. In the case of the poorer and lower 
classes, the corpse was borne on a small bier CsandapilaJ, by ordinary coffin- 
bearers (vespillones , sandapilariij. 

The rich and noble among the Greeks and Romans were exposed, and carried to their buri- 
al, on elegant and costly couches, sometimes made of ivory, and gilded with gold. That of 
Herod is said to have been all of gold, and inlaid with precious stones. Cf. Luke, xiv. 12. In 
our Plate XV., fig. e, we have a funeral couch, which will illustrate these remarks ; it is given 
by Roberts as used now in India. 

2u. The procession, when formally conducted, passed through the forum, 
where, if the deceased had been a person of distinction, the body was laid 
before the place of harangue (rostra), and a eulogy (laudatio) was delivered by 
some relative or friend, or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. 

One is struck with the difference between Roman and Egyptian customs. The Egyptians 
brought the deceased to a trial, instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. III. § 34. "•> 

3. Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. 
For example, Junia, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the 
honor of a public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. The im- 
ages of not less than twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ', 
viginti clarissimarum familiarum imagines antelatce sunt. (Tac. Ann. iii. 
76.) — The images of ancestors, which were thus used at funerals, were the 
busts which the higher class of Romans kept in their halls (P. I. § 164). 

In Anthonys Horace, in a note on Sat. vi. 17, is the following. remark ; " One particular rela- 
tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were not 
carried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. Adam (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were em- 
ployed to personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the 
disguise." On this topic, consult Polybius, vi. 51, 52. 

4. " As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the sena- 
tors sometimes on these occasions went attired like knights, the magistrates like 
senators, &c, and that the common wear for mourners was black. But we 
may further remark, that though this was the ordinary color to express their 
grief, used alike by both sexes ; yet after the establishment of the empire 
when abundance of party colors came in fashion, the old primitive white 
grew so much into contempt, that at last it became proper to the women for 
their mourning clothes. — The matter of fact is evident from the authority of 
Plutarch, who states this as the subject of one of his problems [or questions, 
cf. P. II. § 249. 2], and gives several reasons for the practice." Kennett. 

§ 341. The place of burning, as also of interring, was without the 
city. In case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile 
(rogus, pyra) already prepared, its height being in proportion to the 
rank and wealth of the deceased. Upon this they lay the corpse, 
having sprinkled it over with spices or anointed it with oil ; it is then 
kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it with averted 
face (aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed by 
the deceased, were thrown upon the pile ; also various things which 
were presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When the 
whole was consumed, the embers were quenched with wine, then 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERALS. TOMBS. 639 

followed the collecting of the bones (ossilegium) ;* these were placed 
in an urn (feralis urna) of clay, stone, or metals, along with some 
of the ashes, also spices and perfumes and sometimes a small phial 
of tears {lachrymcB) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited in the 
earth {tumulus) or tomb (sejpuhhrum, conditorium, cinerarium). 

1m. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was 
altogether the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a 
marble coffin called area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the 
dead (monumenta) was a very common, almost universal practice. They were 
not always raised over the spot of burial. 

2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at 
least a mound of* earth (tumulus). When a monumental structure was erect- 
ed, it usually received an inscription Ctitulus, epitaphium) with the name of 
the deceased, and something of his life and character. Columns or pillars, 
particularly small cippi, for sepulchral inscriptions, appear to have been com- 
mon among the Romans, as well as the Greeks (cf. § 187). Sometimes an 
inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried in the earth. — 
Monuments not on the spot of burial (tumuli inanes or cenotaphiaj were erect- 
ed among the Romans for the same reasons as among the Greeks. 

3. There were public and private places of burial. The public were com- 
monly in the Campus Martius or Campus Esquilinus,for great men, on whom 
the honor of such a burial place was conferred by vote of the senate. Those 
for the poor were without the Esquiline gate, and called puticulce. The pri- 
vate burial places were usually in gardens or fields near the highways. 

4. A family tomb was excavated at Pompeii, which may be considered a fair representation 
of such structures among the Romans generally. " It consists of a square building, containing 
a small chamber, by the side of which is a door giving admission to a small court surrounded 
by a high wall. The entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the outer wall 
there rise two steps, supporting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a 
basrelief and inscription. — A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round the fu- 
neral chamber, and several niches for the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called co- 
lumbaria from their resemblance to the holes of a pigeon house. Some lamps were found here, 
and many urns, three of glass, the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one 
of them 15 inches in height by 10 in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. They con- 
tained burnt bones, and a liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, 
wine, and oil. This liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the ashes." 

5. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground, and 
called hypogcea. Such are those discovered at Voleterrae and other places in 
ancient Etruria. Cf. P. I. § 173.3. "Many of the hypogcea of Tarquinia, 
in Etruria, are similar to those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms 
and corridors branching out in various directions ; and when the rooms are of 
a large size, the roof is supported by square pillars. The walls of many are 
coated with stucco and ornamented with paintings representing, sometimes the 
arrival of the soul in Hades, and the punishments inflicted on the guilty; but 
in general, mythological, heroic, and civil subjects." 

For an account of the discovery of various tombs in Etruria in 1829, see Chevalier Kestner, 
in the JLnnali delV Institute di Correspondcnza Jirchelo erica. Rom. 1829. vol. 1st. p. 101. — Cf. J, 
Millingen, as cited P. I. § 173. 3. 

6. Roman sepulchres have been found in England containing urns with ashes and sarcophagi 
with skeletons. (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.) — A Roman burial place was called, in the 
later times, Ustrinum, or Ustrina, from the circumstance of burning the corpse. One of these 
burial places was discovered in 1821, at Littington ; many sepulchral vessels were collected, 
which are said to be preserved in the library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge. — In the parish of 
Ashdon, in Esse:: county, are several artificial sepulchral mounds, known by the name of Bart- 
low Hills. Many have supposed them to have been cast up after a battle with the Danes. They 
are eight in number; four larger ones in a line, and four smaller ones in a line in their front. The 
smaller ones were opened in 1832, and relics were found which seem clearly to prove them of 
Roman origin. In one, was found a remarkable brick sepulchre or coffin 6 feet and 3 inches 
long, 2 feet and 3 1-2 inches wide, and 1 foot and 11 inches high. There were, in this brick 
coffin or chest, three glass vessels. One of them was a sort of urn, eleven and a half inches 
high and ten and a quarter inches in diameter, with a reeded handle ; it was nearly two thirds 
full of a clear pale yellow liquor covering a deposit of burnt human bones ; on the top of the 
bones was seen lying a gold ring, which was found to be a signet-ring having a carnelian in- 
taglio, with the device of two bearded ears of corn. Afterwards, on examination of the con- 
tents of the urn, a brass coin was found, very much corroded, bearing the head of the emper- 
or Hadrian on the obverse, and on the revere a figure supposed to be that of Fortuna Redux. 
A representation of the brick coffin, with the vessels in it as they were found, is given in our 
Plate XV, fig. A A. One of the larger mounds was opened in April 1835. An urn like the one 
above described, with bones, was found ; also other similar vessels, two bronze strigiles, and 
olhei articles, A bronze vase, with colored enamels, was among the most remarkable ?cf. P. I. 



640 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 173. 2;. — Archceologia (as cited P. I. $ 243. 3), vol. xxv. p.. 1. xxvi. p. 300, 368, with en- 
gravings. 

7. The phials, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the tears of relatives 
shed at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. They are termed 
lachrymatories (urncB lachrymales). The tears are said to have been kneaded and compounded 
with odoriferous balsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels might have contained 
merely a preparation of fragrant essences, which were figuratively called tears. The lachryma- 
tories found in the ancient tombs are sometimes of terra cotta, sometimes of alabaster (cf. P. I. 
§ 195. 5), frequently of glass (cf. § 268. 3). Many of the latter material have been gathered 
from the catacombs in the island Milo, the ancient Melos one of the Cyclades (cf. P. V. § 146). 
" Among the decayed bones are found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for the ears, 
lamps, lachrymatory vases, with large quantities of glass, earthern and copper vessels, probably, 
for oils and perfumes. * * Many of the earthern cups are of the form we call Etruscan ; the 
larger are painted with a light pencil ; often only the outlines are given, but generally with 
much spirit. The question whether the ancients knew the use of glass was settled by the discov- 
eries in Pompeii ; this is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are general- 
ly flat at the bottom and four inches over ; they rise one inch, of this diameter, and then sud- 
denly narrowing to the diameter of an inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or 
eight inches 5 their shape is much like that of a candlestick. But I have several other forms 
running through a considerable variety." Jones's Sketch of Naval Life. New Haven, 1829. 
2 vols. 12. — Cf. Silliman , s Journal, vol. xvi. p 333, for a view of some these vases. — Speci- 
mens of the vases from this island are in the Cabinet of Amherst College. — Several forms of 
lachyrmatories and vasa unguentaria are given in our Plate XV. fig a, and fig. d d. — See Mem. 
deP Jnstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Jlnc. vol. vn. p. 92. sur vases lachrymatoires. 

§ 342. A period of mourning was observed in memory of the 
deceased ; its duration in each particular case was fixed by law ; in 
the case of widows it continued for ten months. In the time of the 
emperors, a general mourning (luctus publicus) was appointed at their 
decease or that of their sons ; a thing previously not practiced, ex- 
cept on occasions of great public calamity. — Immediately after the 
funeral obsequies, it was also customary to slay the victims (called 
infcrim) offered in sacrifice to the departed, and to connect therewith 
a solemn funeral repast. 

lu. When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or enter- 
tainment was pnblicly given, and meat Was sometimes distributed among the 
people (visceratio). These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the 
graves or spot of interment. On such occasions, public games (ludi fun- 
ebres) were appointed, especially gladiatoral sports. 

2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed ( § 235) , 
in funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other 
occasions, " yet the primitive custom of presenting them at the funerals of 
great men, all along prevailed in the city and Roman provinces ; nor was it 
confined only to persons of quality, but almost every rich man was honored 
with this solemnity after his death ; and this they very commonly provided 
for in their wills, defining the number of gladiators, as their due by long cus- 
tom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in which the common 
people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, to be expend- 
ed on this account." (Kennett.) 

3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves 
of the deceased is given by Virgil in the fifth book of the iEneid, where he describes the hon- 
ors rendered by ^Eneas to the manes of his father Anchises. He mentions particularly a con- 
test in rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a trial of skill in shooting arrows, and a 
mock equestrian battle (pugnce simulacra). Cf. $ 187. 

§ 343 u. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was the deifica- 
tion (consecratio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian 
heroes. It took place in the Campus Martius, where the image of the person 
to be deified was placed upon a lofty funeral pile. From this pile, whenever 
it was set on fire, an eagle, previously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the 
air ; which, according to the ideas of the people, bore the soul to Olympus. 
The deified person then received the surname or appellation Divus. This sol- 
emnity was accompanied also with religious rites, public games and banquets. 
The custom did not entirely cease under the first Christian emperors. 

This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was burned and the 
ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show,before these rites were performed 
with the image of wax. The whole ceremony is well, described by Herodian (cf. P. II. § 254), 
i^ the fourth book of his History.. 



PART V. 



CLASSICAL 



GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 



54* 



PLATE XXTX 




PLAN OF ANCIENT ATHENS. 

(According to that given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis.) 




jElian Bridge. 
Triumphal Bridge 
.Taniculensian Bridge. 
Bridge of Cesttis. 
Bridge of Fabricius. 
Palatine Bridge. 
Sublician Bridge. 



h. Temple of Jupiter Ca 
pitolinus. 
Capitol. 
k. Temple of Apollo. 
1. Temple of Diana, 
m. Forum Boarium. 
n. Forum NervEe. 
o. Forum .Augnsti. 
p. Forum Trajani. 



PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. 

(As published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 



EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of the neighboring- 
countries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were 
within a few hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedi- 
tion furnishes a still stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described 
as having departed by the Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having return- 
ed through the straits of Hercules ; whence it manifestly appears, that at that 
time the Greeks believed that there was a connection between the Palus Meeo- 
tis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. 

§ 2. In later times, however, the commercial enterprise of the Athenians 
corrected these errors. Their ships sailed through the seas to the east of 
Europe and brought home such accurate information, that we find the descrip- 
tion of these seas and the neighboring coasts nearly as perfect in ancient as 
in modern writers. — The expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the 
Anabasis of Xenophon (cf. P. II. 243), and still more that of Alexander, gave 
the Greeks opportunities of becoming acquainted with the distant regions of 
the east. — The west of Europe was visited and described by the Phoenicians, 
who had penetrated even to the British Islands. 

From these different descriptions several geographical treatises were com. 
piled, all of which were in a great measure superseded by the work of Ptole- 
my, styled Syntaxis, or, as the Arabians called it, Almagest (P. II. § 218). 
This embraced all the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the an- 
cients, and from it we are enabled to trace with some degree of precision the 
limits of the ancient world. (Cf. P. II. § 206 ss.) 

§ 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name; an im- 
perfect sketch of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched 
deserts of Africa prevented their advance to the south ; and the Atlantic ocean 
limited the known world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the 
countries within these limits were perfectly known; we find, that even within 
these narrow boundaries, there were several nations, of whom the ancient geo- 
graphers knew nothing but the name. 

Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the 
earth that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Ferro, one of the Insults For- 
tunate (Canary Islands^, which because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by 
Ptolemy for his fixed meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British 
Isles, and the Shetland Isles ; the latter are probably designated by the Thule of the ancients, 
according to d'Anville, although some have supposed it was applied to Iceland. From the 
Shetland Isles the line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably ; perhaps around the 
North cape, as it has been thought that this must be the Rubeas Promontorium of Ptolemy. 
The line would, in either case, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, 
which seems to be described by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it would ex- 
tend to the Ural Mountains, which were partially known by the name of Hyperborei ; near 
which the poets located a people of the same name ( Virg. Georg. i. 240,) said to live in all pos- 
sible felicity. From these mountains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern 
part of the Belur Tag Mountains, the ancient Imaus, Crossing these, it enters, the region of 
Kashgar (in Chinese Tartary), called by Ptolemy Casia Regio ; a region of which, however, he 
evidently knew little. Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients 
Sera; which is most probably the modern Kan or Kan-tcheou, near the north-west corner of 
China and the termination of the immense wall separating China and Tartary. From Sera or 
Kan, it must be carried over a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place 
called Thynce in the country of the Sims; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the 
Senus, which is supposed to be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach 
with our line, th3 most easterly point ('that is particularly mentioned) is thought to be Point 
Condor, the southern extremity of Cambodia; this was called Promontorium Satyr or urn, and 



644 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



some small Isles adjacent Insula Satyrorum, because monkies were found here, whose appear^ 
ance resembled the fabled Satyrs. The general ignorance respecting this region is obvious from 
the fact, that it was imagined, that beyond the Promontory of Satyrs the coast turned first to 
the south and then completelyjtolthe west, and thus proceeded until it joined Africa. From the 
point or cape just named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Aurea Chersonesus, 
or peninsula of Malaya or Malacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jabadii Insula, 
and pass to Taprobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence sweeping around the Maldives, 
called by Ptolemy Insula ante Taprobanam, and crossing the equator it would strike Africa at 
Cape Delgrado, supposed to correspond to the Prasum Promontorium, being about 10 degrees S. 
Latitude. The boundary would exclude Madagascar as the ancient Menuthias designates, not 
Madagascar as has been conjectured, but most probably the modern Zanzibar. It may be inv- 
possible to trace the line across Africa ; of the interior of which the ancients knew more than 
one would suppose, judging from the ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line 
would pass south of the Mountains of the Moon, Luna Monies, which are mentioned by 
Ptolemy; and also, in part, of the river Niger, which as d'Anville remarks, was known even in 
the time of Herodotus. On the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra 
Leone at Cape St. Anns about 10 degrees N. Latitude ; this point answering to the ancient 
JVoti Cornu, Southern Horn, off against which lay the islands called Insula Hesperidwm. From 
this cape our line passes up the shore of the Atlantic to the Insula Fartunata. 

From this it is obvious, that the portion of the earth known to the ancients was small in 
proportion to the whole. It has been said with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one 
third of the land, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles ; 
and of the 155 millions of square miles of loater, covering the rest of the globe, they knew al- 
most nothing. 

On the knowledge of the ancients respecting the earth, Class. Journ. v. 103. ix. 133. For 

the principal helps in studying Classical Geography, consult the references given P. II. § 7. 7 
(ft) ; see also P. II. §§ 206-208, 371 ss. 

§ 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, is of very ancient date ; but although the names have been preserved, 
the boundaries in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned 
among the Asiatic kingdoms ; at present it is esteemed part of Africa : Sar- 
matia was esteemed part of Europe ; a great part of it now forms one of the 
divisions of Asia. 

§ 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the 
ancients believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the 
extreme heat of the Torrid and extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destruc- 
tive of animal life. — Another division, introduced by Hipparchus, was that of 
climates. A climate is a space included between two parallels of latitude, so 
that the longest days of the inhabitants at one extremity exceeds that of the 
inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were known. The 
parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexandria in 
Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine sea, 
Mount Caucasus, and the British Islands. 

Note. — In studying this Epitome, it is indispensable to success that some Atlas should be 
used. That of Butler is very suitable for the purpose. The student need not commit to mem- 
ory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of the countries or 
provinces included in the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, tracing every 
thing; as far as possible, on his maps. For recitation, let the Teacher question him on the maps 
of the Atlas, or on large maps in mere outline, prepared for the purpose, which will be far better. 



I. Of Europe. 



§ 6. Europe, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most 
important division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority 
in arts and sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants 
have long possessed over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its 
name fromEuropa, the daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician king, who being car- 
ried away, according to the mythological tales (T. III. § 23), by Jupiter under 
the disguise of a bull, gave her name to this quarter of the globe. 

§ 7. The boundaries of ancient and modern Europe were nearly similar, but 
we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of Europe. 
The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it on 
the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line 
is traced by ancient writers ; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the 



EUROPE. NORTHERN COUNTRIES. 645 

Pains Maeotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus, Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, Pro- 
pontis, Hellespont, and iEgean sea ; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and 
the Atlantic ocean the western boundary. 

§ 8. The countries of the mainland of Europe may be arranged, for con- 
venience in the present geographical sketch, in three divisions ; the northern, 
middle, and southern. The islands may be considered in a separate division. 
The north of Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the an- 
cients until the unwearied ambition of the Romans stimulated them to seek 
for new conquests in lands previously unnoticed. From these countries, in 
after times, came the barbarian hordes who overran Europe, and punished se- 
verely the excesses of Roman ambition. — The southern division contains 
the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most distinguished in Europe 
for their civilization and refinement. 

The Northern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the 
following; Scandinavia, Norway and Sweden; Chersonesus Cimbrica, Jut- 
land, ox Denmark ; Sarmatia, Russia ; Germania, Germany. — The Middle 
countries were the following^ Gallia, France and Switzerland ; Vindelicia, 
Suabia ; Rh^tia, country of the Grisons ; Noricum, Austria; Pannonia, 
Hungary ; Illyricum, Croatia and Dalmatia ; M^sia, Bosnia, Servia and 
Bulgaria; Dacia, Transylvania and Walachia. — In the Southern divis- 
ion we include Hispania, Spain and Portugal; Italia, Italy; Thracia, 
Macedonia and GRiEciA, all lately comprehended under the Turkish Empire, 

(a) The Northern Countries of Europe. 

§ 9. Scandinavia, or Scandia, by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely sup- 
posed to be a large island. The inhabitants were remarkable for their num- 
ber and ferocity ; they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this 
country came the Goths, the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the 
Normans, who subjugated the south of Europe. 

§ 10. The Chersonesus Cimbrica, a large peninsula at the entrance of the 
Baltic, was the native country of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after 
devastating Gaul invaded the northern part of Italy, and made the Romans 
tremble for the safety of their capital. They defeated the consuls Manlius 
and Servilius with dreadful slaughter, but were eventually destroyed by Ma- 
rius. 

§ II. Sarmatia included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is fre- 
quently confounded with Scythia. This immense territory was possessed by 
several independent tribes, who led a wandering life like the savages of North 
America. The names of the principal tribes were the Sauromatas, near the 
mouth of the Tanais, and the Geloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and 
the Borysthenes. The latter were called Hamaxobii from their living in wag- 
ons. Virgil gives them the epithet picti, because they, like the savages of 
America, painted their bodies to give themselves a formidable appearance. — 
From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and Roxolanians, who aided 
the barbarians formerly mentioned (§ 8) in overthrowing the Roman empire. 

The peninsula, now known by the name of the Crimea, or Crim Tartary. 
was anciently called the Chersonesus Taurica. Its inhabitants, called Tauri, 
were remarkable for their cruelty to strangers, whom they sacrificed on the 
altar of Diana. From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was 
called Euxine (favorable to strangers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The 
principal towns of the Tauric Chersonese were Panticapceum (Kerche), where 
Mithridates theGreat died ; Saphra (Trocop), and Theodosia (Kaffa). — At the 
south of this peninsula, was a large promontory, called from its shape Criu- 
Metopon, or the Ram's Forehead. 

§ 12. Ancient Germany, Germania, is, in many respects, the most singu- 
lar and interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early lan- 
guage, and the accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down 
to us, the origin of the English language and constitution may be distinctly 
traced. The inhabitants called themselves Wer-men, which in their language 
signifies War-men, and from this boasting designation the Romans named 
them, with a slight change, Ger-men. The boundaries of ancient Germa- 



646 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ny were not accurately ascertained, but the name is generally applied to the 
territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the Baltic Sea and 
the Danube. 

§ 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia, possessed by several tribes, of 
whom the principal were the Hermiones and Suevi, who possessed the middle 

of Germany. The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known 

to the Romans. The chief of these were the Frisii, through whose country 
a canal was cut by Drusus, which being increased in the course of time formed 
the present Zuyder Zee; the Cherusci, who under the command of Arminius 
destroyed the legions of Quintilius Varus ; the Sicambri, who were driven 
across the Rhine by the Catti, in the time of Augustus; the Catti, the most 
warlike of the German nations, and most irreconcilable to Rome ; the Marco- 
manni, who were driven afterwards into Bohemia by the Allemanni, from which 

latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allemagne. Near the 

Elbe were the Angli and Saxones, progenitors of the English, and the Longo- 

bardi, who founded the kingdom of Lombardy, in the north of Italy. The 

nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii, steadfast allies of the Romans; 
the Marcomanni, who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine ; the 
Narisci and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during the 
reign of Marcus Aurelius. 

§ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses 
was forbidden by their laws The only places of note were, consequently, forts 

built by the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives. A great 

part of Germany was occupied by the Hercynian forest, which extended, as 
was said, nine days journey from south to north, and more than sixty from 
west to east. A portion of the Sylva Hercynia is now called the Black Forest, 
which still has its fabled terrors. 

§ 15. The largest river of the northern division of Europe was the Rha, 
now Wolga. It was called Mel or Etel by the Byzantine writers (P. II. § 
239 a) and others in the middle ages. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with 
more water formerly than now, into the Mare Caspium. It was in part the 
eastern boundary of Europe, separating Sarmatia from Scythia. — The river 
next in size was the Borysthenes, called in the middle ages Danapris, whence 
its modern name Dneiper. Just at its entrance into the Pontus Euxinus, it 
was joined by the Hypanis, called in the middle ages Bogus, and now the 
Bog. The long narrow beach at the mouth of the Borysthenes was called 
Dromus A chill ei. — Between the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Tanais, 
the present Don, which separated Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, 
arid flowed into the Palus Mceotis or modern sea of Azof ; near its mouth was 
a city of extensive commerce, called Tanais Emporium. The strait connect- 
ing the Palus Mseotis with the Euxine was called Bosphorus Cimmerius. — 
Another river, discharging into the Pontus Euxinus, was the Tyras, the mod- 
ern Dneister : it flowed between Sarmatia and Dacia, and formed in part the 
southern boundary of what is included in our northern division of Europe. — 
Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyras, flowed in a northerly course 
to the Baltic, the ancient Simis Codanus ; they were the Vistula, still so called, 
and the Viader or Odpr. The principal streams discharging into the Oceanus 
Germanicus were the Albis, Elbe, and the Rhenus, Rhine, which formed the 
western boundary of the division of Europe now under notice, dividing Ger- 
mania and Gallia. 

(b) The Countries of the Middle of Europe. 

§ 16. We will begin with Gallia, which is at the western extremity of 
the division. The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalpina, 
to distinguish it from the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. 
The Greeks gave it the name of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, 
to distinguish it from Galatia in Asia Minor, where the Gauls had planted a 
colony. 

Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flan- 
ders, Holland, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its bound- 
aries were the Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Med- 



EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. 647 

iterranean, and the Pyreness. — The country in the time of Julius Caesar, was 
possessed by three great nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. 
Of these the Celtce were the most numerous and powerful ; their territory 
readied from the Sequana, Seine, to the Garumna, Garonne; the Be/gce lay 
between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where they united with the German 
tribes ; the Aquitani possessed the country between the Garumna and the 
Pyrenees. 

§ 17. Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces ; Gallia JVorbonen- 
sis, Aquitania, Gallia Celtica, and Bclgicd. 

Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along 
the sea-coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps. It contained several nations, the 
principal of which were the Allobroges, Salyes, and Volcae. The principal 
cities were JYarbo Martins, the capital, (Narbonne) ; Massilice (Marseilles), 
founded by an Ionian colony, from Phocaea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii (Fre- 
jus) ; and Aqua Sexticc (Aix). — Narbonensis contained the modern provin- 
ces, Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. 

Aquitania extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger (Loire). The prin- 
cipal nations were the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pic- 
tones, and Lemovices, north of that River. The chief towns were Mediola- 
num (Saintes) ; Portus Santonum (Rochelle) ; and Uxcllodunum. 

Gallia C e 1 1 i c a, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — > 
The principal nations were the Segusiani, ^Edui, Mandubii, Parisii, and Rhe- 
dones. The principal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius 
Plancus after the death of Julius Caesar ; Bibracte, called afterwards Augusto- 
dunum (Autun) ; Alesia (Alise), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms 
of Caesar; and Portus Brivates (Brest), near the Promontorium Gobonum (Cape 
St. Malo). — The country along the coast, from the Liger to the Sequana, 
was called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce and warlike. 

The remainder of Gaul was included in the province B e 1 g ic a. This 
contained a great number of powerful states ; the Helvetii occupying that part 
of modern Switzerland included between Lacus Lemanus (the lake of Ge- 
neva) and Lacus Brigantinus (the lake of Constance) ; the Sequani, possess- 
ing the present province of Franche Comte ; and the Batavi, who inhabited 
Holland. — That part of Belgic Gaul adjoining the Rhine below Helvetia was 
called G e r m a n i a, from the number of German tribes who had settled 
there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, the part nearer the sources of 
the Rhine, and Inferior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal 
of these tribes were the Treveri, Ubii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country 
of the Treveri was the extensive forest Arduenna (Ardennes), traces of which 
still remain. 

§ 18. The principal mountains of Gaul were Cebenna (the Cevennes), in 
Languedoc; Vogesus (the Vauge),in Lorraine ; and Alpes (the Alps). — The 
Alps were subdivided into Alpes Maritime, joining the Etruscan sea ; Cottice, 
over which Hannibal is supposed to have passed ; Greece, so called from the 
passage of Hercules ; Penninai, so called from the appearance of their tops, 
(from penna, a wing) ; Rlmticce, joining Rhaetia ; JSoricce, bordering Noricum } 
Pannonica. ; and Julice, the eastern extremity, terminating in the Sinus Fla- 
naticus (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. 

The chief rivers of Gaul were Rhenus (the Rhine) ; this river, near its 
mouth, at present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and 
the New Issel ; the last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; 
the ancient mouth of the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked 
up by some concussion of nature not mentioned in history ; Rhodanus (the 
Rhone), joined by the Arar (Saone) ; Garumna (Garonne), which united with 
the Duranius (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), joined by the Elaver (Allier) ; 
and Sequana (the Seine). 

The principal islands on the coast of Gaul were Uzantos (Ushant) ; Uliarus 
(Oleron) ; Casarea (Jersey) ; Sarmia (Guernsey) ; and Riduna (Alderney) ; 
on the south coast were the Stoechades or Ligustides insula (isles of Hieras). 

§ 19. The government of ancient Gaul, previous to the Roman invasion, was aristocratical, 
and so great was their hatred of royalty that those who were even suspected of aiming at sove- 
reign power, were instantly put to death. The priests and nobles, whom they called Druids 
and knights, possessed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed aa 



648 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

slaves ; in most of the states an annual magistrate was elected with powers similar to those of 
the Roman consul, but it was ordained that both the magistrate and the electors should be of 
noble birth. — In person, the Gauls are said to have been generally fair-complexioned, with 
long and ruddy hair, whence their country is sometimes called Gallia Comata, or Hairy Gaul. 
In d ^position they are described as irascible, and of ungovernable fury when provoked ; their 
first • .set was very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with 
eqp iteadiness. 

<§ -i The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in obscurity; 
wc oniy know that it must have been very populous from the numerous hordes who at differ- 
ent times emigrated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They seized on the north of Ita- 
ly, which was from them called Cisalpine Gaul ; they colonized part of Germany ; they invaded 
Greece ; and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where mingling with the Greeks, they seized on 
& province, from thence called Galatia or Gailo-Graecia. — Another body of Gauls, under the 
command of Brennus, seized and burned Rome itself; and though they were subsequently 
routed by Camillus, the Romans ever looked on, the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, 
and designated a Gallic war by the word Tumultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a 
civil war. 

$21. The alliance between the people of Massilias (Marseilles) and the Romans. furnished 
the latter people with a pretext for intermedling in the affairs of Gaul, which they eagerly em- 
braced. The first nation whom they attacked was the Salyes, who had refused them a pas- 
sa rinto Spain ; the Salyes were subdued by Caius Sextius, who planted a colony called af- 
?<- his name, Aquae Sextiee ; about four years after, the greater part of Gallia Narbonensis was 
6' lued by Qxiintus Martius Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Martins, and made it the 
capital of the Roman province. — After the subjugation of Gallia Narbonensis, the Gauls re- 
mained unmolested until the time of Cassar, who after innumerable difficulties conquered the 
entire country, and annexed it to the Roman dominions. 

Though grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the emperors made 
rapid advances in civilization ; they are particularly noticed for their success in eloquence and 
law. A curious "circumstance of the mode in which these studies were pursued is recorded by 
many historians ; an annual contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished 
were compelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of the vic- 
tors, or else be whipped and plunged into the Arar. 

§ 22. The country called V i n d e 1 i c i a was situated between the sources 
of the Rhine and the Danube. Its chief town was Augusta Vindelicorum 
(Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, presented by 
Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the Reform- 
ation). — Between Vindelicia and the Alps was Rh^eti a, containing rather 
more than the present territory of the Grisons. Its chief towns were Curia 
(Coire), and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assem- 
bled. — Vindelicia and Rhaetia were originally colonized by the Tuscans, and 
for a long time bravely maintained their independence. They were eventu- 
ally subdued during the reign of Augustus Caesar, by Drusus the brother of 
Tiberius. 

§ 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by 
the river JEnus (Inn). Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon 
the Roman territories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius 
Caesar. The iron of Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that 
country were highly valuedv — East of Noricum was Pannonia, also subdued 
by Tiberius. It was divided into Superior, the chief town of which was Vin- 
dobona (Vienna) ; and Inferior, whose capital was Sirmium, a town of great 
importance in the later ages of the empire. — Noricum is now called Austria, 
and Pannonia, Hungary. 

§ 24. The boundaries of Illvricum have not been precisely ascertained ; it 
occupied the north-eastern shores of the Adriatic, and was sub-divided into 
the three provinces of Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia. It included the mod- 
ern provinces, Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — The chief towns were Salo- 
na, near Spalatro, where the emperor Dioclesian retired after his resignation 
of the imperial power; Epidaurus or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Ragusa. 
The Illyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with which they treated their 
captives; they possessed great skill in ship-building, and the light galleys of the Liburnians 
contributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actium. — The Romans declared war against 
the Illyrians, in consequence of the murder of their ambassadors, who had been basely massa- 
cred by Teuta, Queen of that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg a peace on the most 
humiliating conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they were 
finally subdued by the praetor Anicius, who slew their king Gentius, and made the country a 
Roman province. 

§ 25. Moesia lay between the Danube and Mount Haemus. It was divided 
into Superior, the present province of Servia, and Inferior, now called Bulgar- 
ia. Part of Moesia Superior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian Tribe ; 
next to which was a district called Dardania ; that part of Moesia Inferior near 
the mouth of the Danube was called Pontus, which is frequently confounded 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HISPANIA. 649 

with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. — The principal cities in Mcesia Superior 
were Singidunum (Belgrade ,) at the confluence of the Save and Danube ; 
JVicopolis built by Trajan to commemorate his victory over the Dacians; and 
JVaissus (Nissaj, the birth place of Constantine the Great. — In Ma sia Infe- 
rior were Marcianopolis, the capital ; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banisfif/tent ; 
Odessus south of Tomi, and JEgissus, near which was the bridge built , Da- 
rius in his expedition against the Scythians. .OS 

§ 26. Dacia lay between the Danube and Carpathian mountains. It was 
possessed by two Scythian tribes, the Dad and Getce, who for a long time re- 
sisted every effort to deprive them of their freedom; they were at length sub- 
dued by Trajan. After having conquered the country, Trajan joined it to 
Mcesia by a magnificent bridge over the Danube, traces of which [still exist. 
His successor, Adrian, influenced either by jealousy of his predecessor's glory, 
or believing it more expedient to contract than to extend the bounds of the 
empire, broke down the bridge, and left Dacia to its fate. The celebrated 
Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercynia, stretched over the north and west part of 
Dacia (§ 14J. — Dacia included the modern provinces Transylvania, Mold via, 
and Wallachia. , ~_ 

A people has been found among the Wallachians, that now speak a language very similar to 
the Latin, and are therefore supposed to be descended fron Roman colonists. — See Walsh's 
Journey from Constantinople. 

(C) The Countries included in the Southern Division of Europe. 

§ 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most west- 
ern country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern king- 
doms of Spain and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, 
and (to distinguish it from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western 
situation jHesperia Ultima. The Romans at first divided it into Hispania Cit~ 
erior, or Spain at the eastern side of the Iberus, and Hispania Ulterior, at the 
western side ; but by Augustus Caesar, the country was divided into three 
provinces ; Tarraconensis, Bcctica, and Lusitania. Like the provinces of Gaul, 
these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. 

§ 28. Tarraconensis exceeded the other two provinces together, both 
in size and importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the 
Durius, and received its name from its capital, Tarraco (Tarragona), in the 
district of the Cositani. 

The other principal towns were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whose 
siege by Hannibal caused the second Punic war ; some remains of this city 
still exist, and are called Murviedro, a corruption of Muriveteres (old icallsj ; 
Carthago JVova (Carthagena), built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also 
on the Mediterranean : in the interior, north-east of the capital, Ilerda (Lerida), 
the capital of the Ilergetes, where Caesar defeated Pompey 's lieutenants, Afran- 
ius and Petreius ; JYumantia, near the sources of the Durius, whose inhabitants 
made a desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and, when unable to hold 
out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to the conquer- 
ors ; Bilbilis, the birth-place of Martial, among the Celtiberi ; Ccesarea Au- 
gusta (Saragossa), capital of the Edetani; Toletum (Toledo) j Complutum 
(Alcala), and Kibora (Talavera), in the same district ; Calagurris, in the terri- 
tory of the Vascones, whose inhabitants suffered dreadfully from famine in 
the Sectorian war, being reduced to such straits, that the inhabitants (as Juve- 
nal says) actually devoured each other. In this part of Spain, near the town 
of Segovia, are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle 
(Oporto), at the mouth of the Durius, was also called Portus Gallorum, from 
some Gauls who settled there, and hence the name of the present kingdom of 

Portugal. The north of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantabri, a 

fierce tribe, who for a long time resisted the utmost efforts of the Romans j 
their territory is the modern province of Biscay. 

§ 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, 

was called B se t i c a, from the river Baetis. Its chief towns were Corduba, 

Cordova), the birth-place of the two Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in this 

town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Al- 

55 



650 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

j ! 

manzor ; it is more than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richly orna* 
mented, and supported by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble : 
Hispalis ( Seville ) ; Italica, the native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet 
Silius Italicus ; Custulo, called also Parnassia, because it was founded by a 
Phocian colony ; all on the Baatis. — The south-western extremity of Bsetica 
was possessed by a Phoenician colony, called the Bastuli Pceni, to distinguish 
them from the Libyan Pceni, or Carthaginians ; their capital was Gades 
(Cadiz), on an island at the mouth of the Baatis ; near it were the little-island 
Tartessus, now part of the continent, and Junonis Promontorium (Cape Tra- 
falgar). — At the entrance of the straits of Plercules or Gades, stood Carteia, 
on mount Calpe, now called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel Tarik, i. e. the 
mountain of Tarik, the first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and 
mount Abyla ( on the opposite coast of Africa) were named the pillars of Her- 
cules, and supposed to have been the boundaries of that hero's western con- 
quests. North of this was Munda, where Ccesar fought his last battle with 
Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. 

L usitania, which occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of 
Portugal, contained but few places of note ; the most remarkable were Au- 
gustus Emeryta (Merida), and Olisippo ('Lisbon), said to have been founded by 
! | Ulysses. 

$ 30. The principal Spanish rivers, were : Iberus (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajoj ', 
Durius (Doxxxo) ; Bcetis f Guadalquiver.) ; Anas f Guadiana,). — The promontory 
at the north-western extremity of the peninusla was named Artabrum or Cel- 
tlcum (Finisterrej ; that at the south-western, Sacrum, because the chariot of 
the sun was supposed to rest there ; it is now called Cape St. Vincent. 

$ 31. Spain was first made known to the ancients by the conquests of Hercules. In later 
times the Carthaginians became masters of the greater part of the country ; they were in their 
turn expelled by the Romans, who kept possession of the peninsula for several centuries. — 
During the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the contending parties. 
Here Sertorius, after the death of Marius, assembled the fugitives of the popular party, and 
for a long time resisted the arms of Sylla : here, Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of 
Pompey, made a gallant stand against Julius Caesar ; and here, after the death of Pompey, his 
sons made a fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their father's misfortunes* 
— Upon the overthrow of the Roman empire, Spain was conquered by the Vandals, who gave 
to one of the provinces the name Vandalusia, now corrupted into Andalusia. 

§ 32. Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both 
by ancient and modern writers, from the beauty of its climate and the fertility 
of its soil. The Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unal- 
tered; on the north are the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on 
the south the Sicilian strait, and on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By 
the poets the country was called Saturnia, Ausonia, and CEnotria ; by the 
Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the west of their country. 

Italy has always been subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less 
independent of each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two parts 
denominated the northern and southern; and as the chief city and capital of 
the country is of such celebrity, shall enter into a more particular description 
of Rome ; adopting the following arrangement ; 1. the Geography of the 
northern portion of Italy ; 2. the Geography of the southern portion ; 3. the 
Topography of the city of Rome. 

§ 33. (1) Geography of the northern portion . The principal ancient di- 
visions of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and 
iLatium. 

Gallia Cisalpina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting 
after the Social war the toga, or distinctive dress of the Romans, lay between 
the Alps and the river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Pa- 
dus, into Transpadana, at the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the 
south ; these were subdivided into several smaller districts. 

North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief 
town, Augusta Tautinorum, is now called Turin; next to these were the In- 
subres, whose principal tows were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), 
on the river Ticinus, where Hannibal first defeated the Romans, after his pas- 
sage over the Alps ; the Cenomanni, possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia)5 
Cremona; and Mantua, the birth-place of Virgil; and the Euganei, whose 
chief towns were Tridentum (Trentj ; and Verona, the birth-place of Catul- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 651 

lus. — Next to these were the Veneti and Carni; their chief towns were Pata- 
mum (Padua), the birth-place of Livy, built by the Trojan Antenor, after the 
destruction of Troy ; and Aquileia, retaining its former name but not former 
consequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to Attila king of the 
Huns. Next to these was the province Histria, or Istria; chief town, Ter- 
geste (Trieste). 

South of the Po were the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua 
(Genoa), on the Sinus Ligusticus (Gulf of Genoa) ; Portus Herculis Monad 
(Monaco), and JViccea (Nice) ; the territory of the Boii, containing Bononia 
(Bologna) ; Mutina (Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma, 
and Placentia; and the country of the Ligones, whose chief town was Raven- 
na, where the emperors of the west held their court, when Rome was possess- 
ed by the barbarians. 

§ 34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus (Maggiore) ; 
Larius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from the vil- 
lage Comum, near Pliny's villa; and Benacus (Di Gardi). 

The rivers of this province were the Eridanus or Padus (Po), called by Vir- 
gil the king of rivers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several 
tributary streams, especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincius (Mincio), falls 
into the Adriatic ; the Athesis (Adige), rising in the Rhastian Alps; and the 
Rubicon (Rugone^), deriving its source from the Apennines, and falling into the 
Adriatic. 

$ 35. The inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hostile to 
the power of Rome ; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when he invaded Italy, and in tin 
social war they were the most inveterate of the allied states in their hostility. — When the em- 
pire of the west fell before the northern tribes, this province was seized by the Longobardi, from 
whom the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into 
a number of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom was 
banished from the rest of Europe. 

§ 36. E tr u r i a extended along the coast of the lower or Tuscan sea, from 
the small river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. 

The most remarkable towns and places in Etruriawere : the town and port of 
Luna, at the mouth of the river Macra ; Pisa (Pisa) ; Florentia (Florence) ; 
Portus Herculis Leburni (Leghorn) ; Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeat- 
ed ; Perusia, near the lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal obtained his third 
victory over the Romans; Clusium, the city of Porsenna; Volsinii (Bolsena), 
where Sejanus, the infamous minister of Tiberius, was born ; Falerii (Palari), 
near mount Soracte, the capital of the Falisci, memorable for the generous con- 
duct of Camillus while besieging it ; Veii, the ancient rival of Rome, captured 
by Camillus after a siege often years ; Care, or Agylla (Cer Veteri), whose in- 
habitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from the 
Gauls, in reward for which they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed 
the privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of 
voting was said to be enrolled among the Carites ; Centum Cello, (Civita Vec- 
chia), at the mouth of the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. 

§ 37. The principal rivers of Etruria, were the Arnus (Arno), rising in the 
Apennines and falling into the sea near Pisa; and the Tiber, which issuing 
from the Umbrian Apennines, and joined by the JYar fNera^ and Anio fTev- 
eronej, running in a south-westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome^ 

The Etrurians was called by the Greeks, Tyrrheni ; they are said to have come originally 
from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces of their eastern origin, to a very late 
period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of their 
superstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsay- 
ing. Cf. P. I. § 109, § 173. 

§ 38. Umbria was situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, 
from which it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria 
was the Metaurus (Metro), where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius 
and Nero while advancing to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief 
towns ; Ariminum (Rimini), the first town taken by Caesar, at the commence- 
ment of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro) ; Senna Gallica (Senigaglia), built 
by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum; Spoletium (Spoletto), where Hannibal was 
repulsed after his victory at Thrasymene. 

The memory of this repulse is still preserved in an inscription over one of the gates, thence 
called Porta di Fuga. " Here also is a beautiful aqueduct carried across a valley three hundred 
feet high." W. Fiske, p. 343, as cited P. I. $ 186. 6. 



652 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 39. P i c e n u m lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic, 
Its principal towns were Asculum (Ascoli), the capital of the province, which 
must not be confounded with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was 
defeated; Confiniurn (San Ferino), the chief town of the Peligni ; and Sulmo, 
the birth-place of Ovid. Jlncona, retaining its ancient name, founded by a 
Grecian colony ; close to the harbor of this town is a beautiful triumphal arch 
erected in honor of Trajan; the pillars are of Parian marble, and still retain 
their pure whiteness and exquisite polish, as if fresh from the workmen's 
hands ; the celebrated chapel of Loretto is near Ancona. 

South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabi- 
ni. The former were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was Marru- 
lium, on the Lacus Fucinus : Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain this lake; 
it was afterwards partially effected by Claudius Cassar, who employed thirty 
thousand men for eleven years, in cutting- a passage for the waters through 
the mountains, from the lake to the river Liris. When every thing was pre- 
pared for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval games, 
shows, &c. ; but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, be- 
ing neglected, was soon choked up, and the lake recovered its ancient di- 
mensions. — The Sabine towns were Cures, whence the name Quirites is by 
some derived (cf. § 53); Reate, near which Vespasian was born ; Amiternum, the 
birth-place of Sallust ; Crustumerium, and Fidenes, Mons Sacer, whither the 
plebeians of Rome retired in their contest with the patricians, was in the ter- 
ritory of the Sabines. In these countries were the first enemies of the Ro- 
mans, but about the time of Camillus the several small states in this part of 
Italy were subjugated. 

§ 40. L atium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of 
the Tuscan sea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was called Latium, 
from lateo, to lie hid, because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, 
when dethroned by Jupiter. 

The chief town was Rome (see §51 ss). . Above Rome on the Tiber, stood 
Tibur (Tivoli), built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the 
g Roman nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country seat (P. IV. § 326): 

south of Rome, Tusculum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modern 
times, for the salubrity of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it 
is said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses ; near it was Cic- 
ero's celebrated Tusculan villa: east of Tusculum, Praneste (Palestrina), a 
place of great strength both by nature and art, where the younger Marius 
perished in a subterranean passage, while attemping to escape, when the town 
was besieged by Sylla : south of Tusculum, Longa Alba, the parent of Rome, 
and near it the small towns Algidum, Pasdum, and Gabii, betrayed to the Ro- 
mans by the well-known artifice of the younger Tarquin. — On the coast, at 
the mouth of the Tiber, stood Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, built by An- 
eus Martius ; south of this were Laurentum, Lavinium (built by JEneas and 
called after his wife Lavinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Ca- 
millus resided during his exile. South of these were the territories of the 
Volsci, early opponents of the Roman Power ; their chief cities were Antium, 
where there was a celebrated temple of fortune ; Suessa Pometia, the capital 
of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans ; and Corioli, from the cap- 
j, ture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. 

South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled 
residence of Circe; Anxur (Terracina), on the Appian Way ; the town and 
promontory Caieta, deriving its name from the nurse of iEneas who was there 
interred ; Formice, near which Cicero was assassinated by command of Anto- 
ny ; and, at the mouth of the Liris, Minturnce, near which are the Pontine or 
Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder Marius endeavored to conceal himself 
when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine Marshes extended through a great 
part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have been made to drain them. 
The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made the surrounding 
country very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, the 
birth-place of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman; 
Aquinum, the birth-place of Juvenal ; and Sinuessa, celebrated for its mineral 
waters, originally called Sinope. 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 653 

§ 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (TeveroneJ ; the Allia, 
on the banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaugh- 
ter ; and the Cr enter a, where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three 
hundred, were destroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their 
own expense against the Veientes; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the 
Liris (GariglianoJ, which divided Latium from Campania, falls into the Tus- 
can sea. — The principal lakes were named Lacus Mbulus (Solfatara) re- 
markable for its sulphurous exhalations, and for the adjoining grove and ora- 
cle of Faunus; Lacus Regillus, near which Posthumius defeated the Latins, 
by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed; and Lacus 
Albanus, near which was Mount Albanus where the solemn sacrifices called 
Ferise Latinse were celebrated. 

The capital of Latium, in the reign of king Latinus, was Laurentum ; in the reign of Mne- 
as, Lavinium ; in the reign of Ascanius, Longa Alba ; but all these were eclipsed by the supe- 
rior grandeur of Rome. The several independent states were subdued by the Romans in the 
earlier ages of the republic. 

§ 42. (2) Geography of the southern portion. The southern part of Italy 
was named Magna Graecia, from the number of Greek colonies that at differ- 
ent periods settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, 
Calabria, Lucania, and Bruttium. 

C amp an i a, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extend- 
ed along the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris to the river Sila- 
rus, which divided it from Lucania. 

The chief city was Capua, so named from its founder, Capys, celebrated 
for its riches and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were en- 
ervated and corrupted. North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral 
waters in its vicinity, and Venafrum, famous for olives. — South of Capua 
was Casilinum, where a garrison of Prenestines, after having made a most 
gallant resistance, and protracted the siege till they had endured the utmost 
extremity of famine, were at last compelled to surrender ; next to this was 
Liternum, at the mouth of the little river Clanius, where Scipio Africanus for 
a long time lived in voluntary exile. — Farther south was Cuma, founded by a 
colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the residence of the celebrated Cumean Sibyl, 
and near it the town and promontory Misenum, so named from Misenus, the 
trumpeter of iEneas, who was buried there. — Below the cape were Baits, fa- 
mous for its mineral waters ; Puteoli (Puzzoli), near which were the Phlegrsei- 
campi, where Jupiter is said to have vanquished the giants; Cimmerium^ 
whose early inhabitants are said, by Homer, to have lived in caves. After 
these we come to Parthenope or Neapolis, Naples. This beautiful city was 
founded by a colony from Cumce, and for a long time retained the traces of a 
Grecian original ; it was called Parthenope from one of the Sirens said to 
have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain Pausilypus (Pau- 
silippo), through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half a mile in 
length and twenty-two feet wide ; neither the time of making nor the maker 
is known ; a tomb, said to be that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo. 
— Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius were Herculaneum and Pompeii, de- 
stroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. The remains of 
these towns were accidentally discovered in the beginning of the last centu- 
ry, and the numerous and valuable remains of antiquity give us a greater 
sight into the domestic habits of the Romans than could previously be ob- 
tained. See references P. I. § 242. 2. At the southern extremity of the Si- 
nus Puteolanus (bay of Naples), were Stabia, remarkable for its mineral wa- 
ters, and Surrentum, celebrated for its wines ; near the latter was the Pro- 
montorium Surrentinum or Athenaeum (Capo della Minerva) ; east of Naples 
was JYola, where Hannibal was first defeated, and where Augustus died ; in 
thesouth of Campania was Salernum (Salerno), the capital of the Picentini. 

§ 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vulturnus (Vulturno) ; Se- 
ethus (Sebeto), now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by 
the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius; and the Sarnus (Sarno). — The principal 
lakes were the Lucrinus, which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was 
changed into a muddy marsh, with a volcanic mountain, Monte JVuovo de Cin- 
ere, in the centre ; and the Avernus, near which is a cave represented by Vir- 
gil as the entrance of the infernal regions. It was said that no birds could pass 
55* 



Ill 



654 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ; whence" its t^me f 
from a (not) and oqvig (a bird). 

Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of different 
barbarous tribes ; at length it was seized by the Saracens in the tenth century. These were" 
expelled by the Normans, under Tancred, who founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

§ 44. East of Latium and Campania was Samnium, including the coun- 
try of the Hirpini. — The chief towns were Samnis, the capital ; fieneventum 
(Bensvento), at first called Maleventum, from the serverity of the winds, but 
when the Romans sent a colony here they changed the name, from motives of 
superstition; near this town Pyrrus, king of Epirus, who had come to the as- 
sistance of the Samnites, was totally defeated by the Roman army, command- 
ed by Curius Dentatus ; Caudium, near which are the Caudince Furculce (For- 
chia d'Arpaia), a narrow and dangerous defile, in which the Roman army be- 
ing blocked up by the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to surrender on 
disgraceful conditions ; and Mfenice, remarkable for its manufactory of earth- 
en ware. — Among the Hirpini, were Equotuticum, whose unpoetical name is 
celebrated by Horace ; Trixieum and Herdonia (Ordonia), on the borders of 
Apulia. — Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of Amsanctus, surround- 



ed by hills, and remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs; 
on a neighboring hill stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided 
over noxious vapors, whence the valley is now called Moffeta. 

§ 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sabatas (Sabato), and Ca- 
lor (Galore), both tributary to the Vulturnus. 

The Samnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many 
years contended with the Romans for the empire of Italy ; at length, after a war of more than 
seventy years, during which the Romans were frequently reduced to great extremities, the for- 
tune of Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. 

§ 46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now La Puglia, occu- 
pied the greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to 
the Bay of Tarentum.. 

Its chief towns : Teanum, named Apulum to distinguish it from a town of 
the same name in Campania; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after 
his return from the Trojan war ; north of Arpi is Mount Garganus (Saint An- 
gelo), in the spur of the boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of 
Arpi were Uria, which gave the ancient name to the Sinus Urius, and Sipon- 
tum (Manfredonia), which gave the modern name (Gulf of Manfredonia) ; on 
the borders of Samnium, stood Luceria, celebrated for its wool ; Salapia (Sal- 
pe) ; and Asculum, called Apulum, to distinguish it from a town of the same 
name in Picenum. — Near the river Aufidus stood the village of Cannes, where 

Si 



Hannibal almost annihilated the power of Rome ; through the fields of Can- 
nse runs the small stream Vergellns, which is said to have been so choked 
with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a bridge to 
Hannibal and his soldiers. Canusium, a Greek colony, where the remains 
of the Roman army were received after their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), 
near Mount Vultur, the birth-place of Horace ; Barium (Bari), where excel- 
lent fish were caught in great abundance ; and Egnatia, on the Matinian 
shore, famous for bad water and good honey. 

The principal Apulian rivers were Cerbalus (Cerbaro), and Aufidus fOfan- 
to), remarkable for the rapidity of its waters ; both falling into the Adriatic. 

§ 47. Calabria, called also Mesapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming 

what is called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns, on the eastern or 

Adriatic side, were Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent 
harbor, which was destroyed in- the fifteenth century ; from this the Italians 
who wished to pass into Greece generally sailed ; Hydrantum (Otranto), 
where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; Castrum Minervcs (Cas- 
tro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called Capo Santa Ma- 
ria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tarentum (Tarento), built by 
the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudia, the 
birth-place of the poet Ennius ; and Caliipolis (Gallipoli), built on an island 
and joined to the continent by a splendid causeway. 

The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls- into 
the bay of Tarentum. 

§ 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 655 

the bay of Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basili- 
cata, from the emperor Basil ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra 
by the Greek emperors, to perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which 
they had lost. 

The principal towns ; on the Tuscan sea, Pccstum, near Mount Alburnus, 
celebrated in ancient times for its roses, and in modern for its beautiful ruins 
(cf. Eustace, cited P. I. § 190. 1, and Winckelmann, Histoire &c. vol. m. p. 
297, as cited P. I. § 324) ; near it, Velia or Elea, the birth-blace of Zeno, the 
inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, who built Mar- 
seilles ; Buxentum, called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; and 
Laus, on a river of the same name, from which the Lausine bay is designated. 
— In the interior, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus ; Aternum, on the Silarus ; 
Grumentum, on the Aciris ; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, 
the framer of the Trojan horse. — On the shore of the Tarentine bay, were Meta- 
pontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and the 
head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of 
the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble ; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infa- 
mous for its luxury ; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites 
retired when their own city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The 
plains where these once flourishing cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers 
constantly overflow their banks, and leave behind them muddy pools and un- 
wholesome swamps, while the few architectural remains contribute to the mel- 
ancholy of the scene by recalling to memory the days of former greatness. 

The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negro,J which, after 
sinking in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and 
falls into the Tuscan sea ; Melpus f MelfiaJ, which empties itself into the Laus 
Sinus fGulf of Policastro, so called from the number of ruins on its shores) ; 
the Bradanus, a little rivulet, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into 
the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agv'i), and the Sybaris (Coscile), small streams 
on the Tarentine coast. 

§ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttio-tellus 
or B r u tt i u m, but is now called Calabria-ultra. — The principal cities of 
the Bruttii, on the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epi- 
rus, who waged war in Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing 
Asia, died; Consentia fCosenzaJ, the capital of the Bruttii ; Terina, on the Si- 
nus Terinaius (Gulph of St Euphemia) ; and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the 
Romans Valentia fMonte LeoneJ. — On the Sicilian strait, were the town 
and promontory Scyllaum CScyllaJ, whose dangerous rocks gave rise to the 
fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf. P. III. § 117; ; opposite to the celebrated 
whirlpool Cha.rybdis on the coast of Sicily : Rhegium (Reggio), so named by 
the Greeks, because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily 
was joined to Italy, and broken of here by some violent natural concussion ; 
it was founded by a colony from Calchis, in the island of Eubcea, and the sur- 
rounding country was celebrated for its fertility ; not far from Rhegium were 
the village and cape Leucopetra, so named from the whiteness of its rocks, 
now Capo delV Arnai. 

On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes ; Crotona founded 
by some Achasans on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras es- 
tablished his celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for 
their skill in athletic exercises, that it was commonly said " the last of the 
Crotoniates is the first of the Greeks " ; south of this was the Promontorium 
Lacinium, where a very celebrated temple of Juno stood, whence she is fre- 
quently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the remains of this temple, the 
promontory is now called Capo della Colonne; Scylacaum (Squillace), founded 
by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon fCostel Ve- 
tere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; south 
of it, Neryx fGeraceJ, near the Promontorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capi- 
tal of the Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy. — 
The cape at the southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Hercu- 
lis now Spartivento. 

The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Neathes 
fNeti), which received its name from the Achaean women having burned their 
husbands' ships to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. 



656 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who 
on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects, and 
that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually devas- 
tated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at different times, and under various lead- 
ers, sought to obtain in a foreign country, that tranquility and liberty that had been denied them 
at home. — These different states were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an annual 
congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclea, and united the 
several communities in one great confederacy. 

Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, it was destroyed 
by the jealousy of the people of Crotona; the Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five times 
they rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabi- 
tants, forced to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurhim The Crotonia- 

tes did not long preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into 
their city, and they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. — To secure their superior- 
ity, the Locrians entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means ob- 
tained considerable influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder Dionysius to 
secure to himself a part of the country by building a wall from theTerinsean gulf to the Ionian 
sea, and still more the ingratitude of the younger Dionysius, gave them a distaste for the con- 
nection. — After breaking off their alliance with the Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves 
to the Romans ; during the war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the 
most unshaken fidelity; but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their 
allies, they readily joined Hannibal. — It is remarkable, that in all the other ltalo-Grecian 
states the people embraced the Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, 
but among the Locrians the division of parties was directly the contrary. 

The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by riches and 
luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to 
secure their city from "the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian 
campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command 
of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans. 

After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su- 
periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods 
of the Roman empire. 

§ 51. (3) The Topography o/Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, 
nearly in the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. 
i In the time of Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in cir- 
cuit. The wall built by Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is 
about 14 miles in circumference. — The Gates {Porta) of Rome were origin- 
ally four ; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were thirty-seven ; in the reign 
of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most noted ; Porta 
Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Coelimontana, Latina, Capena, Flaminia, Os- 
tiensis. 
For a plan of ancient Rome, see our plate XXIX. 

§ 52. Thirty-one great Roads centered in Rome. Some of the principal 
were Via Sacra, Jlppia, JEmilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roads " is~ 
suing from the Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were ter- 
minated only by the frontiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar 
in the middle of the forum, called Milliarium aureum (Tac. Hist. i. 27), from 
which distances on the various roads were reckoned. " This curious monu- 
ment was discovered in 1823." (Butler's Geogr. Class, p. 39.) 

" They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and pro- 
ceeded in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign con- 
tempt for all the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materi- 
als : the lowest, stones, mixed with cement, statumen; the middle, gravel or small stones, ntr 
dera, to prepare a level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important struc- 
ture, which consisted of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in 
the neighborhood of cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margines, protected by curb- 
stones, which defined the extent of the central part, agger, for carriages. The latter was bar- 
relled, that no water might lie upon it." — " The public roads were accurately divided by mile- 
stones. They united the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy intercourse; but 
' their primary object had been to facilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiv- 
ing the earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors 
to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. House9 
were every where erected only at the distance of five or six miles ; each of them was constantly 
provided with forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred milea 
in a day along the Roman roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those who claimed it 
by an imperial mandate ; but though originally intended for the public service, it was some- 
times indulged to the business or conveniency of private citizens." The most ancient and 

celebrated of all was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. It was 
constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended from 
Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. At Sinuessa it threw 
off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to Baise, Neapolis, Hercula- 
neum, and Pompeii. 

J\T. Bergier, Hist, des grands chemins des Romains. Par. 1792. 2 vols. 4. — Z>' Anville, on 
the extent of ancient Rome and the grand roads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vok 
xxx. p. 193. 



EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 657 

§ 53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed 
through the city from the north ; Pons Milvius ; JElius. still standing ; Fa- 
bricius ; Cestius ; Palatinus or Senatorius, some arches of it still remaining; 
Sublicius or JEmilius ; Janicularis , still existing ; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. 

Rome was ealled Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or 
hills. These were Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquilinus, Coelius, Aventi- 
nus, Quirinalis, Viminalis. 

The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, 
on the Mons Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors 
usually abode, and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely 
dwelling. The hill first added was probably the Quirinalis, on which it has been supposed 
was a Sabine settlement called Quirium ; this addition being made when the union was formed 
between the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the 
name of Quiritcs. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this un- 
ion. Next was added the hill Calius, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been 
planted. The other four hills were successively added, at least, before the close of the reign of 
Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills on the north of the Tiber were also connected 
with the city. The Janiculum was fortified by Ancus Martius,*4th king of Rome, as a sort of 
out -post and joined to the city by a bridge. The other the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from 
the predictions uttered there by soothsayers, rates, was added at a later period ; it was rather 
disliked by the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's 
palace, St. Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Colhs hortulorum^ 
called also Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian. 

On the side of the Capitoline hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, 
fin his Philos. of Travel, cited P. I. § 190), "of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such 
terriffic colors, by Seneca, immense al'titudinis aspectus, only thirty feet of its summit now over- 
look the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern hovels." — 
The spot was visited in 1829 by two American gentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom 
writes, " after very cautious estimates we both judged the original height to have been about 
80 feet, of which about 20 may be filled up, leaving about 60 for its present altitude." 

§ 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Au- 
gustus there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, 
and affords the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of 
notice in the city. The names of the districts were as follows ; 1. Porta Ca- 
pena; 2. Ccelimontium ; 3. Isis and Serapis or Moneta ; 4. Templum Pads or 
Via Sacra ; 5. Esquilina cum turri et coll e Viminali ; 6. Alta Semita ; 7. Via 
Lata; 8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Flammitis ; 10. Palatium; 11. Circus 
Maximus ; 12. Piscina Publica; 13. Aventinus ; 14. Trans Tiberim. To de- 
scribe only the most remarkable objects in each region or district would tres- 
pass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some 
of them. 

A tabular statement of the objects included in the 14 regions is given in Kenneths Antiqui- 
ties, ch. ii. as cited P. IV. § 197. 2 See 6? C. Adieus ausfurliche Beschreibung der Stadt 

Rom. Altona 1781. 4. with engravings. The basis, mainly, is the arrangement of Sextus Ru- 
fus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. (Cf. Gr&vii Thesaurus, vols. 
3. and 4.) JYardhii's Italian original was published anew by Jl. JYibby, Rome 1820. 4. with 
plates. — Descrizione di Roma Antica forma novamente con le Autorita di Bart. Marliani y 
Onof. Panvinio, &c. with plates. Rom. 1697. 2 vols. 4. — C. Fea, Nuova descrizione di Roma 
antica e moderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols. 8. with plates. — C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities 
of Rome. Transl. into German by Sickler, Weim. 1823. 8. — Vemiti, Descrizione topografia 
delle antichita di Roma, ed. by Plsconti, 1803. — Burg-ess, Topography and Antiquities of 
Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8. — Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, &,- Rbstell, Beschreibung der Stadt 
Rom. Tubing. & Stuttg. 1829-37. 3 vols, with a Bilderheft (or Number) of plates. — F. Blume, 

Iter Italicum. Halle. 1836. 4 vols. 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, cf, 

P. I. § 186, 188, 191, 226, 243. 

§ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of 
the people, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of 
the nineteen, which are mentioned, the Campus Martius, was the largest and 
most famous. It was near the Tiber; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but 
usually Martius, as consecrated to Mars. It was originally the property of 
Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated after his expulsion. In the later ages it 
was surrounded by several magnificent structures; and porticos were erected 
under which the citizens could exercise in rainy weather. It was also adorned 
with statues and arches. Comitia were held here; and there were Septa or 
Ovilia (P. IV. § 259), constructed for the purpose. 

§ 56. The main streets of the city were termed via. On each side were 
connected blocks of houses and buildings ; these being separated by interve- 
ning streets and by lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of 
squares ; the portions occupied by buildings and thus separated were called 
Vici; of these there were, it is said, 424. They had particular names; e. g. 
Vicus albus,jugarius } lanarius,, Tibertinus, Junonis, Minerva, fyc. 



658 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled 
for the transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was 
probably transacted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it be- 
came convenient to make a separation ; and the Fora were divided into two 
sorts, Civilia and Venalia. The Roman Fora were not like the ayoqai of the 
Greeks, nearly square, but oblong; the breadth not more than two thirds of 
the length ; the difference between the length and breadth of the chief Forum 
discovered at Pompeii is greater. 

Until the time of Julius Caesar there was but one Forum of the first men- 
tioned class; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, by 
way of eminence. This gave name to the 8th region f§ 54), and was between 
the Capitoline and Palatine hills; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, 
and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius Priscus, with porticos, shops and 
other buildings. On the public buildings around the Forum great sums were 
expended in the architecture and ornaments ; so that it presented a very 
splendid and imposing spectacle ; here were the Basilica, Curia, and Tabula- 
rice ; temples, prisons, and public granaries ; here too were placed numerous 
statues, with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum was the place 
called the Curtian Lake, where Curtius is said to have plunged into a myste- 
rious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one 
side were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which mag- 
istrates and orators addressed the people ; usually called the Rostra ; because 
adorned with the beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of 
Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum called the Comitium, where 
some of the legislative assemblies were held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. 
In or near the Comitium was the Puteal Attii ; a puteal was a little space sur- 
rounded by a wall in the form of a square and roofed over ; such a structure 
was usually erected on a spot which had been struck with lightning. Not far 
from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Tribunal, for holding courts. There 
was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure marking a place 
struck with lightning, the Puteal Libonis, near which usurers and bankers 
were accustomed to meet (Hor. Sat. n. vi. 35;. The milliarium in the Forum 
has already been mentioned (§ 52;. 

Besides this ancient Forum there were four others built by different emperors, and designed 
for civil purposes ; the Forum Julium, built by Julius Csesar, with spoils taken in the Gallic 
war; the Forum, Augusti, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latium on 
one side and the kings of Rome on the other ; the Forum Nerva, begun by Domitian and fin- 
ished by Nerva, having statues of all the emperors ; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the 
most splendid of all. 

The Ford Venalia were 14 in number ; among them the Forum Boarium, 
ox and cow market ; adorned with a brazen bull ; Piscarium, fish market ; 01- 
itorium, vegetable market ; Suarium, swine market, &c. 

§ 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the 
Capitolium. The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifi- 
ces in the city. It was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards 
from time to time enlarged and embellished. Its gates were brass and it was 
adorned with costly gilding ; hence the epithets aurea and fulgens applied to 
it. It was on the Capitoline hill in the highest part of the city, and was some- 
times called arx. The ascent from the forum to it was by 100 steps. It was 
in the form of a square extending about 200 feet on each side. Its front was 
decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides with two. — Three tem- 
ples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitolinus in the centre, 
one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The Capitol 
also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or 
cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the capitol was 
also the asylum, or place of refuge. 

This celebrated structure was destroyed or nearly so, by fire, three times ; first, in the Ma- 
rian war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly in the Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt 
by Vespasian ; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Do- 
mitian with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain. 

§ 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, 
son-in-law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or as its name im- 
ports to all the gods (navrtiv 6emv). It is circular in form and said to be 150 
feet high and of about the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet 
thick. The walls on the inside are either solid marble or incrusted. The 



EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 659 

front on the outside was covered with brazen plates gilt and the top with sil- 
ver plates ; but now it is covered with lead. The gate was of brass of extraor- 
dinary size and work. It has no windows, but only an opening in the top, of 
about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is curiously vaulted, 
void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. " The vestibule 
is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circumference, 
and thirty-nine feet in heighth, each shaft being an entire block of red orien- 
tal granite, having bases and capitals of white marble." The Pantheon is one 
of the most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now 
called the Rotunda, having been consecrated by pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, 
to the Virgin Mary and all the Saints. 

Dr. Adam, in his account of the Pantheon, says, " they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but 
now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in § 53, writes, " the 
statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one 
ascends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true 
four centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place 
under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431." 

§ 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. IV. § 203), 
which cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly 
as. serving for the public treasury • perhaps thus used because one of the strong- 
est places in the city; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the 
golden age, under Saturn, fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept 
the public registers and records, among them the Libri Elephantini, or ivory 
tables containing lists of the tribes. 

The temple of Janus was built or finished, at least, by Numa; a square edi- 
fice, with two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in 
time of war and shut in time of peace. , 

So continually was the city engaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, 
Jn the reign of Numa ; secondly at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241 ; three times in 
the reign of Augustus ; the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards, 
once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The 

gates were opened with formal ceremony (Virg. jEn. vii. 707 J. Sainte Croix, Sur la cloture 

der temple^ de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. laser, vol. xlix. p. 385. 

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its 
library (P. I. § 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, 
on the side of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — Besides these, we may 
name the temple of Concord ; of the goddess of Peace (Pad aAernce) ; of Cas- 
tor and Pollux ; of Valor, built by Marcellus. 

The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate 
groves and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves (luci) are enu- 
merated, chiefly within the city of Rome. 

§ 61. The Curia were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appro- 
priated, some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for 
meetings of the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious 
rites. To the former class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The follow- 
ing were among the Curise; viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallensis, 
Pompeii, &c. 

The Basilica were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the 
senate, and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and 
here bankers also had rooms for transacting their business. There were four- 
teen of these buildings; among them, Basilica vetus, Constantiniana, 
Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicas and the Curia? were chiefly around 
the Forum. 

It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian 
churches, because they so much resembled the Basilica just described. The earliest 
churches bearing this name were erected under Constantine. He gave his own palace on the 
Coelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian 
Basilica. Next was that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, erected, A. D. 324, on the site and 
with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars ; it stood about 12 centuries, and was then 
pulled down by pope Julius 2d, and on its site has- arisen the modern church of the same 
name. 

§ 62. The Circi were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, 
and to fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one 
end at right angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming near- 
ly the the shape of an ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of 



660 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

seats for the spectators. There were eight of these buildings, besides the 
Circus Mazimus, described in another place (P. IV. § 232), situated in the vi- 
cinity of the Forum. We only add here, that this is said to have been en- 
larged after the time of Julius Cassar, so as to contain 260,000 persons. 

The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, 
but less in size and cost. — Hippodromi were of the same character and seem 
to have been sometimes built for private use. 

§ 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the 
purpose of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the 
former use were ,termed theatra (cf. P. IV. § 238). The first, permanent, was 
that erected by Pompey, of hewn stone ; near this in the vicinity of the river 
were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus; hence the phrase, ap- 
plied to them, iria theatra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows 
were termed Amphitheatra (P. IV. § 239), of which the most remarkable was 
the Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — The Odea were build- 
ings circular in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars and statues, 
where trials of musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary com- 
positions were exhibited, after the manner of the Greeks (P. I. § 65j. Those 
established by Domitian and Trajan were the most celebrated. 

§ 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were 
very numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called thermal. 
In the time of the republic the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to 
have been the first to erect warm and hot ones for public use. They were 
then called therma, and placed under the direction of the cediles. Agrippa, 
while he was tedile, increased the number of thermal to 170, and in the course 
of two centuries there were no less than 800 in imperial Rome. The ihermxB 
Diocletiani were i especially distinguished for their extent and magnificence 
(cf. P. I. § 241. 3.) Those of Nero, Titus, Domitian, and especially Caracalla, 
were also of celebrated splendor. 

§ 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures, in which 
the various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequent- 
ly mentioned are the Ludus Magnus, Matutinus, Dacicus, and JEmilius. There 
were also several structures for exhibiting naval engagements, called Nau- 
machia; as JYaumachia Augusti, Domitiani. (Cf. P. IV. § 233.) 

Finally there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs and called Nymph&a ; 
one particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and water-falls, 
and was adorned with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. III. 

$ 66. The Porticos or Piazzas (porticus) were very numerous. These were 
covered colonnades, adorned with statues and designed as places for meeting 
and walking for pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; some- 
times connected with other large buildings, such as basilica?, theatres and the 
like. The most splendid was that of Apollo's temple on Mount Palatine, and 
the largest, the one called Milliaria. Courts were sometimes held in porti- 
cos ; and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. I. 
$237. 

The city was adorned with Triumphal arches (arcus triumphales), to the 
number of 36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (T. I. $ 188). 
Some of them were very magnificent, as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, 
Septimius Severus, and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and 
of a square figure, with a large arched gate in the middle, and small one at 
the sides. 

$ 67. There were single pillars or columns, column®, also erected to com- 
memorate particular victories, e. g. those of Duillius (cf. P. I. § 133. \), Trajan, 
and Antoninus. The last two are still standing and are reckoned among the 
most precious remains remains of antiquity fcf. P. I. § 188. 2). — With great 
labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt, of which those still existing, hav- 
ing been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and Constantius the second, 
are the most remarkable. 

Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the tem- 
ples, but also in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than 
eighty of a colossal size are mentioned. 



EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAHY OF ROME. 661 

There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, tropcea. These were 
trunks of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils taken 
from the enemy, especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of 
marble decorated like trophies, still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have 
been erected by Marius for his victories, over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. 
§ 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aquaiductus, 
should be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant sup- 
ply of water, and great expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. 
There were 14 of the larger sort; the Aqua Appia, Marcia, Virgo, Claudia, 
Sejytimia and Alsietina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs (lacus) 
were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. 

Some of the aqueducts brought water more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountains, 
and over valleys, supported on arches, sometimes above 100 feet high. The care of these origin- 
ally belonged to the asdiles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, called 
curatores aquarum. R. Fabretti, De Aquajductibus veteris Romae. Rom. 1680. 4. 

The Cloaca were also works of great cost and of very durable structure. They were a sort 
of sewers or drains, some of them very large, passing under the whole city, and discharging its 
various impurities into the Tiber. The principal was the Cloaca Maxima, first built by Tarquin- 
ius Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M. Agrippa ; it was 16 feet broad and 30 feet high, formed 
of blocks of hewn stone. The Pantheon (§ 59J was over it ; and many private houses stood 
directly upon the cloaca3. {Stuart's Diet, of Arch.) These were under the charge of officers 
styled curatores cloacarum. 

§ 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected 
{cf. P. IV. § 341). We may name here particularly the Mausoleum of Augustus 
of a pyramidical form, 385 feet high, with two Obelisks standing near it ; the 
Moles Hadriani; and the Tomb or Pyramid of Cestius (of. P. I. § 226. P. IV. 
§ 187.4> 

§ 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodo- 
sius, to 48, 382; including the domus and the insulce. ; the former of which 
classes comprised, according to Gibbon, the "great houses," and the latter the 
" plebeian habitations " (cf. P. IV. § 325). Among them were some of great 
splendor, partly of marble, and adorned with statues and colonnades. The 
more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Csesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, 
Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Nero, the palace of Licinius Cras- 
sus, Aquilius, Catulus, iEmilius Scaurus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c. Before the 
conflagration of the city under Nero, the streets were narrow and irregular, 
and the private houses were incommodious, and some even dangerous from 
their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofty stories. In the time 
of Nero, more than two thirds of the city was burnt. Of the 14 districts, only 
4 remained entire. The city was rebuilt with more regularity, with streets 
broader and less crooked (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were 
measured out, and the height restricted to 70 feet. 

§ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive, that its neighborhood was almost one 
immense village ; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Compagna di Roma, is a com- 
plete desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martius. The accumula- 
tion of ruins has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said 
respecting the entrance of the Pantheon ( § 59) , and the height of the Tarpeian rock (§ 53). 

§ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Eu- 
rope fcf. § 27) ; and we might include the whole under the term Grcecia, taken 
in a very comprehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it 
has been made to cover not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but 
also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, and even Thracia. The victories of Philip 
having procured him a vote in the Amphictyonic council, his Thessalian and 
Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked among the Grecian states. 
The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured the same honor for Epirus 
not long after ; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dignity, when it 
became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Graecia is rarely used in 
so large a sense ; and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and 
include the other countries under Grcecia. 

Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which 
separated it from Mossia ; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, 
and Hellespont, which divided it from Asia ; on the south by the iEgean sea; 
and on the west by the river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In conse- 
quence of the conquests of Philip, the river Nessus became the mutual bounda- 
56 



66% CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ry, of Thrace and Macedon, the intermediate district being annexed to 
the latter country. — The peninsula contained between the Bay of Melas, and 
the Hellespont was called Tkracice Chersonesus ; celebrated in the wars be- 
tween Philip and the Athenians. 

§ 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was 
Byzantium, or Constantinopolis, built on the northeastern extremity of the 
Chersonese, called from its beauty Chrusoceras, or the golden horn. By whom 
this city was founded is a matter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlarged and 
beautified by Constantine the Great, who, in the fourth century of the Chris- 
tian era, transferred the seat of government hither from Rome. On the di- 
vision of the Roman empire, this city became the capital of the Greek or 
eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from the vices 
of the inhabitants, and the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the 
Turks, on the 29th of May, A. D. 1453. 

On the topography of Byzantium, Gibbon, ch. xvii. — James Dallaway, Constantinople ancient 
and modern. — North Amer. Rev. 16th vol. or 7th of New Series, p. 438. 

The other principal towns were, Salmydcssus (Midijeh), celebrate cHbr ship- 
wrecks ; Thynia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni, who colon- 
ized Bithynia in Asia Minor; Apollonia called afterwards Sizopolis (Sizeboli), 
and Mesembria, built by a colony of Megarensians; all on the Euxine sea. — 

Selymbria (Selibria), and Perinthus, or Heraclea (Erekli),,on the Propontis. 

Callipolis (Gallipoli),at the junction of the Propontis and Hellespont; the 
small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little river JEgos Potamos 
joins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysander destroyed the 
naval power of the Athenians ; and Sestos (Zemrnie), where Xerxes built his 
bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos are also celebrate- 
ted for the loves of Hero and Leander. The possibility of swimming across 
the Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late 
Lord Byron. 

On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into 
it, were Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new 
town ; Lysimachia, that he had built a little farther south ; and Eion, which 
was burned by its governor, Boges. — In the interior were Trajanopolis, built 
by Trajan; and Adrianopolis , its successful rival, built by Adrian, and now 
the second city of the Turkish empire. At the east mouth of Hebrus, stood 
JEnos, said to have been founded by iEneas, near the territory of the Cico- 
nes; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his immense arma- 
ment after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- 
merous as completetly to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth 
of the Nessus was Abdera, the birth-place of the philosopher Democritus, 
near which were the stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on 
human flesh. 

§ 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated 
for the clearness and rapidity of its waters; Nessus (Nissar), and Strymon, 
(Jamboli). — The principal mountains were Mount Hazmus, extending from 
the Euxine sea in a western direction between Mcesia and Thrace ; Rhodope, 
extending from the Euxine sea to the sources of the Nessus ; and Pangams 7 
extending thence to the north of Macedon. It was on the Pang&us that the 
wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have been performed 
(P. II. § 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, ap- 
proach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow 
passages, which were defended by walls. — The principal seas and bays, ad- 
joining this extensive maritime country were Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus 
Thracius, Propontis, Hellespontus, Melanis Sinus (Gulf of Saros), and Stry- 
tnonicus Sinus (Gulf of Contesse). 

§ 75. Thrace was anciently possessed by several independent tribes, one of these, the Dol~ 
on'ei, being hard pressed by the Absrjnthi, their neighbors, sent to Delphi to consult the ora- 
cle about the event of the war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the per- 
son who should first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hos- 
pitably entertained by Miltiades the son of Cypselus ; they immediately requested him to ac- 
company them to the Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, ac- 
cepted the invitation. — On his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians 
Were soon after defeated. He fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the 
Isthmus, and after a prosperous reign bequeathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras, — Stes- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. THRACIA. 663 

agoris dying after a short reign, his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratidae 
as his successor. He had not reigned long, when Darius king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoeni- 
cians against the Chersonese, and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to 
Athens. — The Chersonese,affer the defeat of the Persians,was principally possessed by the Athe- 
nians, who colonized all the coast. The interior of Thrace remained subject to the native 
princes, until the whole country was united to Macedon by Philip and Alexander. 

§ 76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already- 
remarked (§ 72), under Gkicia, using this name in what is commonly 
considered its most comprehensive sense (cf. P. IV. § 2). The extensive re- 
gion thus included in Grsscia presents four general divisions, which are obvi- 
ously suggested by the natural face of the country. The 1st is that part, 
which lies north of the chain of mountains called Cambunii, which are con- 
nected by the Stymphaei Montes with the Aero Ceraunii ; the 2d is the part 
between the Cambunii on the north, and another line of highlands and moun- 
tains on the south, which may be traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, 
to the Sinus Ambracius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass 
of Thermopylae, and the chain is in this portion of it called (Eta ; as it 
stretches back in a northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus ; 
this sends down a spur from the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus 
Ambracius, where it forms another pass corresponding to that of Thermopylae 
on the east ; the 3d is the part between the mountains just traced and the gulfs 
on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Corinthiacus , and Sinus Saron- 
icus ; and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main by that isthmus. 
The first, is Macedonia; the second, Epirus and Thessalia; the third, Hellas ; 
the fourth, Peloponnesus. 

§ 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural 
divisions above described, was bouned W. by the Mare Hadriaticum ; N. by 
Illyricum and Mcesia; E. by Thracia from which it was separated by Mt. 
Rhodope and the river Nestus flowing from Rhodope ; S. by the iEgoaum 
Mare, the Cambunii Montes and the other mountains forming the chain, al- 
ready mentioned, which terminates in the Aero Ceraunii on the western ex- 
tremity. 

In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. 
Hcemus and Mt. Rhodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its 
north in a single chain ; this was called Orbelus Mons ; a spur from Orbelus 
will be noticed running down south through Macedonia, and forming a con- 
nection with the Stymphai, or Mons Stympha, already named, between the 
Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters east of this spur flow to the iEgean; 
those west of it, to the Hadriatic. 

§ 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo (Drino), which runs 
through lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the 
point called Nymphceum Promontorium. — One of the most important places in 
this western portion was Apollo ma, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the 
Roman age of Greek Literature (P. II. § 9) for its cultivation, and said to be 
the place where Augustus acquired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his 
education. Another place is worthy of notice, Epidamnus, further north, 
called Dyrrachium by the Romans, the place where travelers from Italy to 
Greece generally landed. This portion, west of the spur, was taken from Illy- 
ricum by Philip (Rollin, B. 14. § I). 

§ 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice 
three most considerable rivers ; the Haliacmon (Platemone), in the southern 
part, flowing east to the Sinus Thermaicns (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Saloni- 
chi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising in the heights between Macedonia and Mce- 
sia, and running S. to the head of the same gulf, receiving on its way many 
tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west before its discharge ; the 
Strymon, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus Strymonicus (Gulf 
of Contessa). — - Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the peninsula 
sometimes called Chalcidice, and presenting peculiar features, having a cluster 
of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two 
bays, the Toronaicus (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeticus (G. of Monte 
Sancto). The western of these smaller peninsulas was Pelleva or Phlegra, 
the fabled scene of the battle between Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151) ; 
the eastern was marked by Mt. Athos, extending several leagues upon and pro- 



664 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

jecting into the sea, and was celebrated for a canal said to be cut across its 
neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. Athos, that passage having 
proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. 

§ 80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which 
are not important, even if they could be accurately traced. Pceonia was in the 
northern part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. 
The southern part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus, was Pieria. Emathia 
was north of Pieria, and of the same gulf. 

Emathia was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, 
the original capital of the country, on the Erigon ; also Pella, on the Lydias, 
subsequently made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, 
on the Sinus Thermaicus, was Thermae, afterwards called Thessalonica, the 
place of Cicero's banishment, and the capital of the country as a Roman pro- 
vince ; here still remains an ancient structure (see Plate XXX), supposed by 
some to have been a Cabirian temple (cf. P. III. § 129). On the peninsula 
which has been described f § 79 J were Potidcea, or Cassandria, on the neck of 
Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander ; Olynthus, memora- 
ble for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; 
Chalcis, which gave name to the region ; Stagira fStagros;, on the eastern 
coast, the birth-place of Aristotle. — In Pieria, one of the most memora- 
ble places was Pydna fKitraj, where Olympias was murdered by Cassander, 
and where the Roman general Paulus iEmilius made a prisoner of Perseus the 
last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on the coast, was Methone, 
at the siege of which Philip lost his right eye. — In Edonis were two im- 
portant towns ; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an 
Athenian colony ; Philippi, further east, near Mons Pangaeus, a branch from 
Rhodope. 

The latter was built by Philip, for the same purpose for which the Athenians built Amphi- 
polis ; to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found in this region. It is celebrated for 
the battle in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Augustus and Antony, B. C. 42; and 
memorable as the place where Paul and Silas, having been " thrust into the inner prison, with 
their feet fast in the stocks, at midnight sang praises unto God " (Acts, xvi. 25J. Its site is 
still marked by ruins (Miss. Herald, Sept. 1836. p. 334J. — Like most of the Greceian cities, 
it was at the foot of a hill or mount on which was its Acropolis. A view of the Acropolis and 
of the plain below is given in our Plate XXXI. A traveler on horseback is advancing on the 
road from Neapolis to Philippi ; he is just passing a modern Turkish burying-ground on his 
right hand under a near hill ; the Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at 
the right ; at the base of this eminence, was the lower city, on the south and southwest ; 
farther to the south is an open plain ; the mountain on the left is the southern extremity of 
PangcEus. 

§ 81. The kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranus, a descendant of Her- 
cules, B.C. 814; but it did not acquire consequence until the reign of Philip, who ascended 
the throne B. C. 360. It has been stated, that 150 different nations or tribes were finally includ- 
ed within its ltmits. 

§ 82. (2) Epirus and Thessalia, embraced in the second natural division 
pointed out (§ 76), are next to be noticed. 

Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain, embosomed 
in mountains. The Cambunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pelion and 
Ossa, on the east'; Pindus, on the west; and (Eta, on the south : so that only 
the small portion of coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus and the Sinus Ma- 
liacus is without the guard of mountains ; and even this has a guard a little in 
the interior, by Mt. Othrys, which strikes across from Pindus to Pelion. 

The extensive plains of Thessaly were peculiarly favorable to the breeding 
of horses ; and the Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cav- 
alry, horses having been, at first, only used for draught. Hence, perhaps, 
arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaly, who were supposed to 
have been half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained their 
superiority to a very late period, and to them Philip was indebted for many of 
his victories. 

§ 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pel- 
asgi, an Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first in- 
habitants of Greece (P. I. $ 33). The principal cities in Pelasgiotis were 
Larissa, the capital of the province ; Gomphi, destroyed by Caesar ; Gonnus 
and Gyrtona, near the entrance of the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its nat- 
ural beauties ; Scotussa, near which are some hills, called, from their shape, 



PLATE XXX. 




1. The Rotunda of Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica. It is supposed to 
have been a Cabirian Temple. By the Christians it was converted into a 
church of Paul and Peter. The Turks have turned it into a mosque; and 
erected the minaret, which appears attached to it, and in the gallery of 
which is seen a Muezzin, whose office is to announce from the gallery the 
hour of prayer. 



2. A fountain for the Mussulman ablution before prayers. 



56* 



666 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Cynos Cepkale, where Philip was defeated by Quintus Flaminius ; and Phar- 
salus,nea.r which,in a plain called Pharsalia,Fompey was overthrown by Caesar. 
The eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia; the most remarka- 
ble places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same name, 
where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being 
shattered in a storm ; Demetrias (VlooJ, built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and 
which, from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated 
the neighboring towns; Metibcea, the city of Philoctetes); Tolcos, the residence 
of Jason and Medea; Pagasai, where the ship Argo was built, from which the 
Sinus Pelasgicns is sometimes called Pagasceus : Aphetce rFetioJ, whence the 
Argonautic expedition sailed ; Pherce, the residence of the tyrant Alexander ; 
and Thebce, near the river Amphrysus, where Apollo fed the herds of king 

Admetus. In the southern parts of Thessaly were Media, which gives 

name to the Maliac bay ; Larissa, called Cremaste from its sloping situation, 
the capital of the kingdom of Achilles; Mos, at the foot of mount Othrys, 
near which the combat between the Centaurs and Lapithas took place ; Phy- 
lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where the musical 
contest between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypata, famous for the 
magical arts of its women CHor. Ep. 5J; Lamia, where Antipater was fruit- 
lessly besieged by the Athenians ; and Trackis CZeitonJ, celebrated for its des- 
perate resistance when besieged by the Romans- 

§ 84. The mountains have been mentioned above f§ &2J. The most remark- 
able river was the Peneus, which passing the vale of Tempe falls into the 
JEgean sea. This river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules 
opened a passage for the waters between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The 
principal inlets of the iEgean sea, on the Thessalian coast, were Sinus Pelas- 
gicns or Pagasaus f Gulf of Volo), and Sinus Maliacus f Gulf of ZeitonJ. 

$ 85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of the first events 
recorded in profane history ; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha, are said 
to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the human race might be re- 
stored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them •, 
those thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrha women. In this fable the history 
of some partial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. 

The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the 
bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. III. § 127 J. — Achilles was the most remarka- 
ble Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an 
oracle had foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy ; to prevent 
this, his mother concealed him at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose 
daughters he begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolenius, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last 
discovered by Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of 
Priam. 

During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta. Thessaly seems to have been of little impor- 
tance. The greater part of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. — It was 
cruelly devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian and Syrian kings ; it 
also suffered very severely in the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey. 

§ 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often 
included. We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north the 
mountains Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii, and on the south, the Sinus Ambra- 
cius ; but the region called Orestis between the Aero Ceraunii and the river 
Aous is commonly termed a province of Epirus ; and Acarnania, within the 
proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as another province. In all 
descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus ; while the Mare 
Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included 
the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 

§ 87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, 
said to be named from Chaon, the brother of Helenus son of Priam. These 
mountains were so called from their summits (w*o«) being often struck with 
lightning (xsQawog) ; they were remarkable for attracting storms, and were 
dreaded by mariners ; the rocks at the westerm extremity of their southern 
branch, Acro-Ceraunia, were called infamous (infames). — The principal 
towns were Oricum in the extreme north, on the coast between the branches 
of the mountains just mentioned; and Anchesmus also on the coast and in 
the extreme south of the province. 

Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Sinus Ambracius 
(G. of Arta). Its principal places wexe^Buthrotwn on the river Xanthus,near 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRiECIA. 667 

which JEneas is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy ; and 
Ephyra (a), on the river Acheron, flowing to the harbor called Glycis Limen 
{y7.vy.vq kipljv). The river Acheron is joined at its mouth by the Cocytus. — 
These were ranked in the ancient mythology among the flumina inferorifyn, 
or infernal rivers ; three others had the same rank ; the Styx, in Arcadia ; the 
Lethe, in Bceotia probably ; and the Phlegethon, the location of which, as an 
actual river, is unknown, although it is represented sometimes as uniting 
with the Acheron. 

(a) Ephyra was subsequently called Cichyrus ; the ruins of its walls are said to be still visi- 
ble. — Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. 

M o 1 o s s i s was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. Its. 
principal towns were Jlmbracia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the 
river Aracthus or Arethon ; Dodona, famous for its oracle and temple of Jupi- 
ter (P. IV. § 71), and Passaro, where the kings of Epirus took the corona- 
tion oath. — The Molossian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. 

$ 88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history until the Macedonian Empire 
was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto been 
looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Macedonians, began to take a lead in 
the affairs of Greece. — The folly of Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival 
the conquests of Alexander in tl£ east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority. 

On the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian liberty with 

a desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been 
achieved by Paulus iEmilius, enraged at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to 
be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves ; an instance of atrocious re- 
venge scarcely to be parallelled in history. 

When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Mahometans, the 
remnants of the Christian forces retreated to the fastnesses, of the mountains of Suli and the 
town of Parga in this territory. — The Suliotes, after performing feats of valor only to be paral- 
lelled in the brighter days of Grecian freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously mas- 
sacred ; and Parga, after many vicisitudes, fell under the power of Turkey. — For an account 
of Parga, cf. Loud. Quart. Rev. xxm. p. 111. 

§ 89. (3) Our 3d division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. CEta 
and the large gulfs, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is 
properly termed Hellas, and is also called Gr^ecia Propria. 

This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the 
east are first the waters of Sinus Maliaeus then of Sinus Opuntius and those 
between the main-land and Euboea, which are called in the narrowest place 
Euripus. Leaving these and drawing near the southern point of the country, 
you enter the Myrtoum Mare, and having passed that point, Sunium Promon- 
torium, with the splendid temple of Minerva in sight, you proceed up the Si- 
nus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you must take a land car- 
carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), when 
you reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of LepantoJ. — This opens into Hel- 
las several bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare, and an- 
other central and opening to the north called Sinus Crissceus (Bay of Salona). 
— Continuing the survey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus 
Corinthiacus through the strait called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Rhiuiu 
on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the or> 
posite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and continue in the Mare Io- 
nium, till having gone through the artificial channel separating Leucas from 
the mainland, you turn round the Promontorium Actium and enter the Sinus 
Ambracius, which ends the tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not 
more than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, from the Sinus Maliaeus, 
where the imaginary tour began. 

§ 90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence 
look down upon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number 
of hills and mountains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its 
summits might seem to rise up over the country in disorder and confusion, 
but soon he would trace some obvious lines of connection. — He would per- 
ceive one line of summits stretching from Mt. (Eta at Thermopylae down par- 
allel to the eastern coast and to the island Euboea as far as to the strait Euri- 
pus. — He would observe another of more lofty and attractive summits pro- 
ceeding from Pindus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliaeus and Si- 
nus Ambracius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off 
on its right a line of minor summits down to the western extremity of the 
Sinus Corinthiacus, but itself bending to the south-east, and at length verging 



668 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

along the shore of that gulf to its eastern extremity and there connecting with 
the Geranii Monies and Mons Oncius on the isthmus, and with Mons Citharoiu 
which proceeds directly east to the sea south of the straits of Euripus. — The 
part of this line joining Pindus includes probably the mountains in which the 
ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first part of the branch which it sends off to 
the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination of this branch at the gulf is 
in the summits called Taphiassus and Chalets. — In the main line bending to 
the south-east occur first Parnassus, which although of barren soil was cele- 
brated for its green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation ; then Hel- 
icon, with its fountain Hippocrene, sprung (according to fable) from the stamp- 
ing of Pegasus (cf. P. III. § 117./). — After this, as you turn eastward, ap- 
pears Citharon, which has a summit in the eastern part, called Parnes. — In 
the territory south of these, were several summits, particularly, Pentelicus, 
famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ; Hymettus, celebrated for its 
honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius containing the silver mines, 
in the southern extreme of Attica. — Aracynthus was a chain in iEtolia. 

§ 91. Hellas contained eight small, but independant provinces or districts. 
These were, beginning on the west, Acarnania, JEtolia, Doris, Locris, Phocis, 
Bceotia, Megaris, Attica. 

The two western districts Acarnania and JEtolia were very inferior to the 
rest in fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer as- 
pect than in some other districts. 

§ 92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabit- 
ants were noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded 
(§ 76) to the natural boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz. the Si- 
nus Ambracius and the spur af mountains running from Pindus down to that 
bay. This line of highlands is now called Makrinoros, which name is also 
given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and steep termination near the 
bay, a pass similar to that of ThermopylsB. The boundary between Acar- 
nania and the next district of Hellas, JEtolia, is the river Achelous, rising 
among the valleys of Mt. Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. 

Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius, on the river 
Inachus emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius ; Anacta- 
rium on a peninsula forming the north-western corner of the district; Actium 
a little further to the east, on the Promontory of the same name. At this 
place Augustus gained his great naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and 
to commemorate it, built a town called JSicopolis, and instituted games cele- 
brated every third year, called Actia. — Leucas was on the northern point of 
the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Peloponnesian war, 
but after that separated by an artificial channel. On the south part was a 
temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucate, from which the despairing Sap- 
pho, is said to have thrown herself (cf. P. II. § 54). — Stratus, once its me- 
tropolis, was on the Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo. 

§ 93. M t o 1 i a was east of Acarnania, separated by the river Achelous ; it 
is now called Vlakia from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors 
gave this province. Its other chief river was the Evenus (Fideri) falling into 
the Corinthian bay ; this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. 

The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under ML 
Chalets ; associated with the story of the Caledonian boar (destroyed by the son 
„ of the king of iEtolia), whose tusks were said to have been preserved in Greece 
until Augustus carried them to, Rome as curiosities ; Thermus the ancient 
capital, in the interior or between the Evenus and Lake Trichonis. — Nans- 
pactus, on the Sinus Corinthiaeus , under Mt. Taphiassus, was not included in 
the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this province by Philip of Mace- 
don ; it was said to have its name from vavg and ni'iyrviu, because the Herac- 
lidse built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. 

§ 94. D o r i s , a very small district, lay under mount Pindus, between OZta 
on the east and the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus 
on the south-west and being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the 
south-east ; thus wholly surrounded by mountains. It was called Doris from 
Dorus, son of Deucalion ancient monarch of Thessaly. It was a rocky, moun- 
tainous region. Its towns were situated on the river Pindus a branch of the 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 669 

Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. From its four towns Pin- 
dus, Erineum, Boium and Cytinium, it was called Tetrapolis ; and sometimes 
Hezapolis, the two places Lilceum and Carphia being added 

§ 95. Locris consisted of two parts separated from each other. — The 
larger part was on the Sinus Corinthiacus having iEtolia on the west, and 
Phocis on the east (partly separated from it by the Sirius Crissceus) . The in- 
habitants of this part were called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperii and Locri 
OzoIcb. Of the origin of the latter name, different accounts are given ; the 
people are said to have disliked the name exceedingly. One of their prin- 
cipal places was Jimphissa, in the interior, where was a temple to Minerva. — 
JYaupactus (§ 93) originally belonged to them. 

§ 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of Hel- 
las, on the waters separating it from Euboea. It was north-east of Phocis and 
Bceotia, divided from them by a chain of mountains and extending from Mt. 
(Eta on the north to the Platanius, a small river flowing to the channel of 

Euboea and separating Locris from Boeotia, on the south. This part was 

inhabited by two tribes. — the Opuntii were in the southern region, so called 
from their principal city Opus, which gave name also to the bay adjacent, Si- 
nus Opuntius, containing a small island, Malanta. The port of Opus, called 
Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or people were the Ep- 
icnemidii, so named from Mt. Cnemis. On this there was a small town of the 
same name ; other places of note were JYaryx, the city of Ajax, son of Oileus ; 
Thronium ; and Anihela, where the Amphictyonic council assembled annually 
in a temple of Ceres, or as she was called here, in allusion to the council, 
Thesmophora (the lawgiver). 

Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of Thermopylce, deriving 
their name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This 
celebrated pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces 
wide, and is situated between the ridge of Mount 03ta and the Malian gulf, 
at the junction of the three countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here 
Leonidas, with a handful of men, bravely resisted the countless myriads of 
Persia, and died rather than violate the Spartan law, which forbade flight to 
the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king of Syria, w 7 as defeated by 
the consul Acilius ; and during the late struggle for Grecian freedom, two sig- 
nal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks over their Turkish oppressors on 
the same inspiring spot. 

§ 97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corin- 
thian gulf to the borders of Thessaly. 

The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by 
Philip first awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition 
of the Macedonian monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi, on mount Parnas- 
sus, celebrated for the oracle of Apollo (P. IV. § 72), and for the annual meet- 
ings of the Amphictyonic council (P. IV. § 105) held in the temple. It is 
now a mean village, called Castri. Parnassus (Haliocoro) had two summits, 
one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus ; the town stood at the foot of the 
mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring eminence (a), close to 
the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were celebrated, in 
memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python — Cirrha, on the small 
river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Del- 
phi ; near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf,and some- 
times the whole gulf, was called Crissffius ; and Anticijra, celebrated for the 
production of hellebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, 
which is sometimes confounded with a river of the same name in Attica. 

(a) A view of Delphi and the heights of Parnassus is presented in the Frontispiece of this 
Manual, as given by Bocage, in Barthelerny's Anacharsis. — A plan of Delphi, with explana- 
tions is found in Disserts Pindar, vol. n. p. 628. as cited P. II. $ 60. 4. 

$ 98. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for 
the common liberties of Greece ; in revenge, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the 
country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by earth- 
quakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- 
ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder About 280 B. C, a large 

body of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated un- 
der circumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. 

§ 99. B oe o t i a occupied the north-east of Grcecia propria, on the shores of 
the Euripus, a narrow strait, between the island of Euboea and the continent, 



670 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first intro- 
dused letters into Greece. The city stood on the river Ismenus, and was or- 
namented with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapylos. It was the birth- 
place of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of 
those illustrious warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The 
citadel was, from its founder, called Cadmea. — South of this was Platcea, 
where the Persian army were totally destroyed by the united valor of the 
Athenians, Spartans, and Plateans ; it was afterwards destroyed by the Spar- 
tans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuctra, near lake Copias, 
where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas ; Coronea, near mount 
Helicon; 'Chceronea, where Philip having defeated the Athenians and The- 
bans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lebadea, remarkable for the temple 
of Trophonius ; and Orchomenus, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sa- 
cred to Venus. — Near the Corinthian gulf was Thespice, sacred to the Muses, 
having a port named Creusa ; and Jlscra, the birth-place of the poet Hesiod. 
— On the Euripus were JLulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the 
Trojan expedition, and the scene of Tphigenia's sacrifice ; Tanagra, where 
the celebrated poetess Corinna was born ; and Delium, a village, which de- 
rived its name from a temple of Apollo, built in imitation of that at Delos, 
and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved the life 
of his pupil Alcibiades. 

§ 100. The chief mountains of Bceotia were Helicon, with the fountain Ag- 
anippe and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Pho- 
cis, dedicated to the same divinities; Dirce, near Thebes ; and Cithceron, on 
the borders of Megaris, sacred to Bacchus. 

The people of Bceotia were usually described as naturally stupid, but with apparently little 
justice ; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the barbarous custom of exposing 
children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been accused 
of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. — In the heroic ages, Thebes seems to have 
been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the dis- 
covery of the truth is very difhcult. It certainly declined in after times ; probably the misfor- 
tunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed 
the spirit of the people. 

§ 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight 
miles square, south of Mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its 
chief city was Megara, situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built 
on two cliffs not far from the the Sinus Saronicus ; its port was JViscea, taken 
and destroyed by Pericles. The only other place of note was Crommyon, 
near the Scironian rocks ; these were said to be very dangerous, and to have 
derived their name from Sciron, a notorious pirate and robber. 

§ 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, 
and south of Cithseron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 
30 miles wide at its base on the north and tapering until it terminates in the 
point called Sunium, projecting into the Myrtoum Mare, east of the Sinus Sa- 
ronicus (gulf of Engia). It was also called Acte (kri;) from its maratime sit- 
uation. The capital was Athens, a more full description of which we shall 
give below. 

§ 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian 
invaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely 
routed by the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. North of this was the 
village Rhamnus, where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had 
brought to raise a trophy of their anticipated victory, was erected to the 
goddess Nemesis ; a little to the east was Phyle, a strong fort, which was oc- 
cupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition against the thirty tyrants. On the 
Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus, where there was a celebrated temple 
of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was Acharna, where the 
Lacedaemonians encamped when they invaded Attica ; and Decelia, which they 
fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens, was Brauron, where 
the statue of Diana, brought from Taurus by Orestes, was preserved until 
taken away by Xerxes; and Sunium, a town and promontory at the south- 
eastern extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva, 
(from the ruins of which it is now called Cape Colonna), and is in modern 
times remarkable as the scene of the shipwreck beautifully described by 
Falconer.— West of Athens was Eleusis. where the Eleusinian mysteries in 



EUROPE. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. HELLAS. 671 

honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two remarkable temples at Eleu- 
sis 3 that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus. 

§ 104. Topography of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Ce- 
cfops, an Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At 
first, it was called Cecropia, from the name of its founder ; and afterwards 
"A-frijrai, Athens, in honor of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called 
'A&i'jVtj), because she was the protectress of the city. In its most nourishing 
state, it was one of the largest and most beautiful cities of Greece, and is 
said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in going around it; according 
to other and more exact computations, it was about one hundred and seventy- 
eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles ; and Dion Chry- 
sostom reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Ro- 
man miles in circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have 
been much larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not 
less than 19 miles at least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. 
— The number of gates is not known; thirteen are named by Robinson; the 
largest was called J[tiv?.ov, and was near the Ceramicus; the c Iena was that 
leading to Eleusis. 

For a plan of of Athens, see our Plate XXIX. — The description here given, is drawn chiefly 
from Robinson's Archseologia Graeca. 

§ 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the 
east to the Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Parnes on the north, 
and Hymettus on the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus sur- 
rounded by natural ramparts, we behold the very singular geological feature 
of six insular mountain rocks standing in regular succession, and gradually 
diminishing as you descend from Pentelicus westward to the sea. The one 
nearest the sea is called the hill of Musarns. On the next is the Acropolis of 
Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mt. Jlnchesmus, on the summit 
of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter ; from this eminence 
an observer could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — Two streams 
furnished their waters to the city. One was the llissus, which flowed to the 
east and south of the city, and which is supposed, from the appearance of its 
channel and from the allusions of the poets, to have been anciently much 
larger than it has been seen in modern times. The other, Cephissus, was 

still smaller and ran on the other side. Athens may be described in two 

parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on the summit of the hill termed Acrop- 
olis (ay.(J07To?.Lg), and called the upper city, ?} avia nol.ig; and the part built 
afterward, ?/ y.urm 7z6?.ig, or the lower city. 

The hill or Acropolis as distinguished from the lower part is distinctly seen in the View given 
in our Plate immediately following the title-page ; which is taken from J. C. Hobhouse's Jour- 
ney through Albania and other provinces of Turkey &c. Lond. 1813. 2 vols. 4. — The Grecian 
method of thus connecting an Acropolis with their towns is also illustrated by our Plate 
XXXI. cf. § 80. 

§ 106. The citadel, or upper city, was sixty stadia in circumference, and 
was fenced with wooden pales, or, as some say, was surrounded with olive- 
trees. It was fortified on the south side with a strong wall, which was built 
by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, from the spoils taken in the Persian war, and 
which was called Kiuwvtov ttiyog. The north wall was built many ages be- 
fore by Agrolas, or according to some, by Euryalus and Hyperbius, two brothers, 
who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses. This wall was de- 
nominated TlO.aayiy.ov or TIO.aQyiy.br, from the Pelasgi,the name of its found- 
ers. This wall was beautified with nine gates, from which it is sometimes 
called 3 Evvsu.7tv7.ov ; but, though there were several lesser gates, there was 
one grand entrance into the citadel, the TloonvZaia, to which the Athenians 
ascended by steps covered with white marble, and which was built by Peri- 
cles, at great expense. Over this entrance is one of those enormous slabs of 
marble, called " marble beams " by Wheeler , and to which Pausanias partic- 
ularly alluded, when, in describing the Propylsea, he says, that, even in his 
time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship, or the magnitude of 
the stones used in the building, had ever been seen. 

The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, stat- 
ues, and monuments on which the ancient stories were fully described. The 
noble statues of Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and other Atheni-* 
an generals, were here intermingled with those of the gods. 



672 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Here was the temple of Minerva, called Nixt] or Victory, constructed of 
white marble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. 

§ 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately temple of Minerva, 
called Parthenon, because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or 
because it was dedicated by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particu- 
larly called 7tao-&(voi, virgins. It was also denominated ^ExarounsSov, be- 
cause it was one hundred feet square. It was burnt by the Persians, but re- 
stored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on each side. It was of the 
Doric order, and built of that beautiful white marble, found in the quarries of 
Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue of Mi- 
nerva, so celebrated for its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquis- 
ite beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twen- 
ty-six cubits high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, 
beings 229 feet in length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. fSee Plate XVI. 
fig. 1. Cf. P. IV. § 96. P. I. § 190. 4.) 

Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a 
double building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 
*Mqs X&ei'g, which was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke 
of Neptune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the possession of 
the country. This part of the temple was consecrated to Neptune. The 
other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed Jlo/.iag, the protectress of the city, 
and IIuvdQoaog, from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that name. Here so 
late as the second century of the Christian aera, was the sacred olive-tree, which 
was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as the foun- 
dation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was 
said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was 
guarded by dragons, called oixovqol oysig, and had a lamp always burning 
with oil, and an owl before it. The whole structure was called ^Eqi^siov. 
Both these buildings still remain. The smaller edifice, which is an entrance 
to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 21 feet 3 inches in breadth. The larger 
is 63 1-2 feet in length, and 36 feet in. breadth. The roof is supported by 
channeled Ionic pillars. 

Behind the temple of Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its sit- 
uation was called 3 OmadoSouog, and in which, besides other public money, a 
thousand talents were deposited for any very great exigency of the state. 

In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter Sw- 
tj>(), and of Minerva ScoretQa; the temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Ce- 
crops, or rather of Minerva, who was worshiped under that name, in the front 
and steep side of the rock ; and the temple of Venus, c Itctco/.vtsivc, consecrat- 
ed by Phaedra, when in love with Hippolytus. 

§ 108, The lower city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the 
citadel, with Munychia, Phalerum, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls 
of unequal strength, built at different times and by different persons. The 
principal parts of the walls were the Maxna rsi^t], which joined the harbor 
of Piraeus to the city, and which being about five miles in length, were some- 
times called Maxqu oxi?.rj, long legs, and brachia longa, long arms. They 
consisted of two sides. The wall on the north side was built by Pericles at 
great expense, and continued forty stadia. That on the south side was called 
Nortov Tsi%og, or naqlx uicrov rsi/ij, to distinguish it from the south wall of 
the citadel, and sometimes rn/og (paXrjQixbv, because it included the port of 
of Phalerum. It was built by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not ce- 
mented together with mortar, but fastened on the outside by iron and leaden 
cramps. "The height of it was forty cubits, but Themistocles wished to raise 
it to eighty cubits. Its length was thirty -five stadia. Upon both of the walls 
was erected a great number of turrets, which, after the Athenians became so 
numerous that the city could not contain them, were converted into dwell- 
ing-houses. The Mowv^lov, or wall that emcompassed the Munychia, and 
joined it to the Piraeus, contained sixty stadia; and the exterior wall on the 
other side Was forty-three stadia in length ; and hence it appears, as has been 
before observed, that the whole circumference of Athens was 178 stadia, or 
rather more than 22 Roman miles. 

§ 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarka- 



EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 673 

hie were the following. — Hounnov was a stately edifice, in which were kept 
the sacred utensils used at festivals, and in which were prepared all things 
necessary for solemn processions. — The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and 
Minerva, situated not far from the Ceramicus within the city, was a public 
prison. — Near to this building was the temple of the Heavenly Venus ; for the 
Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of which one was desig- 
nated Ovqavla, and the other JJuvSijiiog : the former presided over chaste and 
pure love ; the latter was the patroness of lust and debauchery. — J Jlvay.ziov 
was a temple of Castor and Pollux, who were called avaxsg. In this place 
slaves were exposed to sale. 

The temple of Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, 
near the place where the youths employed themselves in wrestling and other 
bodily exercises. This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons 
of low condition that fled from the persecution of men in power, in comraem- 
moration of Theseus, who, when alive, Avas the guardian and protector of the 
distressed. 

Speaking of the Temple of Theseus, Dr. Clarke observes, that this beautiful Doric temple 
more resembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of Psestum than that of Minerva 
in the Acropolis, and the most entire of any of the remaining structures of ancient Greece, 
were it not for the damage which the sculptures have sustained, may be considered as still 
perfect. The entire edifice is of Pentelican marble ; it stands east and west, the principal 
front facing the east ; and it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a 
range of eleven columns, exclusive of the columns on the angles. — See Plate XVI. fig. 3. 

§ 110. *0?.vuTciov, or 5 Olvunsiov, was a temple erected in honor of Jupiter 
the Olympian, and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, 
or peribolus, within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was 
constructed with double rows of columns, 10 in front, and 21 in flank, amount- 
ing in all to 124 ; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the 
flank more than 400. These pillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous 
and stately temple. The foundation of this edifice was laid by Pisistratus, 
whose sons continued the work ; but it was not completely finished till the 
time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure had been commenced. 

The temple of Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the 
citadel, in a cave or grotto, which was called May.qai Ttirqai, or Kiy.qoniai 
ttitqcu. — The temple of Diana, surnamed JvoLtwvoc, because in it women, 
after the birth of their first child, dedicated their girdles to that goddess. 

lluv&eov was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who as they were united 
in one edifice were honored with one common festival, which was called 0so- 
civia. This was also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 
pillars of marble. On the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story 
of all the gods; and on one great gate two. horses were carved by Praxiteles. 

The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on 
every side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter 
whence it blew, 

The model of this building was furnished by Andronicus Cyrrhastes, who placed upon the 
top of the tower a small pyramid of marble, upon the summit of which he erected a brazen 
triton, holding in his right hand a switch or wand. The triton was so placed that he turned 

around with the wind, and pointed with the wand to the wind which blew. A view of this 

structure is given in our Plate XVI. fig. 2. 

§ 111. ZroaL, porticos, were very numerous at Athens ; but the most re- 
markable was that called UitGiavaxrioq, and afterwards Hor/.U*], from its con» 
taining a variety of curious pictures, drawn by those great masters, Polygno- 
tus, Mycon,and Panaenus, the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the IloixUtj 
was the statue of Solon. — To the north of the Acropolis, not far from the tem- 
ple of Theseus, are the ruins of a structure once evidently very splendid, sup- 
posed by Stuart to be the ruins of this celebrated Stoa or Porch- Some travel- 
ers have mistaken them for the remains of the temple of Jupiter Olympius 
already described, which was in the southern part of the city, near the foun- 
tain Calirrhoe. 

Movosiov was a fort near the citadel, which received its name from the poet 
Museeus, the scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, 
where he was also buried. — 'jQ&iiw was a music theatre, built by Pericles. 
The inside of this building was filled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and 

57 



674 CLASSICAL GfEOGRAPBtf. 

the outside roof or covering was gradually bent downwards. The roof, -which 
was constructed of the masts and yards of the vessels taken from the Per-* 
sians, and in its form resembled the tent of Xerxes, was supported by columns 5 
of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of Athens, but afters 
wards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated on the south-east angle of the cita- 
del. The Odeum of Herodes Atticus has sometimes been confounded 
with that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated at the south- 
west angle of the citadel. This last was built by Herodes, in memory of his 
wife, and was considered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness 
of its materials, every other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of 
this building Was of cedar. 

The Ceramicus received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of Bac- 
chus and Ariadne; or more properly ano rijg xsqauttxt]? ri/rrjg, from the pot- 
ter's art, which was invented here by Cora^bus. This extensive space was di- 
vided into two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contain- 
ed a great number of temples, theatres, porticos, &c. ; the other was in the 
suburbs, was a public burying place, and contained the academy, and several 
other buildings. The academy and other gymnasia have been already mention- 
ed (P.I. § 74,64). 

§ 112. 'yiyoQai, forums, were very numerous; but the most remarkable 
were the old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 
5 jE(iET^ia, which it is probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum 
was situated in the Ceramicus within the city, and was called 5 Ao/aia ayoQu, 
It was extremely spacious, and was decorated with buildings dedicated to the 
worship of the gods, or to the service of the state ; with others which 
sometimes afforded an asylum to the wretched, but which were often a shelter 
for the wicked ; and with statues decreed to kings and individuals, who had 
merited well of the republic. In it were held the public assemblies of the 
people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and the 
forum was divided into different parts, according to the wares exposed for 
sale. Thus KvyJ.og denotes the place where slaves were sold; 3 A).yiTOTi(x>?.ig 
ayoqa, the bakers' market; l/dvuTtw?.ig ayoqa the fish-mongers' market; 
Tvvaiysia ayoQa, the market for women's apparel. The time when goods were 
exposed to sale was called nh]dovaa ayoqu, full market, from the great num- 
ber of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day seem to have been 
appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the inhabitants 
resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to maintain 
order, were encamped in tbe middle of the forum. Collectors also attended- 
to receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to 
superintend what passed. 

BovP.svr/^ia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, 
and deliberated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very- 
much encouraged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citi- 
zen, with living by the profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of 
slander. 

§ 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Ro- 
mans ; and the want of them was supplied by wells, some of which were dug 
by private persons, and others at the public expense ; but as good water at 
Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels arose among the citizens. 
Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aquedut which was finished by his 
successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. 

The stadium was a large semicircle in which exercises were performed ; and 
for the accommodation of spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it 
was built with steps above each other, in order that the higher ranks might 
look over the heads of those placed below them. The most remarkable at 
Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium erected near the river Uis- 
sus by Lycurgus, and afterwards enlarged by Herodes Atticus, one of the 
richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pentelic marble, with such magnifi- 
cence that Pausanias did not expect to be credited, even in his brief descrip- 
tion of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken for a mountain of 
of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geometrical 
paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium, 



EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 675 

a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Ro- 
man mile. 

§ 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of 
the Acropolis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its 
meetings. (Cf. P. IV. § 108). A space was leveled for the purpose on the 
summit of the rock ; and the steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the 
natural solid stone. There was originally neither enclosure nor roof ; but mere- 
ly an altar to Minerva, and two stone seats for the accuser and defendant. The 
court was occasionally protected by a temporary erection. — The Pnyx, IZvv'i, 
was another eminence, opposite the Areopagus, not far from the citadel, celebrat- 
ed as the place where the Athenians held their assemblies. Almost the whole of 
the structure, as appears from a recent removal of the earth in this place, wag 
an excavation of the rock. The ^ua, on which theorators stood to address the 
people, was carved from the stone, and yet remains. Before this was a semi- 
circular area, of which the part most distant from the orator's stone consists of 
masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock, facing this area, are niches 
for votive tablets. 

§ 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most 
celebrated was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spec- 
tators. (Cf. P. I. $235). This contained statues of many of the tragic and 
comic writers, and was the place, where the dramatic contests (P. I. § 66) were 
decided; it was near the Acropolis, at its south-east angle. Nothing of it is 
now seen except the circular sweep scooped in the rock for the seats. Above 
it, in the rock of the Acropolis, still appears a cavern or grotto, formerly term- 
ed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of chapel. — Close by 
this cavern stands a building, called the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus; 
having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained in 
the theatre. Over this building and higher up the rock are the two Columns 
of the tripods, or Choragic pillars. There were several other edifices in. 
Athens, erected for the same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the 
eastern end of the Acropolis, commonly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, 
but proved by its inscription to be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. 
This edifice stood in the street of the tripods so called from the circumstance, 
that in it were erected (on choragic monuments or pillars, or otherwise located) 
numerous tripods, which had been obtained as prizes in the musical or theatri- 
cal contests (a). — North-east from the Acropolis, on this street of the tri- 
pods, was the Hyvravaiov, were was a public hall, and where the laws of Solon 
were deposited- Near it was the Bov/.uov or senate-house. 

(a) See P. I. § 66. — A view of the Monument of Thrasyllus is given in Plate VI., fig. C ; 
and of that Lysicrates, in the same Plate, fig. A. 

§ 116. Athens had three harbors for ships. — 1. IIsiQatevg, Pirams, which 
belonged to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant 
from the city, before the building of the uav.oa teij>/ or long walls. After 
that time, the Athenians, b}^ the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their 
principal harbor. It contained three oquol or docks. In this harbor were five 
porticoes, which being joined together formed a very large one, called on that 
account JMay.na otou. The Pireeus also contained two forums. Here the pro- 
ductions of all countries were accumulated ; and this was the market not of 
Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hundred galleys have 
sometimes been collected at once; and it was sufficiently capacious to contain 
four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by Themis- 
tocles, when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and 
magazines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every 
thing necessary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mov- 
rv/ia, Munychia, which was a promontory not far distant from Pirasus, and 
extended not unlike a peninsula, and was well fortified both by nature and art. 
It received its name from a person called Munychus, who dedicated in this 
place a temple to Diana, surnamed JSlovvvy'ia. — 3. *t>a).r]q6v, Phalerum, which 
belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from the city 35 stadia, or as 
some say only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the three harbors ; and 
from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus for Troy. 

Fox further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer to the 



676 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

works cited P. I. $243. 1. ; P. II. $7. (b). — We may add Waddington's Visit to Greece.— 
Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. — Kruse, Hellas, oder Darstellung des 
alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1725. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of 
Lord Elgin's proceedings (cf. P. I. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern works illustrating the 
remains of Grecian art in general — Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture ; 
cf. also Chateaubriand's Travels, in Introduction.— E. D. Clarke, Travels in various countries, 
&c. Part II. sect. 2.— Barthelemif 's Anacharsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description.— W. M. Leake, 
Topography of Athens. Cf. Transactions of the Roijal Society of Literature of the United King- 
dom, vol. in. p. 183. — Riendcker, Topographie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). 
Halle, 1829. With notes of Miiller and Meier. — C. O. Muller, De Munimentis Athenarum, 
&c. Gbtt. 1837. 4. With plates. —L. Bergmann, Die Alterthiimer von Athen, nach Stuart und 
Revett &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates. — Hirt's Plan des Athen, —Ensch $ Qruocr, Encyclop'a- 
die, under Attika (written by Muller). — There is a glance at some of the most interesting ob- 
jects, in W. Colton, Visit to Constantinople and Athens. N. York, 1836. 12. ch. 18, 19. 

§ 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, the fourth division of Graecia (§ 76), re- 
mains to be noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we 
perceive in the interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an 
included tract of country which was called Arcadia. From this circle of el- 
evated summits, various branches are sent off towards the sea; and we find a 
line running out to each of the principal promontories ; to Rhium Prom, at the 
entrance of the Sinus Corinthiacus ; to Chelonites Prom, on the western side 
of the peninsula ; to Veritas Prom, west of the Sinus Messeniacus ; to Tcuna- 
rum, to Malea, and to Scyllceum, the other points, which occur in passing round 
the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were fruitful 
valleys, watered by numerous streams descending from the mountains in eve- 
ry direction. 

§ 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the 
conquests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, IHP.onog vtjaog ; it was 
also called Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its re- 
semblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry-trees 
that it produces. — It may be considered in six divisions; Achaia, Argolis, 
Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laconia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes 
added to these; but they may be included under Achaia. 

§ 119. A c h ai a, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole 
north coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth, by which it is joined 
to Hellas. Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, 
each independent and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a 
very early time united in a sort of confederacy, called the Achaean league ; 
they were Dyme, Olenus, Pharae, Triteea, Patrce (now Patras), Rhype, JE- 
gium, the place where the deputies of the league met, Helice, Bura, iEge, 
JEgina, and Pellenc. In the resistance to the Romans made by the Achaean 
league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially Corinth took part. 
It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mummius 
reduced Greece to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, 
applied the name Achaia to the whole country. 

§ 120. Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been found- 
ed B. C. 2089. — But Corinth has obtained greater notoriety ; it was on the 
isthmus at nearly an equal distance from the Saronie and Corinthian gulfs. 
It was once called Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. 
It had two ports ; Lechceum, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and Cenchrecc, on the 
Sinus Saronicus. Although destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered 
its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and became more famous than be- 
fore for its luxury and licentiousness. 

The isthmus of Corinth was an important pass. Several attempts have been 
made, at different periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the fail- 
ure of them all, " to cut through the Corinthian isthmus " has become a pro- 
verbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here the Isthmian games, in 
honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated; and here a stand has frequent- 
ly been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily 
admitting of regular fortification. 

§ 121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponne- 
sus. Its chief town was Jlrgos, on the river Inachus, more celebrated in the 
heroic than the historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidently slain 
his grandfather Acrisius, he transferred the seat of government to Mycenee ; 
this latter city retained its power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the 



EUROPE, PELOPONNESUS. TOPOGRAPHY OF SPARTA. 677 

death of Agamemnon, the Argives, through motives of jealousy, besieged, 
captured, and leveled it with the ground. — North of Argos was Nemea, 
where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the Nemean games in 
memory of his victory ; and Tiryntkus a favorite residence of Hercules, 
whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Argolic bay 
(Gulf di Napoli) Were, JYauplia (Napoli di Romania), in ancient and modern 
times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a cel- 
ebrated temple of JEsculapius (P. III. §84) ; and Trcezene, whither the aged 
inhabitants of Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. 

§ 122. E 1 i s was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Io- 
nian sea. 

Its chief town was Eiis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to 
have provoked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder 
and lightning ; it was on the Pencils (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river 
of the province. Pisa, destroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheus 
(Rouphia), a larger river flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olym- 
2>ia, the place near which the Olympic games were celebrated. 

Olympia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- 
formed. Here was the grove Mils, with splendid monuments scattered in it ; the temple of 
Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf, P. III. §24) ; the Croniwm or Hill of Saturn ; 
also a famous hippodrome and stadium. — Barthelemy, ch. xxxviii. as cited P. II. § 153. 2. — 
CAoiseul-Gouffier, Sur i'Hippodrome d'Oiympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 122. — 
Dissents Pindar, vol. iu p» 630, where is a plan with explanations. 

§ 123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus ; and being en- 
tirely devoted to agriculture, was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal 
towns were Teg<ca, the capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus, where 
Hercules destroyed the Harpies ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell ; and 
Megalopolis, built by that general to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemo- 
nians. Near the ruins of Mantinea is Tripolitza, the present metropolis of the 
More a. 

The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets; the prin- 
cipal were Cyllene, the birth-place of Mercury; Erymanthus, where Hercu- 
ies slew an enormous boar ; Mcenalus, sacred to the Muses ; Parthenius, where 
Atalanta resided; Parrkasius and Ly earns, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From 
the hill Nonacris flowed the celebrated river Styx ; its waters were said to be 
poisonous. 

§124, The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, 
of which Messene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citidal was 
called Ithome, and was supposed to be impregnable. — The other principal towns 
were Pylos, the city of Nestor, now called JVavarin ; Methone, where Philip 
defeated the Athenians ; and (Echalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. 

The Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lacedeemonians, and the 
greater part compelled to leave the country. Subsequently their city lay long in ruins ; but 
when Epaminondas had destroyed the supremacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the 
exiles and rebuilt Messene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the coun- 
try, but did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. 

§ 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus 
was L a c o n i a. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the fol- 
lowing sections. 

The other towns of note were Amyclat, on the Eurotas, the residence of Le- 
da ; Therapne, on the same river, the birth-place of Castor and Pollux ; Gy- 
theum, the principal port of Laconia; Helos, whose inhabitants were enslaved 
by the Spartans ; and Scllasia, where the Achceans, by the defeat of Cleome- 
nes, liberated the Peloponnesus from the power of Laeedaemon. 

The Sinus Laconicus (Gulf of Colochina), was bounded by the capes Ma- 
lea (St. Angeio), and Tainarum (Matapan). Near Tcenarum was a cave rep- 
resented by the poets as the entrance into the infernal regions ; through this 
Hercules is said to have dragged up Cerberus. 

The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops ; but about eighty years after the 
Trojan war, the Heraclida?, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and 
became masters of the different kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in 
Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. 

§ 126. Topography of Sparta. The city of Laeedaemon, which was an- 
ciently called Sparta, is said to have been built by king Lacedeemon, who gave 



678 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

it the latter denomination from his wife Sparta, though he designated tlie 
country and the inhabitants from his own name ; but some think that this city 
received the appellation of Sparta from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus 
into Laconia. It was situated at the foot of mount Taygetus, on the west side 
of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic gulf. It was of a circular 
form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, and was surround- 
ed, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, and sum- 
mer-houses. • 

Anciently the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence 
was the valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the 
space of eight hundred years, this city was without any fortifications; but af- 
ter it fell into the hands of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were 
rendered very strong. It had however, some eminences, upon which soldiers 
might be posted in case of an attack. The highest of these eminences served 
as a citadel ; its summit was a spacious plain, on which were erected several 
sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five towns, which were sepa- 
rated from each other by intervals of different extent, and each of which was 
occupied by the five tribes of Sparta. 

§ 127. The great square or forum, 3 AyoQu, in which several streets termi- 
nated, was embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the edi- 
fices, in which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assem- 
bled. Of these public edifices the most remarkable was the Portico of the 
Persians, which the Lacedemonians erected after the battle of Platsea, at the 
expense of the vanquished, whose spoils they shared. The roof of this build- 
ing was supported by colossal statues of the principal officers in the army of 
Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and who were habited in 
flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the forum, in which 
assemblies of the people were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of the 
forum, where dances were performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopse- 
dian games. 

Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had 
the privilege of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small 
house appertaining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hun- 
ger. The temple was built with brass (Xatzioixoc). Within the building- 
were engraven, in bas-relief, the labors of Hercules, and various groups of 
figures. To the right of this edifice was a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be 
the most ancient statue of brass in existence ; of the same date with the re- 
establishment of the Olympic games. 

The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the Poecile, which, in- 
stead of being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a ve- 
ry considerable extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paint- 
ings in fresco which had been employed to decorate the walk. — Farther ad- 
vanced in the city, appeared different ranges of Porticoes, intended only for 
the display of different kinds of merchandize. 

§ 128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned 
at the Olympic games ; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their 
country. Statues might be decreed to wrestlers, but the esteem of the peo- 
ple was the only reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the 
battle of Thermopylae, that the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta 
and deposited in a tomb near the theatre ; and at the same time also the names 
of the three hundred Spartans who had fallen with him, were first inscribed 
on a column. — The theatre was in the vicinity of the forum, and was con- 
structed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb of Leonidas were 
those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were annually 
given near these monuments. 

Of the edifices and monuments of Sparta it may be remarked in general, that they were not 
distinguished for architectural' beauty ; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its 
appearance. 

§ 129. On the south side of the city was the r ItctzoSqouo^, or course for foot 
and horse races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance 
from it was the Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beauti- 
ful plane-trees, and enclosed by the Eurotas- <m one side,, by a small river 



EUROPE. ISLANDS OP THE ATLANTIC. 679 

which fell into it on the other, and by a canal which opened a communication 
with both on the third. The Platanistas was entered by two bridges, on one 
of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-subduing force, and on the other 
that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. 

The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gijtheium, rv&aiov, 
situated west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 sta- 
dia according to Strabo, and 30 [300?] according to Polybius. It was early 
surrounded by strong walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets 
of Sparta rode in security, and where they found every requisite for their 
maintenance and security. 

The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Palceochori or old town, about two miles dis- 
tant from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoida. " The whole site," says Cha- 
teaubriand, " is uncultivated ; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a 
bird, not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled 
without noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half wild horses were 
feeding here and there upon the withered grass ; a shepherd was cultivating a few watermel- 
ons in a corner of the theatre ; and at Magoula, which gives its dismal name to Lacedsemon, I 
observed a small grove of cvpresses." -On the toposraphy and ruins of Sparta, see Chateau- 
briand's Travels (p. 94, ed.*N. Y. 1814). — Le Roi, Monumens de la Grece. — Sir W. Gell, Itin- 
erary of the Morea. — Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8. — Cramer, Dodwell? 
4-c, as cited P. II. $7. (b). 

(d) Islands belonging to Europe. 

§ 130. It was mentioned (§ 8), that having considered the mainland, under 
three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands 
together under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were 
in the Atlantic or Mediterranean; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. 
We will speak first of those in the Atlantic. 

§ 131. Of these, Britannia was the most important. It was scarcely 
known to exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by success- 
ive migrations from Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country 
when invaded, and thus provoked the vengeance of Rome. The south-west- 
ern shores are said to have been visited by the Phoenicians at a much earlier 
period ; and that enterprising people have been described as carryiug on an 
extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly isles, which, from their 
abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides Insula or Tin islands. 

§ 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter 
rather of curiosity than utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remark- 
able. — The Cantii occupied the south of the island; in their territory were 
Rutupioe (Richborough), celebrated for its oysters by Juvenal ; and Portus Le- 
manis (Lymne), where Caesar landed B. C. 55. — The Trinobantes possessed 
the country. north of the Cantii; their chief town was Londinum (London), 
the most flourishing Roman colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South 
Wales, and appear to have been a very flourishing and warlike tribe. Carac- 
tacus, one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely defended the liber- 
ties of his country; and for a long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Ro- 
mans : he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in 
chains to Rome. — On the eastern coast were the Iceni, whose queen Boadi- 
cea, having been cruelly abused by the Roman deputies, took up arms to 
avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she obtained several victo- 
ries over her oppressors, but was finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, A. D. 
61. — The north of England was possessed by the Brigantes, the most pow- 
erful and ancient of the British nations; their principal towns were Eboracum 
(York), and Isurium (supposed to be Mdborough) , the capital of their tribe. 

§ 133. Scotland was still less known than England; five nations on the 
borders, known by the general name of Meatce, were subdued by Agricola ; 
and became nominally subject to the dominion of Rome. 

When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five fol- 
lowing provinces ; Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern di- 
vision of the country ; Flavia Caisaricnsis, containing the western tribes ; 
Britannia secunda, which included all Wales ; Maxima Casariensis, which 
contained the country between the former divisions and the river Tweed; and 
Valentia, occupied by the Meatae. 



680 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid 
waste the Roman settlements, several walls were built across the island. The 
first was erected by the celebrated Agricola, who completed the conquest of 
Britain. But this being found insufficient to restrain the incursions of the 
barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and di- 
mensions. — It extended from JEstuarium Itunce (Sohvay Firth), on the west- 
ern coast, to Segedunum (Cousin's House), a village north of Pons JElii (New 
Castle-upon-Tyne), on the eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It 
consisted of a double rampart and ditch, and was strengthened by forts erect- 
ed at short intervals. — Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoninus re- 
built the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and 
had been neglected after that was built, whence this is usually called the ram* 
part of Antoninus. 

§ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erected by 
the emperor Severus, A. D. 200. — It was situated a few yards nofth of the 
wall of Adrian, and was one of the strongest fortifications of antiquity. The 
wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built of stone and cement; it 
was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, and 
three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to 
garrison this immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides 
six hundred mariners, appointed to guard the points where the ramparts com- 
municated with the shore. 

§ 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcad.es (Orkneys), Hebrides 
(Western Isles), Mona Taciti (Anglesea), Mona Ccesaris (Man), Vectis (Isle 
of Wight), and Cassiterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the an- 
cients only by name, and was called Ierne Juverna, or H i b e r n i a. 

The Irish say that they are descended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period, 
part of the country was colonized by the Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been urged 
that the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure Irish, and 
that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of 
materials, precisely similar to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sir W. Hamilton in the 
field of Cannae. — Cf. P. II. § 352. 2. 

An island called T h ul e is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as 
the most distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore 
we cannot be certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the 
Shetland isles, and Greenland, have been named by different modern writers 

§ 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the 
western part. The Balearicce, deriving their name from the skill of the in- 
habitants in slinging and archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names 
were Balearis major (Majorca), Balearis minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica). 

Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum 
Fossa (Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was 
of little note in ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Na- 
poleon Bonaparte. It contained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by 
Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North of Mariana was Matinorxvm Oppiduni 
(Bastia), the present capital of the island. — Sardinia derived its name frora 
Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Hercules, who at a very early 
period led a colony hither ; it was called by the Greeks Ichnusa, from its re- 
remblance to the human foot. Neither serpents or wolves were found in this 
island, and as we are told, only one poisonous herb, which caused those who 
eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic griiu 
The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary 
to the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic 
war, 

There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of It- 
aly ; the chief were Una (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Na- 
poleon's temporary banishment; Prochyta ; and Caprea (Capri), infamous as 
the scene of Tiberius's unnatural debaucheries. 

§ 138. S i c i 1 i a , the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, 
lies to the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum 
(Strait of Messina). — It was called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from its triangu- 
lar shape, terminating in three promontories; Pelorus (Faro), on the north; 
Pachynus (Passaro) on the south; and Lilybaum (Boco), on the west. 



EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 6S1 

Syracusce (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most 
remarkable cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by 
Archias. and arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls 
exceeded twenty miles. — It was divided into five parts, which were so large 
as to be esteemed separate towns ; viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the 
Greeks originally settled: Acradina facing the sea; Tycha, between that and 
the following division ; Neapolis, which stood on the great port; and Epipo- 
Ise. — Syracuse had two ports, the lesser formed by the island Ortygia, and 
the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a large 
bay. having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its 
southern extremity. The celebrated prison of Latoma was cut out of the 
rock, by the tyrant Dionysius; in this was a cavern shaped like the human 
ear, so contrived as to transmit all sounds from below to a small apartment 
where the tyrant used to conceal himself, in order to overhear the conversa- 
tion of his victims ; it is now a very handsome subterraneous garden. — This 
city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expe- 
dition, and the formidable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town 
was besieged by Marcellus. This siege was protracted principally by the me- 
chanical contrivances of Archimedes. 

§ 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Messana ; Le- 
ant ium ; Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided; Lilybceum, Drepa- 
num, Panormos (PalermoJ, Himera; Naulochus, where the oxen of the sun 
were supposed to be kept ; Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established 
the head quarters of a republic of slaves, and held out against the Roman 
power for several years. 

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simcethus (Giaretta), celebrated for the 
production of amber ; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and De- 
mosthenes were taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the east- 
ern coast; on the south side were Camicus and Crimisus, with some smaller 
streams ; and on the north, the river Himera. — Mount JEtna, so celebrated 
for its volcano, occupies a great part of Sicily ; the poets feigned that the gi- 
ants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buried under this heap, and that the 
eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. — The first in- 
habitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Leestrigons, a barbarous race of 
people, almost extirpated by the different Greek colonies, whom the commer- 
cial advantages of Sicily's situation induced to settle in this island. 

§ 140. Near Lilybceum are three small islands called JEgates, opposite one 
of which, JEgusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians in a great na- 
val engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of Sici- 
ly were the Insula JEolice (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan; the largest is 
Lipara, which was once a place of great consequence; the next in size is 
Strongyle (Stromboli), where JEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and 
where there is a celebrated volcano. 

Southeast of Sicily is Melite (MaltaJ, remarkable in ancient times for its 
cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Je- 
rusalem to Rome. — Malta was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found 
this island a convenient station for commerce, on account of its excellent har- 
bor. — Near Malta is the small island Gaulos (Gozo). 

§ 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. 
Corcyra (Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, 
from which it was separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is 
called by Homer Scheria, or Plmacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the 
inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — The principal town was Corcyra, 
near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous and Cassiope. Near the 
promontory Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to have been the ship 
which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his native country, 
and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Pheeacians 
for aiding Ulysses. 

Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was 
cut through by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town 
-was Leucas, in earlier ages called Nericum, and the neighboring country Ne- 
ritis; it was founded by a Corinthian colony, and was joined to the continent 



682 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

by a bridge, as the strait was here very narrow. — At the south-western ex- 
tremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named Levxate, and a remarkable 
rock, called from its color Leucopetra, from which unfortunate lovers precipi- 
tated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple of Apol- 
lo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. 

The Echinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of 
the river Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the 
empire of Ulysses. — Near Dulichium was Ithaca (Thaki), the birth-place of 
Ulysses ; the capital was also called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount 
.Neritus. 

§ 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — 
Its chief town was Same, from whence the island was frequently called by 
that name ; there were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; 
from which circumstance it is called Tetrapolis. In this island are some ruins 
of Cyclopean structure. 

South of this was Zacynthus (Zante), with a capital of the same name, cele- 
bfated for its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there 
was such an abundance of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea 
assumed prismatic hues, from the oily matter that floated on its surface. 

West of the Peloponnesus were the Strophades (Strivoli), at first called 
Plotce, the residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphac- 
teria (Sphagice), taken by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian 
war. — South of the Peloponnesus was Cythera, or Porphyron (Cerigo), sacred 
to Venus . It contained two excellent towns and harbors, Cythera and Scan- 
da, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with great care ; but the Athenians de- 
stroyed both in the first Peloponnesian war. 

§ 143. We may include among the JEgean Islands all that remain to be 
noticed. 

The T h r a c i a n islands occupy the northern part of the iEgean, and were 
named Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus. — Thasus (Tassej, opposite the 
mouth of the Nessus, was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named iEth- 
ria. It produced wine and marble, and the inhabitants were at one time so 
powerful as to dispute the mastery of the sea with the Athenians, but after a 
severe contest of two years they were compelled to surrender at discretion. — 
Samothrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from Samos, by a colony from 
which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the worship of 
Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies to the south of Samothrace. 

§ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. 
It contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smin- 
theus, because he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called 
Sminthse in the Phrygian language. 

South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, 
when thrown out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. 
It contained two cities, Hephsestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, 
on the Macedonian coast, was Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have 
been at one time defended by the valor of the women alone, when all the 
males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sciatia) ; Scopelos (Scope- 
la) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his mother Thetis, 
to prevent his going to the Trojan war. 

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birth- 
place of the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcceus, and the poetess 
Sappho; its chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylene, 
from whence the island has derived its modern name. — South of this was 
Chios fScioJ, celebrated for its wine. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this 
island lately by the Turks excited great public sympathy. 

§ 145. The largest island of the iEgean was Euboea (NegroponU, opposite 
the coast of Bceotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, called the 
Euripus. Into this strait Aristotle (P. II. § 115), according to the accounts of 
Some, threw himself, in a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the 
cause of its ebbing and flowing. The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Au- 
lis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euripus; Eretria, an Athenian colony, 
founded before the Trojan war ; Oreus, on the Euripus ; the town and prom- 



EUROPEAN ISLANDS. ASIA, 683 

calory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, where the Greeks 
gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystus in the south, 
between the promontories Gersestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the quar- 
ries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Euboea is* 
not very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. 

In the Saronic gulf were iEgina (Engia), anciently iEnone, strongly for- 
tified by nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea. (On the mar- 
bles discovered here, see P. 1. § 190). The iEginetans were the most distin- 
guished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and obtained the prize 
of valor. — Next to this is Salamis fElimU, the island of Telemon, father 
of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia^ 
des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense 
navy of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria (Foro), 
Where Demosthenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of 
Antipater, the successor of Alexander the Great. 

§ 146. South-east of Euboea was the large cluster of islands called the 
Cyclades, from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. 
This island, also called Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birth-place of 
Apollo and Diana. Near Mount Cynthius stood the celebrated temple of the 
Delian god, to which pilgrimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sa- 
cred galley, [called Pardlus (ij nuQalog), was annually sent from Athens to 
Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and during its absence it was unlawful to pun- 
ish any criminal in Athens capitally. The other remarkable islands in this 
group were Myconus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands whither the Roman 
emperors used to banish criminals ; Andros and Tenos, south-east of Euboea; 
Ceos (!Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cythus, Siphnus, and Melos 
(Milo), south of Ceos; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the birth-place 
of the statuaries, Phidias and Praxiteles ; Kaxos, sacred to Bacchus, where 
Ariadne was ungratefully deserted by Theseus ; los, where Homer was said 
to have been buried ; Tkera, aundAnaphe. 

§ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the JEgean were called the Spor- 
ades, and more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here 
as they were possessed by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sa- 
cred to Juno, the birth-place of Pythagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the 
Icarian sea ; Patmos (Palmossa), where Saint John wrote the Revelations; 
Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Carpathus (Scarpanto), which gave 
name to the Carpathian sea; and Rhodus (Rhodes^). — This latter island 
contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus; at the harbor of Rho- 
dus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. III. § 72). 
It held in one hand a light-house. This splendid statue was thrown down 
by an earthquake, and having long laid prostrate was broken up by the Sar- 
acens when they became masters of the island, in the seventh century. 

§ 148. Creta [Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the iEgean, was the 
most celebrated island of ancient times ; it is said to have contained a hun- 
dred cities, the principal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the 
north side of the island ; Gortina, on the opposite side where stood the cele- 
brated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus ; and Cydonia, by some esteemed the 
capital. 

The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idsei Dactyli, who lived near mount Ida, and exer- 
cised mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Curetes, who directed their 
attention to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and 
from his laws the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally borrowed. The 
fabulous legends respecting this monarch, his wife Pasiphas, and his daughter Ariadne, are 
sufficiently known. — Cf. P. III. $ 117. (a). 



II. Of Asia. 



§ 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, id 
celebrated as the birth-place of the human race ; the quarter where the true 



684 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

God Was worshiped when the rest of the world Was sunk in superstitious 
barbarism ; the scene of our Savior's life and sufferings ; and for the great 
monarchies, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian (§ 211), which possessed 
extensive sway before the commencement of authentic European history. — 
From Asia, the first principles of the arts and sciences were imported into Eu- 
rope, and there civilization had attained a high degree of perfection, before 
the western countries had emerged from barbarism. 

§ 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, 
the Eastern and Western ; the boundary between them being the River Rha 
or Wolga, the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards 
the Sinus Persicus. 

The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinarum Regio, India, Persia, 
Media and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Paro- 
pamisus. — The Western includes Sarmatia with the countries between the 
Mare Caspium and Pontus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Ara- 
bia, and Mesopotamia With the countries in the valley of the Tigris. 

(a) The Countries of the Eastern Division of Asia. 

§ 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern 
part of Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scy- 
thia intra Imaum, and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called 
Imaus, now Belur Tag, which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and 
Himmaleh on the south. — Scythia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia 
(Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Serica (the north-west part of China) ; in 
the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare of ancient commerce between 
eastern and western Asia. 

There has been much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Serica. — Cfj 
D\inville, fy Oosselin, sur la Seriqtle des Anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxn. p. 573. 
■& xlix. p. 713. —■ Class. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vn. 32. — Anthon's Lempriere article Seres. 

The Sinje occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients : 
supposed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital was Thy 
n&, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. 

i 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in 
their northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus 
or Menan, which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided 
by the ancients *n to India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the bound- 
ary between them being the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gan* 
geticus (Bay of Bengal,). This country was but little known before the ex- 
pedition of Alexander. The southern part of India intra Gangem, or Hindos- 
tan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Comorin). Several places on 
the coast were known. North of the river Chaberis (C&veryJ, was the Regio 
Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Aurea Chersone- 
sus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Prom- 
ontorium fnow cape Romania ). 

§ 153. Persia., in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of 
the river Tigris between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the 
south. But the name is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the 
whole territor}'- south of the Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros 
Montes and the Tigris on the west to the Parueti and Arbiti Monies separating 
it from India on the east. Thus it includes several provinces. 

Sus iana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Ely* 
mais and Susa ; the latter, called in the Bible Shushan, was the winter resi- 
dence of the Persian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which 
flowed from the Orontes mountains into the Tigris. — P ersis was directly 
east of Susiana, bordering upon the Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Per- 
sia in its limited and proper sense. Its capital was Persepolis, represented as 
a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set on fire by the order of Alex- 
ander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his mistress Thais. South- 
-east from this was Pasargada, where Cyrus is said to have built a tomb for 
himself. 

A monument still exists, Which has been called the tomb of Cyrus ; cf. P. IV. <$ 187. 4. -* 
The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain 6 miles 



PLATE XXXI* 




-m 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 

:Wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E. which is now crowded with numerous village «*» 
Through this flowed the Araxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir discharging into Lake Baktegi- 
an. The principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehul-Minar, Chil-Minar, or SAe- 
hel-Minar, or palace of forty columns. — See a description, With plates, in Rob. Ker Porter^ 
■Travels. ~ Cf. Herder, The Univ. History, $c. cited $ 211. vi. 

The other provinces were C arm an i a (KermanJ, south-east of Persia, als<? 
bordering on the Sinus Persicus ; G e d r o s i a (now Mekran) lying on the 
Erythrceum Mare and extending from Carmania to India; Arachosia and 
Drangiana, which include the whole remaining territory on the north 
and east between Gedrosia on the south and the Paropamisus on the north. — 
This latter territory was watered by the Elymander, which, with tributaries 
from the mountains on the north, east and south, flowed into the Aria Palus 1 
a lake or sea on its western limits; the whole territory was often included 
Under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of the 
Paropamisus. 

§ 154. Media was situated south of the Mare Caspium; its northern limit 
was the river Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia. The portion lying on 
this river was formed into an independent kingdom, after the death of Alex- 
ander, by the satrap Atropates and thence called Atropatene ; having as its 
capital Gaza, now Tauris or Tebriz. — The capital of Media was Ecbatana 
(now Hamadan, cf. Rennell, Geog. Herod. Sect. 11.) ; this was made the sum-' 
mer residence of the Persian and afterwards of the Parthian monarchs; here 
two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character;, are still shown to trav- 
elers as those of Mordecai and Esther. Rages or Rages was another place of 
some importance, mentioned in the apocryphal book of Tobit. 

§ 155. Under Parthia we include the region lying at the south-eastern 
Corner of the Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the river Oxus 
(Gihon), flowing to the sea of Aral, on the north. It was originally but a 
part of Hyrcania, a province belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, af- 
ter the time of Alexander, it was made the seat of a new state, which under 
his successors called Araacidce, grew into a considerable empire, and opposed 
effectual resistance to the Romans (§ 211. vm.). One of its principal places was 
JYiscea (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ochus (Margab), which emp- 
ties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (CorcanJ was a considerable place, on the 
small river Soeanda. — But the royal residence of the Arsacidae was Hecatom-' 
pylos, in the south-western part; although the later Parthian monarchs some- 
times resided at Ctesiphon on the Tigris. 

The remaining countries, between Partfeia and Scythia, were Aria, Bactri- 
ana, and Sogdiana. — Aria was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the 
Paropamisus, although the name was often extended, so as to include (§ 153) 
a large region south of that chain of mountains. The principal place was Ar* 
tacoana (now Herat) . — Bactriana was east of Aria and south of the river 
Oxus; its capital wa.% Zariaspa or Bactra (Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — 
Sogdiana includes the territory between the Oxus and the Jdxartes or Sir 5 
corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. Its chief place was 
Maracanda (Samarcand), on the Polytimetus, a branch of the Oxus. Cyrop- 
olis was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied 
this region ; in the north-eastern part were the Saca. 

(b) The Countries of the Western Division of Asia. 

§ 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first S a r m at i a , caJled 
Asiatica,to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from 
which it was separated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was 
the Caucasus. It was inhabited by roving and uncivilized tribes ; particular- 
ly the Alani) and the Cimmerii ; from the latter, the strait connecting the PaluS 
Mceotis with the Euxine received its name of Bosphorus Cimmericus. — South 
of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the west, and the Mare Cas- 
pium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Colchis, Iberia, and 
Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places was JEa, on 
the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — Albania was on the Caspian, extending; 
south as far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An important place was one of the 
two celebrated passes of the Caucasus^ Galled Pylce Albania or Caucasian, be^ 



ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ARMENIA. 687 

tween a northern spur of the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally sup- 
posed; afterwards the strong city of Derbend. — Iberia was between Col- 
chis and Albania, a high valley, watered by the Cyrus and its numerous trib- 
utaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus led from this valley over 
into the declivity of the Euxine ; it was the defile through which the river 
Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus ; it is now called Dariel. — These 
passes and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed. 
Fylce Caspim; but the pass, properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern, 
pass of Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. 

On these passes, cf. Walckenaer, de Portes Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c, 
in the Mem. de I'Institut, Classe d'Zfist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 210, with a map. — Bibl. Repos- 
itory, No. xxi r. p. 370. 

§ 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to 
mount Masius and the Carduchi Mo'ntes on the south, and from Media on the 
east to the northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia 
Minor. It presents three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, 
that on the north-east, watered by the Araxes, also called Phasis (now Aras), 
flowing to the Caspian ; second, the central, separated from the first by the 
chain of mountains in which is the summit called Ararat, and watered by the 
southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in its eastern part and flows 
westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Palus ; third, the south-west- 
ern, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphates Monies, and watered, 
by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an east- 
terly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, 
the ancient capital; Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern 
branch of the Euphrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigran- 
ocerta, taken by Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. 
The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; 
this is said to have been ascended, for the first time, by Prof. Parrot in 1829. See Bibl. Repos. 
No. xxn. p. 390. 

§ 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in 
the middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to 
the countries bordering on the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia, 
intra Taurum and Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by 
the name of Asia Minor, included a great number of petty states, whose boun- 
daries varied at different periods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, be- 
ginning at the JEgean Sea, were Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
and Pontus. — The middle provinces were Lydia, Phrygia Major, Galatia, 
Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor. — The southern 
provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. 

§ 159. Phrygia Minor, or T r o a s, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the 
entrance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, 
that modern travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, 
called also Ilium,. (Cf. P. II. $50 ; P. III. § 132.) It was built at some dis- 
tance from the sea, above the junction of the Scamander, or Xanthus, and Si- 
7nois, two small streams, rising from mount Ida, and falling into the Helles- 
pont; the citadel was called Pcrgamus, and was erected on a little hill includ- 
ed within the walls. The plain between the city and the sea was intersected 
by the rivers Scamander and Simois, and there the battles mentioned in the 
Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was the mount Ida, 
the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was bounded by the 
Hellespont, which here forms an extensive bay, between the promontory of 
Rhsteum on the north, and Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, 
and at a little distance on the shore was the camp. Ajax was buried on the 
Rhaetean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. 

Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to 
Bithynia. The principal towns of the former were Abydos and Lampsacus f 
dedicated to Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury. — The principal 
city in Mysia Major was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in 
the Propontis, and joined by two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the 
gallant resistance it made when besieged by Mithridates ; near this is the riv- 
er Granicus, where Alexander defeated the army of Darius, and where Lu- 
cizllus obtained an equally important victory over Mithridates. 



688 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

$ 160. B i t h y n i a, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Fas- 
phorus and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were Jlpamea, at the mouth 
of the river Rhyndacus ; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon 
(Scutari), called the city of the blind, because its founders neglected the more 
eligible site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus ; Libyssa, where 
Hannibal was buried ; Calpas and Heraclea, on the Euxine ; Prusa, at the foot 
of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found refuge with king 
Prusias ; and Niccea (Nice), where the first general council was assembled. 

P a p i h la gbni a lay between the rivers Parthenias and Halys. The chief 
towns were Sinope (Sinube), the birth-place of Diogenes and capital of the 
kingdom of Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the 
same name, opposite the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. 

P o n tu s, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the 
river Halys to Colchis. The principal towns were Jlmisus, near the Halys ; 
Eupatoria, on the confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Me- 
galopolis ; Jlmasia, the birth-place of the geographer Strabo ; Themiscyra, on 
the river Thermodon, where the Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Ce- 
rasus, whence Lucullus brought the first cherry-trees that were seen in Eu- 
rope ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of Colchis, greatly celebrated 
by the Romance-writers of the middle ages. Near the river Halys, the Lele- 
ges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron-works, resided. 

$ 161. Lydia, called also Mseonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and 
Mysia, and to the east of the iEgean Sea. The northern part of the coast 
was called iEolia, and the southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies 
which settled there. — iEoLiA was colonized by the iEolians, soon after the 
termination of the Trojan war; its chief towns were Jldramxjttium, founded 
by an Athenian colony ; Pergamus (Bergamo), the capital of a small territory, 
greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithridates, and bequeathed 
to them by Attalus its last king; its port was called Elea ; between Elea and 
Adramyttium was Lyrnessus ; and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the 
same name, near which are the iEginusan islands, where Conon, the Atheni- 
an admiral, completely defeated the Spartans. — Ionia, contained several re- 
markable cities, of which the principal were Smyrna, on the river Meles, near 
which Homer is said to have been born ; Clazomence, on a peninsula of the 
same name, celebrated for its wealth ; Erythrce, near mount Mimas, the resi- 
dence of one of the Sibyls ; Corycus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was 
defeated by the Romans; Teos, the birth-place of Anacreon. — South of the 
peninsula ot Clazomenee, were Colophon, on the river Halesus, celebrated for 
the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo ; Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most 
splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degenerated into a paltry village, remark- 
able for the splendid temple of Diana ; Mycale, opposite Samos, where the 
Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks; Pricne, on the Mceander, a 
river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birth-place of Thales. — 
In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount 
Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, a branch of the Hermus. Not far east from 
Sardis was Thymbra, celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over 
Croesus. On the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, 
was overthrown by the Romans. 

§ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, extending from the river Ly- 
eus on the south to the Sangarius on the north. Its chief towns were Pes- 
sinus near the foot of mount Dindymus, sacred to Cybele, the mother of the 
gods, whose image was conveyed thence to Rome, at the end of the second 
Punic war (P. III. §21); Gordium, celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through 
by Alexander ; Jlpamea, on the river Marsyas, where Apollo flayed alive his 
musical competitor Marsyas ; Laodicea, celebrated in sacred history ; and Co- 
lossce, on the river Lycus. G a 1 at i a or Gallo-Graecia, lay north of Phry- 
gia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns were Ancyra (An- 
goura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane ; Gan~ 
gra, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tamum, 

the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were I s a u r i a and 

Lycaonia. The principal towns of the former were Isaurce, the capital; 
Lystra and Derbe, mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles fxiv. 6). The priu- 



ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 089 

£ipal town of the latter was Iconium. Both of these provinces were intersect- 
ed by the chain of Mount Taurus. 

§ 163. Cappadocia lay between the Halys and the Euphrates. Its most 
remarkable towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered 
by Antony ; Tyana, the birth-place of the impostor Apollonius ; and Mazaca , 
named by Tiberius. Casarea ad Argaum, to denote its situation at the foot of 
■Mount Argaus. — The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the 
hame of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cabira or Sebaste, a well fortified city 
captured by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novus, where Mithridates kept his 
treasure ; and J\icopolis, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over 
Mithridates. — The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the 
three bad Kappas, or nations whose names began with that letter ; the other 
two were the Cretans and Cilicians. 

§ 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was Caria. Its chief 
towns were Halicarnassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to 
the historians Dionysius and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid 
monument, one of the seven wonders of the world, erected by Artemisia, 
queen of Caria, to the memory of her husband Mausolus ; Cnidus, in the pen- 
insula of Doris, sacred to Venus ; Alabanda, on the Maeander ; and Stratoni- 
<cea, on the southern coast. — — - Ly ci a lay to the east of Caria. Its chief 
towns were Telmessus, on a gulf of the same name ; Xantkus, celebrated for 
its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed themselves 
by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf 
of Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana; in this chain 
Was the volcano Ckimara, fabled by the poets to have been a monster sub- 
dued by Bellerophofi fcf. P. III. § 117). Some hills at the Promontorium Sa- 
crum were usually esteemed the commencement of Mount Taurus, and a little 
beyond it is a part of the same ridge adjoining the sea, round which Alexan- 
der's army were compelled to march up to their middle in water. 

§ 165* Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and Pamphylia, two mountainous 
districts, whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia 
were Antiochia ; Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by 
Homer ; and Cremiza, a Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia 
Were Perga, the capital ; Aspendus, on the river Eurymedon, near which Ci- 
mon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coractsium, where Pompey destroyed 
the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. 

C i 1 i c i a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was di- 
vided into two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other 
Campestris or level. -=• The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where 
the emperor Trajan died; Anamurium, opposite Cyprus ; and Seleucia (Selet- 
keh), on the river Calycadnus.-->ln Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony 
of the Athenians; Tdfsus, said to have received its name from one of the 
winars of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth-place of the Apos- 
tle Paul ; Issvs, where Alexander obtained his second triumph over the Per- 
sians ; and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate 
the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Am- 
&nus, between which and the sea were Pyla Syria, a celebrated pass. — The 
river Cydnus is remarkable for the coldness of its waters, by which Alexan- 
der was almost killed, and for the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks 
when Antorty visited Cleopatra. 

§ 166. Syria, was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by 
the Euphrates ; on the south by Arabia; and on the west by the Mediterra- 
nean. It was divided into five provinces, Comagene ? Seleucis, Coelo-Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Judea, or Palestine. 

The principal city of Comagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the 
birth-place of Lucian. — In S e 1 e u c i s, or Syria Propria, were Antiochia, on 
the Orontes, where the Christians first received that name ; near it were the 
delightful grove and village of Daphne, sacred to Apollo ; Beraa (Aleppo) ; 
Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian goddess ; Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, 
one of the worst of the R,oman emperors ; and Helioj olis (Balbec), sacred to 
the sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract admire. tion (cf. P. I. §243. 3). 
Ccel©-* -Syria was so named because it lay between two parallel chain 

58* 



690 CLASSICAL GEOGRAJPtiW 

of mountains, Libanus and Antilibanus. Its chief towns were D aulas' CUB ^ Oft 
the river Abana; Palmyra, or Tadmor,said to have been founded by Solomon? 
the residence of queen Zenobia, who so bravely defied the Roman emperor 
Aurelian, and of Longinus ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ru- 
ins (cf. P. I. $243. 3). The principal peak in the chain of Mount Libanus 
was called Lebanon, and in that of Antilibanus, Hermon, — P h oe n i c i a con- 
tained the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their extensive com- 
merce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate de- 
fence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the be-» 
siegers. 

§ 167. J u d ae a, or P a 1 86 s t i n a, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan , 
of Israel, and of Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes ; it 
was afterwards separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally 
the Romans divided it into four regions, Galileea, Samaria, Judaea Propria, and 
Peroea or Transfluviana, the country beyond Jordan. 

G a 1 i 1 89 a was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews ; 
and Superior, which, from its proximity to Coelo-Syria, was called Galilee of 
the Gentiles. — The chief towns of Upper Galilee were Cxsarea Philippi, so 
called to distinguish it from another town of the same name in this province ; 
its original name was Laish, afterwards changed to Paneas, and finally called 
Caesarea Philippi, by Herod's son Philip ; Gabara and Jotopata, bravely de- 
tended by the historian Josephus, when besieged by Vespasian. The princi- 
pal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace, or Ptolemais (Acre), memorable for its- 
siege by Richard Cceur de Lion, in the time of the Crusades; Cance ; Seppho-> 
ris, called afterwards Dio Caesarea ; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large lake in 
Galilee was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesareth ; at its northern ex- 
tremity was Chorazln ; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, and 
Bethsaida ; on the opposite side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Gal- 
ilee were Carmel, and Itabyrius or Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfigu- 
ration. — Between Galilee and Samaria stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten 
confederate cities called Decapolis, which, dreading the power of the Jew3, 
entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean princes, who then governed 
Judea. 

§ 168. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the 
capital, destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Herod, who called 
it Sebaste, in honor of Augustus ; Ccesarea, first called Turris Stratonices, a 
celebrated seaport, the residence of the Roman governors ; Joppa, a seaport 
south of Caesarea, where Andromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by 
Perseus (P. III. $ 122) ; Sichem, in the interior, the ancient capital, between 
the mountains Ebal and Gerizim ; it was in later times Called Neapolis ; Lyd- 
da, called by the Greeks Dlospolis ; and Arimathea. 

Judaea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or 
Dead Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hlerosolyma, or Jeru- 
salem, a city originally belonging to the Jebusites, from whom it was taken 
by David, who made it his residence. Hence it is called the " City of Da- 
vid." The city was built upon four hills, Sion at the south, Moriah at the 
east, Acra at the west, and Bezetha at the north. Sion was called the upper, 
and Acra the lower city ; near the former was the valley of Ben-Hinnom, and 
the fountain Siloe ; opposite the latter was the temple built on Mount Moriah ; 
and farther to the east, separated from the city by the valley and brook Ke- 
dron, was the mount of Olives ; Bezetha was called Cainopolis, or the new 
city, because it was added in later times ; and west of it was a district called 
Golgotha, in the middle of which stood Mount Calvary, where our Lord wag 
crucified. — North of Jerusalem was Emmaus, where the Jews were defeated 
by Vespasian; Bethel, is a mountainous district of the same name^ Jericho, 
near the Jordan; and Engaddl, celebrated for its palm-trees. South of Jeru- 
salem were Bethlehem, the birth-place of Christ ; Hebron, where Abrahams 
was buried ; and Beersheba. 

The southern district of Judaea was called Idumea, or the land of Edom ;• 
the chief towns were Gera, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot of Mount Seir. But 
this district, or the principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, un- 
der Arabia Pelraza (§ 171). — The sea-coast was ©ailed Philistcea, or the land of 



ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. MESOPOTAMIA. 691 

the Philistines, from whom the whole country is now called Palestine ; \t§ 
chief towns were Gath, Ekrbn, Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. 

§ 169. Per sea is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. 
The chief towns were Ramoth Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites ; Gada* 
ra, on the torrent Hieromas. where the Christians were severely defeated by 
the Saracens ; Gaulon, a fortress of remarkable strength ; Gamala, near the 
Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth-Ammon, in the district Ammonitis, afterwards 
called Philadelphia. — The Jordan rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through 
the Sea of Tiberias falls into the lake Asphaltites, whence there is no exit 
for its waters. 

This lake is supposed to occup3' the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It has 
heen said that, from its extreme saltness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and 
vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. E. Robinson, who 
visited the region in 1838, states that the Water is intensely salt and bitter ; but that trees and 
bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor Was perceived, and many birds Were singing among 
the trees and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Repos., Apr. 1839. p. 419. 

§ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and 
Euphrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were JYisibis, on a 
branch of the Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthians ; 
Edessa, near Syria ; Selcucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigris 
with a branch of the Euphrates; and Carrhm, called in Scripture Charran, for/ 
a time the residence of Abraham, and the scene of Crassus's miserable over- 
throw. On the borders of Chaldeea were the plains of Cunaxa, where Cyrus 
Was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and where the ten thousand Greeks com- 
menced that retreat so memorable in history. . 

Babylonia and Chaldsea were districts separate from Mesopotamia, lying 
below it to the south-east. Their chief town was Babylon, the most ancient 
and remarkable city of antiquity. 

Belus, its founder, commenced his building near the tower of Babel, which by profane writ- 
ers is called after his name ; but to Semiranlis, the widow of his descendant Ninus, the gran- 
deur of Babylon is attributable. She enclosed the city with a wall of brick cemented by bit- 
umen, of almost incredible dimensions, and ornamented it with one hundred brazen gates* 
The circuit of the city was said to have been more than sixty miles ; and so great was its 
length, that when Cyrus had captured one extremity of the city, the inhabitants of the other 
were ignorant of the event until the following morning.— The river Euphrates flowed through 
the city, and Cyrus, having diverted the river into another channel, led his troops through the 
vacant bed, and surprised the Babylonians, who, with their monarch Belshazzar, were at that 
moment celebrating a feast in honor of their gods, and consequently made but a feeble resist- 
ance. — The Chaldaeans were celebrated astronomers, but they debased the science by the ad* 
mixture of judicial astrology, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated. 

On the topoaraphv and ruins of Babylon and Niniveh, see Bibl. Repos. No. xxn. 365; No. 

xxiii. 158, 246 ; No. xkv. 139. 

East of the Tigris lay Assyria, nor called Kurdistan from the Cardnchi, a 
tribe that inhabited the northern part of the country; they are mentioned by 
Xenophon as having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand. Its chief towns ; 
Ninus, or Niniveh, frequently mentioned in Scripture ; the ruins of this cele- 
brated city lie opposite the modern Mosul ; and Arbela, near which is the village 
Gaugamela, where Alexander overturned the Persia empire, by the defeat of 
Darius. 

§ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which 
was the large peninsula between the Sinus Persicus (Persian Gulf) and the 
Sinus Arabicus (Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta ('desert) 5 
Petraa (stony), and Felix (happy). 

Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldsea and extended along the 
Sinus Persicus > — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the south- 
ern part bordering on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarka- 
ble among its inhabitants were the Sabai, who cultivated frankincense. Ma- 
coraba was the name by which the Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious 
in the Mohammedan history ; here is the famous building called Kaba or Kaa- 
ba, with the fabulous stone of Gabriel. — Arabia P e t r 83 a was a smaller por* 
tion lying south of Judea and at the head of the Sinus Arabicus, or Red Sea 
which here is divided into two bays, the eastern called JElanites Sinus, and the 
western, Heroopolites Sinus. Between these bays or arms were the mountains 
Horcb and Sinai. On the eastern was the sea-port Berenice or Asiongaber, 
the Ezion-Geber of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Petra, embo- 
Bomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea. in the district called Idumca* 



692 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The ruins of Petra have been discovered recently and have excited great interest from theif 
striking peculiarities ('being entirely excavations from the solid rock;, and from the evidence 
they furnish of the fulfilment of prophecy. — See Laborde's Journey to Arabia Petraea, Lonri\ 

1836. 2 vols. 8. with 65 plates. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. No. cxvn.-* North Jlmer. Rev. for Jan< 

1837. — Bibb. Repository, vol. ix. p. 431. 

§ 172. The Asiatic Islands were riot very important, except those in the 
Mare iEgceum already named f § 147). The principal other in the Mediterra- 
nean was Cyprus, sacred to Venus ; the chief towns of which were Paphos 1 
Where stood the celebrated temple of Venus, infamous for the debauchery and 
prostitution it sanctioned; Citiuin, the birth-place of Zeno, the Stoic, on the 
west coast ; Salamis (Famagusta), built by Teucer, on the east; Lapethus f 
ArsinoS, and Soli, in the north ; and Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, 
in the interior. — The other islands were Proconnesus (Marmora), in the Pro* 
ponds; Taprobane (Ceylon), dindJabadi (Sumatra), in the Indian ocean. 



III. Of Africa. 



| 173. The name Africa Was applied strictly and properly by ancient geo- 
graphers, at least until the time of Ptolemy, to a small part of that vast penin- 
sula of the eastern continent which it now designates ; and by them Egypt 
Was reckoned among the Asiatic kingdoms. But we here use term as includ- 
ing all that was known to the ancients of that whole country. We shall con- 
sider it under the following divisions ; iEcYPT ris or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, 
Africa. Propria, NumidiA, Mauritania, and Africa Interior. 

§ 174. The general boundaries of iEGVPTus were the Mediterranean on the 
north, Syria and the SinUS Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and 
Libya on the west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torfens JEgypti, 
or river of Egypt as called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea 
Called Palus Sirbonis. The limit between Egypt and Libya on the west was 
the great declivity and narrow pass termed Catabathmos (y.uTupaGubg). Its 
southern limit Was the smaller cataract of the Kile. 

One of the most striking features of Egypt was its river, JYilUs. This had 
two principal sources ; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now 
called Abyssinia, and the western in the Litnce Monies, or mountains of the 
moon. Having passed through the ancient Ethiopia it flows through the 
whole length of Egypt to the Mediterranean ; not receiving a single tributary 
for the last 1000 miles of its course, and at last dividing into two great arms 
and forming the triangular island called Delta from its shape. It had seven 
mouths; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the others in their 
order, proceeding towards the east, Were the Balbytinum, Sebenniticum, 
Phatnicum, Mendesium, Taniticum, andPelusiaCum.—^Its annual inundations 
Were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in 
great numbers to convey the Water over the whole country ; where the land 
was too high to allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the 
water; almost every village, it is said, had its canal, although there were in 
the narrow valley of Egypt many thousand cities and villages. 

§ 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt; the northern partort 
the Mediterranean was called JEgyptus Inferior; the southern part on the 
confines of Ethiopia was JEgyptus Superior or Tkebais ; and the portion be* 
tween these, Heptanomis. — The capital of lower Egypt was Alexandria, the 
great mart of Indian merchandise ; during the middle ages, caravans con* 
tinually passed from thence to Arsinoe CSues;, on the Red Sea, whence 
goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the harbor was an island 
named Pharos, on which a celebrated light-house was built; south of the city 
was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egyptian wine was 
made. In Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been burned by 
the Saracens. (Cf. P. I. § 76).— In the interior of the Delta was Sais, the 
ancient capital, remarkable for its numerous temples. -Between the Delta 



AFRICA. jEGYPTUS. 693 

and Sinus Arabicus were Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings ; and 
Onion, founded by a colony of Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest 
Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, and, by the permission of Ptolemy, 
built a city and temple. 

In lower Egypt, east of the Delta, was the land of Goshen, according to the views of the 
best modern authors. — Cf. E. Robinson, on the Exodus of the Israel ites^fcc. Bill. Rcpos. vol. 
ii. 744. 

§ 176. In the middle portion or Heptanomis, one of the chief places was 
Memphis, near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient 
metropolis of all Egypt ; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoe 
south-west of Memphis was an important place ; near this was the famous 
lake Moeris, said to have been excavated by order of an Egyptian king as a 
reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile conveyed into it by a great canal, 
now the lake Birket-el-Kurun, and believed to have been wholly or chiefly a 
work of nature ; at the southern end of this lake was the still more celebrated 
Labyrinth. — Oxyrynchus was a considerable place, said to have derived its 

name from a sharp nosed fish {ozvz (n'y/oc) worshiped by the inhabitants. 

In upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name 
of Thebais to this division; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Heca- 
tompylos ; although destroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins 
still excite admiration, occupying a space of 27 miles in circumference, in- 
cluding the modern Karnak, Luxor, and other villages ; near it was the famous 
statue of Memnon before noticed (P. III. § 74). — Tentyra (Denderah), was 
north of Thebes, and also presents interesting ruins ; especially the large tem- 
ple of Isis, from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transport- 
ed to France and made the subject of much speculation. Amer. Quart. Rev. 
iv). — Between Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side 
of the Nile, was Coptos ; from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus across the desert to Berenice on the Sinus Arabicus. Considera- 
bly to the south of Thebes was Ombi made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for 
its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the worship of the crocodile. Syene was the 
extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the place of Juvenal's exile ; where 
also was the well sunk to mark the summer solstice, its bottom being then 
illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over it. Not 
far from Syene was the island on which Elephantine stood, of which interest- 
ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Mons Basanites, mountains 
of touch-stone, from which the Egyptians used to make ornamental vases. — 
South of Syene were the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red gran- 
ite (Syenite) cross the bed of the river, and throw its waters into an impet- 
uous and foaming torrent. In this region were the quarries whence the vast 
obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyptian temples were taken. 
There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus, which should be mentioned ; 
Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt; Arsinoe (now Suez), at the 
head of the Sinus Heroopolites, the western arm of the Red sea; and Myos- 
hormus, called also Portus Veneris, midway between them ; they were com- 
mercial places, goods being transported from them to the Nile. A canal, called 
Fossa Trajana, connected Arsinoe with that river. 

In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the culti- 
vated and inhabited spots called Oasis Magna, and Oasis Parva, the Great 
and the Little Oasis. The latter was in the division termed Heptanomis, south 
of lake Mceris. The Great Oasis is in the part that was called Thebais. It 
was a place of banishment in the time of the later Roman empire ; yet said 
to have been a delightful residence, and sometimes called by the Greeks, the 
isle of the blessed. 

§ 177. The ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest 
interest in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various temples and 
other edifices, of which splendid remains are found in various places, the fol- 
lowing rank high among the objects of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; 
several of these were removed to Rome ; of the remaining, the most noted 
are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks called Cleopatra 1 s Needles- 
at Alexandria, and Pompeifs Pillar, also at Alexandria. An obelisk, nearly 
70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be erected in that 



694 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the 
seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the an- 
cient Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at Gize are 
the most celebrated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of 
which we have account. Several others have been opened in recent times. 
They all contain chambers evidently used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. I. 
§ 231. P. III. § 96. 3.) — 3. Catacombs. These are subterranean burying 
places. They are found in several places; but the most remarkable are near 
Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot of the 
mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks and ex- 
tend, it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies 
have been taken. — The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonder- 
ful than the pyramids, included numerous subterranean chambers designed 
as repositories for the dead ; over these was an immense pile of splendid 
buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Moeris (§ 176) have been 
discovered. — 4. Colossal images and statues. One of the most remarkable of 
the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. III. $ 117) is near the great pyramids. 
A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. 
P. I. $ 169. 2. § 231. 1). — The Egyptian monuments are covered with inscrip- 
tions in Hieroglyphics (cf.P. I. $ 16). 

Much research has been employed in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. 
A new degree of interest was awakened in the whole subject by the celebrated expedition of 
Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion of Egypt, he took with him a detachment of no less than 
one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (savans) selected for the purpose. 
" This body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invading army, was liberally 
supplied with books, philosophical instruments, and all the means of prosecuting the several 
departments of knowledge." — The splendid work, published under the emperor's patronage 
and styled Description dc V Egypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. I. $ 169).— Many 
other valuable works illustrating the history and monuments of Egypt have been publish- 
ed during the present century, some from members of the company of savans above 
named. That of Denon holds a high rank ; entitled Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt during 
the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates. — The following works relate to this subject. 
Leigh's Travels in Egypt. — Belzoni's Travels. — Jomard's Description de '1 Egypte. — Hamilton's 
yEgyptiaca. — Letronne, Recherches sur l'Egypte. — Russell's View of Ancient and Modern 
Egypt, in Harper's Fam. Library, No. xxxm.— J. Miot, Memoires del' Expedition en Egypte, 
&c". Par. 1814.— J. CK Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, and general View of Egypt. Lond. 
1835. 8. — We may add, the Travels of Clarke, Norden, Shaw, Pococke. Cf. Supplement to 
Encyclop. Britann. Article Egypt. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xiii. 1. xvi. 1. xvii. 181. xix. 178. 
xxiv. p. 139.— Amer. Quart. Rev. No. vii.— For. Quart Rev. Nos. xxxii. and xxxiii.— Am. Bibl. 
Rcpos. No. xxiii— See also references given P. I. $ 216. 1. $230. 1. $238. 3. $ 243. 3.— A history 
of Pompey's Pillar is given in J. White's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1821. 

§ 178. -/Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to 
the country lying south of Egypt; the modern countries of Nubia and Abys- 
sinia particularly were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented 
as dwelling here in ancient times ; on the coast were the Troglodytce said tc 
inhabit caves of the earth. It seems also to have contained inhabitants equal- 
ly advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. 

The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis. — 
Auxum,e (AxumJ was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazze), the east- 
ern branch of the Nile. Its ruins still exist. " In one square, Bruce found 
40 obelisks, each formed of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and in- 
scriptions, but no hieroglyphics. One of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — 
Here was found the monument usually called the Inscription of Axum(cf. P. 
I. $ 92. 5). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus Arabicus ; having 
some celebrity from two inscriptions there found fcf. P. I. $ 92. 5). — Meroe 
was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the 
modern Shendy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between 
these rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, 
being the grand emporium of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt 
and the north of Africa. The remains of temples and other edifices of sand- 
stone still mark its site. — JVapata was farther north or lower down on the 
Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. 

These regions have also been explored in modern times and splendid ruins have been found 
scattered along the valley of the Nile. The following are some of the sources of information 
on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abvssinia, cited P. I. $ 118. 1. — Travels of Salt and Lord 
Valentia; of Burckhardt ; Franc. Gau (P. I. $243. 3;, and especially of Cailliaud. — Cf. Lond. 
Quart. Rev. vol.xvi. 13. xix. 174. 



AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. LIBYA. 695 

§ 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from JEgyptus on the 
east to the Sijrtis Minor (Gulf cf Cabes), together with an indefinite portion 
on the south. The term was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in 
general. In its strict and most limited sense, it included only the region be- 
tween Egypt and the Syrtis Major (Gulf of Sidraj. — In the latter sense, it 
comprised on the coast only the two districts, Murmarica and Cyrenaica. We 
include under Lybia also the portion farther west called Regio Syrtica, from 
the two Syrtes on the coast already named. 

Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were 
said to possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents ; some of 
them, named Psylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, 
by sucking the venom out of the wound. In an Oasis, now El Wak, south of 
Marmarica, stood the celebrated temple of Jupiter Ammon (P. IV. § 71), and 
near it the fountain of the sun, whose waters were said to be warm in the 
morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, and scalding at midnight. Alex- 
ander, after having encountered great difficulties, succeeded in visiting this 
oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. 

" Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wah (the tushes), the northern 
Oasis. He found, as Hornemann had, the tops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salty 
and wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus 
related two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has been considered 
as the temple of Jupiter Amnion ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him 
see this ' Work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet 
water, whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown 
was told by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni : 
who says he proved" the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this spring is warm in the 
mornings and evenings, much more so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had 
Mr. Belzoni possessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the 
air which had changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lond, 
Quart. Rev. xxni. 95. 

Cyrenaica, or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and the Syr- 
tis Major, or altars of the Phileni. It contained five cities; Cyrene, founded 
by a Greek colony, the birth-place of the philosopher Carneades ; Apollonia, 
• a celebrated sea-port ; Ptolemais, at first called Barce ; JlrsinoZ, and Berenice 
or Hesperis, near which Were the gardens of the Hesperides, famous for their 
golden apples, and the residence of the Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf 
Ed. Rev. No. 95. p. 228). — West of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, 
from its three cities, Tripolitana (Tripoli) ; its cities were Leptis, called 
major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name, near Carthage ; (Ea 1 
the present city of Tripoli ; and Sabrata, a Roman colony ; and Tysdrus, now 
Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast; he 
says, that they fed on the lotus, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it 
immediately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dan- 
gerous quicksands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners; here, 
also, was the lake Tritonis sacred to Minerva. 

There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — ■ 
The situation of Cyrene is described as exceedingly beautiful. — " It is built on the edge of 3 
range of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the summit 
of a lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower 
chain may be estimated at 1000 feet ; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of 
the sea, of which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east 
and west as far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward and then de- 
scends abruptly to the coast. Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the 
ledges into roads leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instan- 
ces by narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have 
been the favorite drives of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of 
chariot wheels, deep furrowing the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising 
perpendicularly from these galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally 
adorned with architectural facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from 
one range to another, Were ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs; and the 
whole sloping space between the galleries was filled up with simular structures. These, as 
Well as the excavated tombs, exhibit very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a 
simple sarcophagus of white marble, ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquis- 
ite workmanship, was found in a large excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were 
discovered remains of paintings, representing historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, ex- 
ecuted in the manner of those of Herculaneum and Pompeii. (Cf. P. I. § 226). — In the region 
of Cyrenaica are several caverns containing stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic 
shapes. It has been supposed that this fact, together with the existence of the ruins and ex- 
cavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may have given rise to the story of the petrified city, of 
Which, under the name of Ras Sern, marvelous accounts have been related to travelers in Afri- 
ca." See Modern Traveler.— B eechy's Travels. « — At Tysdrus are still found ruins of Ro- 



696' CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 






man structures ; particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, " consisting formerly ef four rows of 
columns in tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades." The inner area is said to be 300 
feet in length and 200 in breadth ; and the whole circumference 1570 feet ; the height is estima- 
ted to have been at least 105 feet k The upper tier of columns is nearly fallen ; the three lower 1 
are preserved. — See Rev. C. F. EwaWs Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine^ 
Jan. 13. 1838. 

§ 180. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propria, of which 
the capital was Carthago. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by 
vjueen Dido, and by its extensive commerce became one of the most opulent 
■cities of antiquity. Its citadel was called Byrsa, because it was said, that Di- 
iio, on coming here, purchased as much ground as she could encompass with 
a BvQOa or hide, and then, having cut the hide into strips, took in the space 
originally covered by the city. — The other remarkable towns in this district 
were Tunes, or Tuneta (Tunis), where Regulus was defeated and taken prison- 
er ; 'Clupea, near the Promontorium Mercurii (Cape Bona) ; Jldrumetum ; Thap* 
sus, Where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba ; and Utica, where Cato the 
younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, where Regulua 
slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. 

§ 181. Numidia was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, 
ruled by Massinissa, and that of the Masseesyli, under the government of Sy- 
phax; but after the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom un* 
der Massinissa; the capital was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast 
were Tabraca, remarkable for its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small rivet 
Rubricatus, the episcopal seat of Saint Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the in- 
terior were Vaga ; Sicca; and Zama, where Hannibal was defeated by Scipio; 
On the confines of the desert were Thala and Capsa. 

§ 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas.-— 
Its chief towns were Casarea, whence the eastern part was called C ee s a r i- 
e n s i s ; and Tingis CTangiersJ, from which the western received the name 
T i n g i t a n a . This country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating 
it from Numidia, to some distance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after 
their conquest over these regions, planted in them numerous colonies, and 
constructed fortresses and roads, of which some traces yet remain. The most 
southern Roman settlement was that called Exploratio ad Mercurium, on the 
coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this territory Were named OceanuS 
Atlanticus, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, which bounded Maurita- 
nia on the south, and terminated at two different points on the coast, the 
northern ridge being termed Atlas Minor, and the southern Atlas Major. — 
Mons Abyla was the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Mediterr- 
anean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the 
fabled pillars of Hercules (Herculis Cvluninte). 

§ 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Af- 
rica Interior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — * 
The Geetuli, and Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dwelling- 
within it. The Nigi'ita were placed about the river Niger. The Great Des- 
ert was called Desert a Libya Interioris. = On the coast west of this were 

the Insula Fortunatce ; called also Canaria, from the number of large dogs, a3 
some suppose, found upon them, and thence their modern name, Canaries. — 
South of" these were the Insula Hesperidum, the modern Cape Verd islands, 
on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides (cf. § 179). — West of 
this coast the ancients also placed the island Atl antis, said to have existed 
once, and to have been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was repre- 
sented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerful. 

Some have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjec- 
tured that the Canaries, Madeira Isles and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus de- 
scribed ; and others have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of 
America. The latter opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows ; An Attempt to 
show, that America must be known to the Ancients, Sfc. by an American Englishman, Pastor of a 
Church in Boston. Boston, New England, MDCCLXXIII. — Some have imagined that this 
island was situated in the Northern regions ; Bailly, Lettres sur l'Atlantide de Platon, &c. Pa^ 

ris 1779. 8. See Malte Bran's Geography. — Bory de St. Vincent, Essay sur 1 'antique Atlan^- 

fcide. Par, 1804. 4. — The ancient story is given in the Critias or Atlanticus of Plato-, 



INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



Preliminary Remarks. 

§ 184. Chronology treats of the computation of time and of the dates ot 
events. It is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there 
was scarcely any systematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly im- 
portant science. Accurate chronology is essential to all reasoning from his- 
torical facts; the mutual dependence and relations of events cannot be traced 
without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been called one of the eyes of 
history, while geography with equal propriety has been said to be the other. 
Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly considered, in 
studying history and biography. 

In treating this subject, although our design requires a special reference to Classical Chronol- 
ogy, yet from the nature of the subject we must introduce some things, which belong rather 
to the science in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes 
of computing it ; and endeavor to present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full 
study of the classical historians and of ancient history. 

Chronology maybe considered as consisting of tioo parts ; the first, meas- 
uring time and adjusting its various divisions; the second, fixing the dates of 
historical events and arranging them in order. 



/. — ■ Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions. 

§ 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested 
to all men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, 
months, and years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or 
the apparent revolution of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical 
changes in the moon ; the year from the annual motion of the earth in her or- 
bit round the sun. — These three divisions are not commensurate, and this has 
caused the chief embarrassment in the science of Chronology ; it has, in point 
of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in a system of meas- 
uring time as to have the computed time and the actual time perfectly in agree- 
ment or coincidence. 

§ 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally 
was distinguished, it is likely, from the night; extending from sunrise to sun- 
set only. It was afterwards considered as including also the night, or time 
between sunset and sunrise. But the beginning of the day has been reckoned 
differently by different nations, for civil purposes ; at sunrise, by the Babylo- 
nians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of India; at sunset, by the Jews, 
Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese ; at midnight, by the Egyptians, Ro- 
mans, and moderns generally. — Astronomers in their calculations consider 
the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to 

Priestley. There have also been various modes of subdividing the day. — 

" The division of time into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher 
(CEdip. iEgypt. t. ii. part 2). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth 
part of a day. Herodotus observes that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians 
[Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 109], among other things, the method of dividing the 
day into twelve parts ; and the astronomers of Cathaya still retain this meth- 
od. The division of the day into twenty-four hours was not known to the Ro- 
mans before the Punic war." (Tegg.j 

§ 187. The Greeks, in the time ol Homer, seem not to have used the di- 
vision into hours ; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the 
day , morning (i]ojg), noon (uiaov Jju<xq), and evening (Siilrf). But before the 
time of Herodotus, they were accustomed to the division of the day, and of 
the night also probably, into 12 parts. They were acquainted also with the 

• 59 



CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

division of the day and night into 4 parts each, according to the Jewish and 
Roman custom. 

The Romans subdivided the day and the night each into four parts, which 
were called vigils (vigilice) or watches. They also considered the day and the 
night as each divided into 12 hours ; three hours of course were included iri 
a vigil. — The day vigils were designated simply by the numerals prima, se-* 
cunda, tertia, quarta ; but as the second vigil commenced with the third hour, 
the third vigil with the sixth hour, and the fourth with the ninth hour, the 
terms prima, tertia, sezta, and nona, are also Used to signify the four vigils of 
the day. The night vigils were designated by the names vesvera, media noXj 
gallicinium, conticinium. 

It is sometimes stated, that the first vigil and first hour of the day commenced at what we 
call 6 o'clock A. M. ; the third vigil fvigilia tertia), and sixth hour (hora sezta), at 12 o'clock, 
noon ; the corresponding vigils and hours of night, at what we call 6 o'clock P. M. and 12 
o'clock, midnight. This statement may be sufficiently accurate in general ; but it must be re- 
membered, that the Roman hours and Watches Were of unequal length ; the first hour of the 
day began with sunrise, and the twelfth ended at sunset, and the first hour of the night began 
at sunset and the twelfth ended at sunrise. Of course the hours of the day in summer were 
longer than those of the night, and in the winter they were shorter. (Cf. P. IV. $ 228). 

§ 188. Different devices have been employed for marking and making 
known these parts of the day. The sun-dial was used by the Babylonian^ 
and Jews; and by the latter, watchmen weremaintianed to announce the time. 
The Greeks borrowed the sun-dial from the Babylonians, and called it the 
Heliotrope, ifliorqomov, or Gnomon, yra> ( uwv; but the latter term properly de- 
signates the needle or index which cast the shadow on the dial. — The Ro- 
mans, besides the dial, employed also the Clepsydf a already described (P. IV.- 
$228). 

Several specimens of the ancient sun-dial are still preserved ; one is said to be still remain- 
ing, nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. " Upon each side 
of the octagonal building, commonly called, the tower of the winds, was also placed a vertical 
sun-dial ; the gnomon or index projected from the side, while the lines indicating the hour 
Were cut upon the wall. The lines of the dial upon the wall are distinctly extant at the pres- 
ent day ; and although the gnomons have disappeared, the places where they were inserted 
are still visible." Besides stationary dials, the ancients had portable ones of metal, which 
were termed Phorematica. (Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, vol. n). — An instrument called a 
water-clock was in considerable use in some parts of Europe a few centuries ago. Striking- 
clocks are said to have been invented by the Arabians about A. D. 800. — Watches were first 
made in Germany A. D. 1477. — See Berthoud, Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horlo- 
ges. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 4. — Ernesti, de Solariis, in his Opuscula. — Sallier and Falconet, Sur 
les horologes des Anciens, in the Mem. de VAcad. des In^cr., vol. iv. p. 148 ; and vol. xx. p. 440* 
Cf. vol. in. p. 174. on the Gnomon. — Oough, on a Roman Horologium found in Italy, Archce- 
ologia (as cited P. I. § 243. 3), vol. x. p. 172, with a plate. 

§ 189. The month. This division, without much doubt, had its origin in the 
various phases or changes in the moon. It included the time of the moon's 
revolution round the earth, or between two new moons, or two successive 
conjunctions of the sun and moon. The mean period is 29 days, 12 hours, 
44 minutes; it was considered to be 29 1-2 days ; and the ancients commonly 
reckoned the month as consisting alternately of 29 and 30 days. 

The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and termed those which had 30 
days, tcXi0i$ (full), and dexacpQivoi (ending on the 10th day) ; those of 29 days 
they termed y.oi'/.oi (hollow or deficient), and Iwaip&tv oL (ending on the 9th day). 
Twelve lunations thus computed formed the year; but it fell short of the true 
solar year by about 11 days and a quarter, making in four years about 45 daysv 
To reconcile this and bring the computation by months and years to coincide 
more exactly, another month was intercalated every two years; and in the 
first two years a month of 22 days ; and in the next two, a month of 23 days ; 
thus after a period of four years the lunar and solar years would begin togeth- 
er; this was called the TsToat-n/ot?. But the effect of this system was to 
change the place of the months relatively to the seasons ; and another system 
was adopted. This was based on the supposition that the solar year was 365 
days and a quarter, while the lunar was 354 ; which would in a period of 8 
years give a difference of 90 days , the adjustment was made by intercalating, in 
the course of the period, three months of 30 days each ; the period was called 
'OKTasTtjQlg. Its invention was attributed to Cleoslratus of Tenedos; it was 
universally adopted, and was followed in civil matters, even after the more 
perfect cycle of Meton was known; one reason may have been the reciprocal 
adaptation between the Octaeteris and the Olympiad, the former including ex- 
actly two of the latter. 



DIVISION OF TIME. THE MONTH. 

§ 190. " The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with 
those of the corresponding Julian months, as near as they can be given. In 
this list Scaliger's aecouRt has been followed, which, upon the whole, we be- 
lieve the most correct. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised 
but a few days of the latter part of our June, and the greater part of July, the 
latter month will be given as the corresponding one. — 1. c Exaroii(iaubv, July ; 
so called from the great number of Hecatombs, which were usually sacrificed 
in this month. — 2. MsraysiTviwv, August; so called from the sacrifices which 
were then offered to Apollo MtTayiiTviog, because on this month the inhabi- 
tants of Melite left their island, and removed to Attica. — 3. BojjSqoiihdv, Sep- 
tember ; which was so called from the festival termed Botj$Qoiita. — 4. Ilva- 
nxL'iwv, October ; so called, because in this month, after the fruits of the year 
were gathered, feasts were served up, the chief of which consisted in boiled 
pulse [eaten in memory of the food of Theseus on the last day of his voyage 
from Crete], < — 5. MaipaxTr^iuv, November ; so called from Jupiter Maiiiax- 
yijc, the boisterous ; because in this month the weather was very tempestuous. 
— 6. HoaaSsGjv, December ; in which month sacrifices were offered to Iloan- 
$eiv, Neptune ; as if it were called Neptune's month. — 7. Tain^.iwv, January ; 
which was sacred to Juno rauip.iog, the goddess of marriage. — 8. ^vQsottj- 
(titliv, February ; which took its name from the festival of the same name. — 
9. 'E/.ugji^o/.iwr, March; so called from the festival 'EXa(py](i6?.ia,, which was 
sacred to Diana i E?.a(pr i p6log, the huntress, because this was the month for 
hunting stags. — 10. Movwyiojv, April; in which sacrifices were offered to 
Diana Movwx'ia, from the harbor of this name, in which she had a temple. — 
11. GaQytjliiov, May; in which month sacrifices were offered for the ripening 
of the earth's fruits. — 12. 2xLQ(>o<poQid>v, June; so called from a festival of 

the same name celebrated in this month, in honor of Minerva, Every 

month was divided into rqla fc/^uE^a, three decades of days. The first of 
which was called iitjvbg ho%ouhov or [orauivov, the decade of the beginning ; 
the seeond, iitjvbg iieoovvrog, the decade of the middle ; and the third, f.njvbg (pQlr- 
oiToc, or Tcavouhov, the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade 
was called rzourjvLa, because it happened on the new moon ; the second, dsvrt- 
QaloTaulrov, and so on to Sexutij [otuuivov, the tenth day of the month. The 
first day of the second decade, or the eleventh day, was called TcoajTrj {uoovvrog, 
the first of the middle, or rcQwrt) Inl dlxa, the first after ten; the second $sv- 
Tiqa utoovvrog, and so on to the twentieth day {sixug), or the last day of the 
second decade. The first day of the third decade was called TtQcoryj In? siy.aSi, 
or ttqcott] (p8ivovrog, and so on. The last day of the month was denominated 
by Solon %vt\ xal via, the old and neic, as one part of the day belonged to the 
old, and the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Polior- 
cetes, the last day of the month received from him the name of Jt]iit]r^iag." 
(Cleaveland.) 
On the Attic months, cf. Classical Journal, ix. 324. 559. 

§ 191. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months; 
but Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — 
But as this formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the 
solar year, an extraordinary month (mensis intercalaris , called also Macedo- 
nia) was to be inserted every other year. The intercalating of this and the 
whole care of dividing the year was entrusted to the Pontifices (P. IV. $ 228), 
and they managed, by inserting more or fewer days, to make the current year 
longer or shorter as they for any reason might choose ; and this finally caused 
the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, so that the winter 
months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into summer (Cic. 
Leg. ii. 12). Julius Ca;sar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in- 
tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speak- 
ing of the year (§ 192). — The names of the Roman months were the follow- 
ing ; Martius, March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romulus, in whose 
arrangement of the year this month was the first ; Aprilis, derived by some 
from the verb aperio, the month in which trees and flowers open their buds ; 
Maius, May, from Maia. mother of Mercury ; Junius, June, from Juno ; Quin- 
tilis, the fifth month, afterwards named Julius, July, from Julius Caisar; Sex- 
fills, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, from Augustus Caesar; September, 



700 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; December, tenth ; Janna- 
rius, January, from Janus ; Februarius, February, so called from the purifi- 
cations Februa performed in this month (P. IV. § 230), being the last of the 
year. 

The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Kalen- 
doe, or Calendce, Nona, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the 
month ; the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month except- 
ing March, May, July and October; in which four months, the Nones fell on 
the 7th, and the Ides on the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, 
the Romans counted backwards from these three fixed points, including al- 
ways the day from which the reckoning began ; e. g. the last or thirty-first 
day of December was called the second from the Calends of January , pridie 
[ante] Kalendas Januarii ; the last day but one or 30th of December was 
called the third from or before the Calends of January, tertio [die ante] Kal. 
Jan.', and so on back to the 13th day, which was called Idus; the 12th was 
pridie Idus, and so on back to the 5th, which was the Nonce; the 4th, by this 
plan of reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. 

Cf. La JVauze, as cited P. IV. § 229. 2. — The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division 
properly answering to our weeks ; although the former had their decade of days f § 190 J ; and 
the latter their nundince, or market days occurring every ninth day (P. IV. §229.;. But the 
Egyptians and oriental nations had a week of seven days. This division (hebdomades) was in- 
troduced among the Romans, it is said, not far from the beginning of the 3d century after 
Christ. The days were named after the planets or pagan Gods ; D ies Solis, Sunday ; Luna, 
Monday ; Martis, Tuesday ; Mercurii, Wednesday ; Jovis, Thursday ; Veneris, Friday ; Satur- 
ni, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the days had a similar origin ; as is seen 
by observing their Saxon derivation ; Sunnadceg, Sun's day : Mnnanda.g, Moon's day ; Tues- 
dwg, day of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; Wodensdag, day of Wodin or Odin, a northern deity ; Thorsdag y 
day of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter ; Frigdceg, day of Frigga, the Venus of the north ^ 
Sceterdag, day of Sseter or Seater (i. e. Saturn, cf. P. III. § 15.,). 

§ 192. The year. This division was probably not formed until some con- 
siderable advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long 
after its first adoption, before it attained to any thing like an accurate form. — 
The most ancient year, of which we know, was that consisting of 12 months 
supposed to contain 30 days each, thus amounting to 360 days. It has been 
conjectured, that this gave rise to the division of the ecliptic into 360 equal 
parts or degrees, which is still preserved. But it was soon found that this fell 
short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the earth ; and an addi- 
tion of Splays was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days; this is as- 
cribed to the Thebans. The Grecian year, however, as established by Solon 
and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and 
a quarter. 

The manner in which the Greeks made their computation by the lunar months to agree with 

the solar year, has already been explained ( § 189J. Cf. Oibert, L'annee Grecque, in the 

Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 133. 

The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Jul- 
ius Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust 
their computation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned 
(§ 191), and likewise the confusion, which resulted from it. This Coesar at- 
tempted to remedy (cf. P. II. § 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 
hours. To remove the error of 80 days, which computed time had gained of 
actual time, he ordered one year of 445 days (365 plus 80J, which was called 
the Year of confusion. And to secure a proper allowance for the 6 hours 
which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 years to a day, he 
directed that one additional day should be intercalated in the reckoning of 
every 4th year ; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — 
This is called the Julian year. In the Roman calender. the intercalated day 
was placed after the 6th (sextus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called 
bissextus ; hence the phrase bissextile year still in use. 

But in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. before a 
whole day had been gained ; because computed time, instead of gaining 6 hours a year, gained 
only 5 hours 48 m. 57 sec. and in 4 years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 48 sec. ; so the intercalated 
day was inserted too soon by 44 minutes and 12 seconds ; of course computed time, by this plan, 
lost 44 m. 12 see. every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec. every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of 
computed time, of one day ; i. e. computed time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 
1582 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 13th attempted to remedy the evij 
by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the bissextile, every 100th year 
excepting each 400th year. By the Julian year computed time loses 11 m, 3 sec. a year, willed 



DIVISION OF TIME. THE YEAR. CYCLES. 701 

makes about 19 hours in 100 years ; dropping the intercalary day on the 100th year makes up 
this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours ; dropping it on the next 100th year 
gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third 100th year ; in this way com- 
puted time gains of actual time, in 300 years, 15 hours ; if on the next 100th year, i. e. the 4th, 
the intercalary day be inserted, computed time loses for that century 19 hours ; but to meet this 
loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each and in all 15 hours, so that 
the loss is only 09-15,5 4 hours at the end of 400 years. By this method, the difference be- 
tween computed and actual time cannot amount to a day in 2500 years. In this system, called 
the Grr.g-nrian Calendar, the years 1600, 2000, 2400 are intercalary ; and the years 1700, 1800, 
1900, 2100, 2200, 2300 &c. not. — The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Por- 
tugal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic Germany, in 1583 ; in Pro- 
testant Germany and Denmark, in 1700; in Sweden, 1753. In England it was adopted in 
1752, by act of Parliament directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14th, as computed time 
had lost 11 days. This was called the change from Old to New Style. — In 1832, Russia was 
said to be the only country, where the Julian year or the Old Style was used. It is, however, 
retained in the Greek and Armenian churches. (Miss. Herald, for Dec. 1835. p. 454.J 

Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one 
time considered it as beginning in March, but afterwards in January. The Greeks placed its 
commencement in Hecatombfeon, at the summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin 
it at the 25th of March. The same was practiced in England and the American colonies until 
A. D. 1752, on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. 

§ 193. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division 
of time into days, months and years, great advantage is derived from the in- 
vention of Cycles. These are periods of time so denominated from the Greek 
v.vY.t.oz, a circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. 
Under the term cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a pe- 
riod of 4 years ; the Octaeteris, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Lustrum, 
a period of 5 years : and also the Julian year, or period of 4 years as just de- 
scribed. The period of 400 years, comprehended in the system of Gregory 
already explained, may justly be termed the cycle of Gregory. — Besides these, 
it seems important to mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar Cycle, the Cycle of 
Indiction, and the Julian Period. 

See F. Nolan, as cited below § 205. — H. Dodwell, de veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque 
Cvclis 4-c. Dissert, decern. Lond. 1701. 4. — Niebuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist, of Rome. 
vol. L p. 209. eii. Phil. 1835. 

§ 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommo- 
date the computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or 
adjust the solar and lunar years. The nearest division of the year by months 
is into twelve; but twelve lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of 
the solar year by about 11 days. Of course, every change in the moon in any 
year will occur eleven days earlier than it did on the preceding year; e. g. if 
in September of the present year full moon occurs on the 16th, the corres- 
ponding full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th of September. — 
Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by 
the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly 
at the same time. 

This Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 
430. Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar years (§ 189), and 
this improvement was at the time received with universal approbation ; but not being perfectly 
accurate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle 
of Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it 
was discontinued, when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. " The Council of Nice, how- 
ever, wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of 
the sun, with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the 
purpose ; and from its great utility, they caused the numbers of it to be written on the calen- 
der in golden letters, which has obtained for it the name of the Golden Number." The name of 
Golden Number is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in 
the Almanacs. 

§ 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the 
days of the week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consists 
of 52 weeks and one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same 
day. Let the seven letters A. B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven da.js of 
the week, A being always applied to the first day of the year. Let January 
begin with Monday. Of course A will stand for Monday, and Sunday com- 
ing on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th letter. The year will 
end with Monday, as it began with it; and A, the next year, will stand for 
Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6th day of the year, and be represented 
by F. Thus the year will commence one day later every common year, and 
Sunday will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retro- 

59* 



702 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

grade order, G, F, E, &c. and if 52 weeks and one day were the esact year Of 
there were no leap year, the year would after seven years, again begin on 
Monday, the same day with the first year supposed. But the leap year, con- 
sisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the regular succession every 
fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is not effected until 
4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. 

This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the 
Dominical Letter. Chronologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the 
seven days of the week ; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter, which represents 
Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- 
nomical books. 

§ 196. The Cycle of Indiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and pri- 
mary use of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. 
It seems to have been established by Constantine the Great, in the 4th centu- 
ry, as a period at the end of which a certain tribute should be paid by the dif- 
ferent provinces of the Empire. Public acts of the emperors were afterwards 
dated by the years of this cycle. 

The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed 
the Julian Period, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to 
furnish a common language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, 
some term of which should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reck- 
oning years might be easily applied. To accomplish this, he combined the 
three cycles of the moon, sun, and indiction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into 
one another, which produces 7980, after which all the three cycles will return 
in the same order, every year taking again the same number of each cycle 
as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin church, and tra- 
cing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together was 
the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year of the 
Christian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. 

This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowledged epoch, or fixed 
year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary. 
Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed 
standard. 



II. — Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them 

in order. 

§ 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, 
and assign the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consid- 
eration of this part we shall notice the following topics ; (A) The methods em- 
ployed to ascertain the dates of events, or the time when they occurred ; (B) 
The epochs and eras which have been employed or are still in use ; (€) The 
systems of arrangement, and chronological tables and charts ; (D) The actual 
dates of the most prominent events in classical Chronology. 

§ 198. (A) Methods employed to ascertain the dates of events. — Here we ob- 
serve, that the principal helps or sources due four. First, we will notice thafe 
furnished by observations on generations of men or successions of Kings. — 
It has been supposed that the average length of a king's reign, or of a genera- 
tion of men, may be estimated by comparing a sufficient number of facts. — 
When this average is taken, and we are told by a writer how many genera- 
tions lived, or how many kings reigned, between tico events, we can at once 
find the time between them; and if the date of either event is known, the 
date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest wri- 
ters, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans used it. 
Generally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; 
three of them equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Netaton employed this means of 
ascertaining dates, and maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 
20 years ; and for generations, 29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 
33, if reckoned by others. On these principles he attempted to rectify an- 
cient chronology, giving to many events a date more recent than other au- 
thors. 



MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 703 

It may be desirable to give a further explanation of this method by two illustrations, fa,) The 
-Gate of the return of the Heraclidae to Peloponnesus is disputed; but the date of the Battle of 
Thermopylae is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a 
succession of 17 kings ; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the 
return of the Heraclidae B. C. (480 plus 340) 820 5 a date 280 years later than as given by other 
chronologers. — (b) The date of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of 
She Peloponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hippocrates, living at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from JEsculapius by father's 
side, and 19th from Hercules by mother's side, and that ^Esculapius and Hercules were both 
Argonauts ; that is, there were 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two 
events. Taking the medium 17 1-2 and multiplying by 29 gives 567 ; making the date of the 
Argonautic Expedition, B. C. [431 plus 567] 938; 326 years later than by other chrciologers. 
There are two grand objections to this method of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccura- 
cy and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Sec- 
ondly, the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kings or giving a genealogy, 
often omit several of the series. This is done in Matthew, ch. i., for the sake of reducing the 
number of generations between the great epochs mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly four- 
teen. 

§ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and changes. This 
method is in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomi- 
cal principles perfectly settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and 
the precession of the equinoxes. 

(a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many 
are recorded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important 
events in history, and described so that they may be recognized by the astron- 
omer, who can calculate with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that 
has happened. 

We will give an illustration. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the 
Syracusans, says, that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, deter- 
termined to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse ; but when everything was ready for sailing, 
the moon was eclipsed, for it was then full moon; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers 
were filled with alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost 
to a man perished. This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it 
is found by calculation, that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, 
and that there must have been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely 

to produce on the soldiers the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of 

Nabonnassar, B. C. 747, is also determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's 

Almagest (cf. P. II. § 218). In Playfair's System of Chronology,, cited P. II. $7. 7.(c), is a 

list of eclipses that weie observed before the Christian era. 

(b) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where 
the equator crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same from year to year ; 
but they move backward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree 
in 72 years. If, then, the place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of 
any event is stated, we may determine the date of the event, by noticing how 
far the equinox has now receded from the place it then held, and allowing 72 
years for a degree. The only objection to this method is the difficulty, per- 
haps impossibility, of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did occupy 
at the time of particular events in ancient history. 

Sir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — 
A sphere, representing the heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient writers to have 
been formed for the Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was 
placed in the middle point of the sign Aries. In the year 1689, the equinox had gone back 
from that point 36 degrees 44 minutes ; this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 
2645 years between the year 1689 and the Expedition ; making it B. C. 955 ; nearly the same 

as by the calculation from generations by the same author. If it be stated how a star rises 

or sets in relation to the sun, the place of the equinox may be found, and dates ascertained in 
the way just mentioned. — Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to ascertain the 
time when Hesiod lived. In a passage in the Works and Days [vs. 564], Hesiod says, that Arc- 
turus rose at sunset, 60 days after the sun entered the winter solstice, a point 90 degrees dis- 
tant from the equinox. — But the place of the equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this 
way ; because it cannot be certainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time 
and residence or not, whether he means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or 
star he means exactly. Cf. Costard, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. p. 2. 

§ 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins, medals, mon- 
uments, and inscriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding 
ages. These often throw great light upon historical events, and afford impor- 
tant aid in ascertaining the time of their occurrence. Interesting facts are 
sometimes first made known, and the period when they took place is often in- 
dicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations on a public monument. 
— Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most valuable of 
these we must mention the chronicle of Paros, which fixes the date of the 



704 . CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander. 
(See P. I. $91.4.) 

§ 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who 
state the distance between events, or between events and an epoch. The ear- 
ly historians paid very little attention to the subject of chronology ; it was 
not until a comparatively late period, that they began to think of dates and 
distances of time. The principal fragments of the Earlier writers, Eratosthe- 
nes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are still to be found in the Chronicon of Eu- 
sebius, and the Stromata of Clemens Jllexandrinus. The writings of the By- 
zantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly the chronological work 
(\EyJ.oyl] X<)oroy(ja<p'tac) of Syncellus. It is chiefly from this and the above- 
mentioned work of Eusebius, that the details of the commonly received Chro~ 
nology have been gathered. (Cf. P. II. § 236, 239, 288 ; and below, $ 205.) 

§ 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology. — It is essential to 
correct and exact chronology that there should be some fixed epoch, to which 
all events may be'referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it 
is of comparatively little consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed 
and acknowledged, as it is perfectly easy to compute in a retrograde manner 
the time before it, as well as in a direct manner the time after it. An epoch 
is distinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of time which is taken as a 
starting place from which to reckon, and taken usually because signalized by 
some important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the epoch; the 
series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as 
nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. 

§ 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in 
Chronology. — (a) Era of Olympiads. The Greeks for a long time had no 
fixed epoch ; but afterwards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. 
They began 776 B. C. — (b) Era of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by 
lustrums, often by the year of the consul or the emperor. The building of 
the city was their grand epoch. This teas 752 B.C. (It is placed by some 
753 or 754.) — (c) Era of JVabonassar (or Belesis). Used by some historians ; 
the commencement *f Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 747 B. C — (d) Era of 
the Seleucidce. From the reign of Seleucus and his descendants in Syria. The 
Jews chiefly used this. The Nestorians still compute from it. (Researches of 
Smith and Dwight, vol. II. p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B. C. when Seleu- 
cus recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the king- 
dom of Syria. — Cej Era of Diocletian. This was founded on the persecution 
of Christians in the reign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the 
Christian era was adopted. It began 284 A. D. — (f) The Christian Era ; 
Annus Domini; the year of our Lord. This era is founded on the birth 
of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some 
placing it seven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, how- 
ever, is of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, 
because all, who adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the 
same numerical date; all meaning (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 
1836. The era began to be used about A. D. 360, according to some writers ; 
but others state that it was invented by Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. (Cf. 
Priestley's Lect. on Hist, xiv.) — (g) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; found- 
ed on the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622" —(h) The 
Persian Era, ox Era of Yezdejerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, 
named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. 

Perhaps We should mention here the Era of the French Republic, which the revolutionists at- 
tempted to establish. This was introduced in 1793, with a formal rejection of the Sabbath and 
of the hebdominal week, and a novel arrangement and pedantic nomenclature of the months. 
The twenty-second of September was fixed as the beginning of the year. The year consisted 
of twelve months of thirty days each; which were divided, not by weeks, but into three de- 
cades, or periods of ten days. As this would comprise but 360 days, five were added at the 
close of the last month of the year, called complementary days ; and at the close of every fourth 
or bissextile year, a sixth, called the day of the Republic. The cycle of the four years was 
termed the Franciade. The three months of Autumn were named Vvndemiaire, Brumairc, 
Frimaire ; those of Winter, JYivose, Pluviose, Ventose ; those of Spring, Germinal, FloriaL 
Prairial ; those of S u m m e r, Mcssidor, Thcrmidor, Fructidor. This infidel calendar was used 
about twelve years. The Gregorian was restored January 1, 1806. 

<§ 204. (C) Systems of Arrangement and Chronological Tables. — There is 



SYSTEMS OF ARRANGEMENT. 705 

a great discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have 
been advocated in different nations and at different times. Among the orien- 
tal nations there was a strong desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, 
and hence each carried back its chronological dates into the regions of mere 
fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindoos, and 
Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or thousands of years 
before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed here. 
(Cf. P. I. § 21.) 

§ 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures 
and the other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the 
student's attention. They differ from each other considerably; that drawn 
from the Septuagint assigns to many events a date much more ancient than 
that which follows the Hebrew ; e. g. the former places the flood some hun- 
dred years further from the Christian era, and the Creation at least 600 years 
further from the Flood, than the latter. There has been much discussion 
among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two systems. 
We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. 

The system of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for 
chronological tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of 
Usher is in general accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bi- 
ble, the Arundelian Marbles, and the Chronicon of Eusebius. 

The system of Sir Isaac Newton has already been mentioned, and some of the methods em- 
ployed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many important events, particularly of 
Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. . His chronology was at first 
received with some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. See Mit- 
ford's Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append. — Cf. Shuckford's Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Pref. 

We have alreadv given the titles of some of the most important helps on the subject of Chro- 
nology. Cf. P. II. $7. 7(c) ; § 299. 6. — For others we refer to Home's Intro, to Crit. Study 
of Holy Script, vol. n. p. 730. — A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by 
Rev. J. J.Jackson, in his Chronological Antiquities. — See also Fred. Nolan, on the antiquity 
and connection of the early cycles and their utility in settling the differences of chronologists, 
in Trans, of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. hi. Lond. 1837. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. — A. 
B. Chapin, Agieement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaldean Chronologies. N. Haven. 
1839. pp. 16. — Cf. Christ. Sped., June 1837, and Dec. 1838. 

§ 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of 
history and chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be 
presented but gradually and slowly by description; the locality of events and 
dates on the paper also helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every 
student ought to avail himself of the aid of a historical and chronological 
chart, either by purchase or (which is better) by actually forming one himself. 

$ 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or less de- 
grees of utility. — (a) One of the most simple and obvious plans is to form two perpendicu- 
lar columns; one for events of every kind ranged promiscuously in order of occurrence ; the oth- 
er for their corresponding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biogra- 
phy. — (b) Another plan, of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular 
columns ; one for dates, and each of the others for a class of events ; e. g. sovereigns in one, 
remarkable events in another, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Worcester's Charts. 
Both the plans mentioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines. — (c) A third plan 
is the contrivance of a sort of tree, whose branches represent nations ; and events are ranged 
in them according to their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chro- 
nology delineated. Conquests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one 
branch receiving others into itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from 

others (d) A fourth plan is marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited 

on each side by prominent events. Such is Goodrich's Chart. — (e) A fifth plan, worthy of 
of notice, is that devised by Emma Willard, called " Perspective sketch of the course of Em- 
pire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree inverted ; the earliest events being placed at 
the top of the chart, and diverging lines being substituted instead of the trunk and branches. 
Light and shade are employed to indicate the comparative rank and culture of different na- 
tions. ( Willard? s Atlas. Hartford, 1836.) 

But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults ; 1. equal length 
of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart ; 2. duration is represented by perpen- 
dicular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory rep- 
resentation. — (f) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division 
into periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing where the scale 
is large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. The chief ob- 
jection to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the im- 
portant events of some periods without increasing too much the size of the chart and render- 
ing it inconvenient for portable use. — (g) A. seventh plan unites geography with the history 
and chronology. This method is exhibited in Priestley's "Specimen of a New Chart of Histo- 
ry," given in his Lectures on History. — (h) The device of a combination of streams or rivers 
is employed in a recent chart by /. /. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches 
by 27. 



706 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

§ 208. (D) Actual Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions 
more perplexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than 
the difficulty of remembering actual dates. Many have found this so great 
as to give over in despair. But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate 
chronology is essential to the utility, and it is no less so to the pleasure, of 
reading history. And the difficulty complained of is by no means insuperable. 

Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented ($210)} but on 
the whole, the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the 
whole field of past time, select a few grand events which stand out as land- 
marks, associate these events with their dates, and commit them to memory 
with perfect exactness, making them as familiar as the letters of the alphabet. 
Any person of common capacity can do this; and the student who wishes to 
lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must do at least as much as 
this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to locate the va- 
rious events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their 
proper place between these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the 
memory. 

§ 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desira- 
ble to include modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly 
committed to memory. 

The learner is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose ; using a 
horizontal line to represent the flowing or progress of time. Let this line be divided into equal 
spaces, each representing an equal length of time ; let the dates of the events be distinctly 
written exactly at the points in the line where they belong according to this equal division ; and 
let the events also be written directly above or under the dates. 

Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes 
the whole time before Christ, comprehending 4004 years. Modern includes 
the whole time since Christ. 

I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood ; Ante- 
diluvian ages, the portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion 
after the flood. — The Antediluvian ages maybe considered" as containing 
only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight periods. The grand 
events and periods are the following. 

Of the Antediluvian ages, 
The one period is from Creation 

to Deluge 

Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 
1st period, is from Deluge to Calling of Abraham 

2d period, from Calling of Abraham to Escape of Israelites 
3d period, from Escape of Israelites to Building of Temple 
4th period, from Building of Temple to Founding of Rome 
5^ period, from Founding of Rome to Battle of Marathon 
6th period, from Battle of Marathon to Reign of Alexander 
7th period, from Reign of Alexander to Capture of Carthage B 
8th period, from Capture of Carthage to Coming of Christ. 

II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the 
Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Early Ages, the portion before 
the Fall of Rome ; Middle Ages, the portion between the Fall of Rome and 
the Fall of Constantinople ; Recent Ages, the portion since the Fall of Con. 
stantinople. — The early ages may be considered as containing two periods 5 
the middle ages, five periods ; and the recent ages five periods. The grand 
events and periods are the following. 

Of Jthe Early ages, the 

1st period is from Christ to the Reign of Constantino A. D. 306; 

2d period, from Reign of Constan. to Fall of Rome A. D. 476. 

Of the Middle ages, the 

1st period is from Fall of Rome to Flight of Mahomet A.D. 622 
2d period, from Flight of Mahomet to Crowning of CharlemagneA.D. 800 

3d period, from Crown, of Charlem. to Landing of William A.D. 1066 

4th period, from Landing of William to Overthrow of Saracens A.D. 1258 

5th period, from Overthr. of Sarac. to Fall of Constantinople A.D. 1453, 



B. 


C. 


4004, 


B. 


C. 


2348. 


B. 


C. 


1921 


B. 


C. 


1492 


B 


C. 


1004 


B. 


C. 


752 


B. 


C. 


490 


B. 


C. 


336 


B. 


0. 


146 



ARTIFICIAL MEMORY. 707 

Of the Recent ages, the 
1st period is 

from Fall of Constantinople to Abdication of Charles Fifth A. D. 1556; 
2d period, 

from Abdic. of Charles 5th to Restoration of Charles Second A. D. 1660, 
3d period) 

from Restor. of Charles 2d to Independence of UnitedStates A. D. 1776; 
Ath period, 

from Independ. of U. States to Downfall of Bonaparte A. D.1815; 

5th period, from Downfall of Bonaparte to the Present Time. 

§ 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above al- 
luded to (§ 208), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We will 
briefly notice three different systems of artificial memory. 

1. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Technica has generally met with the most 
favorable reception. " As this method " says Priestley, " is so easily learned and may be of 
such use in recollecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will 
not take the small degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves masters of it." The 
expedient is to substitute letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and 
associate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose birth, reign, death or the like you 
Wish to remember,or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remembered. 
The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical characters 
has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong j 1, a b ; 2, e d;3, ti ; 4,f,o; 5, I u ; 6, s au ; 7, p oi ; 
8, k ei >• 9, n ou ; 0, z y. To remember the" date of the founding of Rome by this system, substi- 
tute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752 ; e. g. p u d, and 
join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome or a part of the word, thus Rom-pud. The 
very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. 
To remember the date of the Deluge 2348, we may form the word T)el-etok ; of the battle of 
Marathon 490, Marath-ojiy, or Mara-/ottz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be 
fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in 
Hexameter verses ; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to 
memory ; these are called memorial lines.See R. G r e y's Memoria Technica, or Method of arti- 
ficial Memory. ('With L o w e's Mnemonics) Lond. 1812. 8. Cf. Land. Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 

2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of let- 
ters for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain dumber of places 
in a room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects ; and conceive these places as 
arranged in a certain fixed order ; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes 
to remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, 
into these conceived places. Such is the principle of Feinaigle's Art of Memory. By this 
a four-sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares ; those who wish a more capacious memory 
may take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one 
may go on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. Nine squares are to be placed 
on "the floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-five ; the other 
five on the ceiling above : the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9 ; the square numbered 
10 is put on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares 
from 11 to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall 
opposite in front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it ; the square 30, 
and the next nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand ; and the square 40, 
and the next nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of 
the ceiling. In each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a 
vump ; in 2, a swan ; in 3, a.man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures 
"is first to be committed to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date 
e. g. of the kings of England, he would create in his mind a picture in connection with each 
one of them, throw these pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the re- 
gal succession, and associate the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the 
square to which he falls ; in forming the new picture two things are important ; it should be so 
conceived as to have some casual or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and also 
suggesting at the same time a word or phrase, which is devised by the person along With the 
ideal picture, and which expresses the date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for 
figures. E. g. to remember the date of Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good 
one for the purpose ; the square to which he is assigned is 29 ; the picture fixed in this square 
fin the engraved illustration of the system^ is a woman spinning on a small wheel f these two 
pictures then are to be somehow bound together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning sees 
7 hens ; the next thing is to form a word or phrase indicative of the date; and by the alphabet 
adopted in this system, " 7Yie oaft raiZ" is such a phrase ; the remaining step in this process 
of storage in the memory is to bind the phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining 
that the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens on The oak rail. — The following is the substitution alpha- 
bet ; 1, b c ,• 2, df; 3, g h ', 4,jfcz; 5,1; 6, m n ; 7, y q ; 8,rs; 9, t v ; 0, w x ; and 100, St, 
1,000, Th i 100,000, Y. — See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of F e i n a i - 
gle, illustrated hy engravings. Lond. 1313. 8. 2d ed. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. as above cited. 

It is Worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use 

of a system of topical memory, duintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various 
parts of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of 
Feinaigle. The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and 
these being arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house ; "they assign" 
says he, " the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall ; then 
they go round the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associatons to the bed* 
rooms and antirooms, but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these as* 



708 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

Bociations they recur mentally to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every 
sensible type, which they had entrusted to each particular spot, and this type at once sug- 
gests the idea connected with it." 

3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of 
letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere 
barbarous and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or Words artificially associated with some 
image or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the 
event to be remembered and concludes with a word or phrase, that expresses something char- 
acteristic of the evertt, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution 
alphabet, denotes the date. The alphabet of Hallworth is the following ; 1, b c ; 2,df; 3, g, h, 
gh -. 4,kl: 5, run .- 6, p, r : 7, s sh .- 8, i, ch > 9, v wj, Used as consonants ; 0, th ph wh, and also 
5x1/2, In forming words the vowels ai'e used, just as may be convenient, without having any 
significancy ; the consonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thus church 
[chrch] signifies 868; troop [trp], 866. To recollect by this method the date e.g. of the 
Flood, the following sentence is formed ; "The deluge Comes and men die guilty; the phrase 
die guilty expresses the date, as the consonants dglt represent 2348. — For greater conven- 
ience and scope in forming the characteristic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and 
^conjunctions to be used, like the voWels, without significancy; e. g» Abel fell a sacrifice to 
Cain's hate and sin: htsn, 3875. Mr. Hallworth tuts taught his system by lectures in dif- 
ferent parts of the country, and has published several little books in which its principles are 
explained and applied.— See T. HallworWs Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and 
communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge, N. Y. 1824* — HalluOorth's method 
applied to General Ancient History. — Also to Sacred History, &c. — History of the United 
States. 

§ 211. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events 
in ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the 
principal states of ancient times. — We will mention first those whose capitals 
Were in Asia. The principal Asiatic states of kingdoms were eight ; the 
Assyrian ; the .teibish ; the Trojan ; the Lydian ; the Phoenician } the Persian } 
the Syrian ; and the Parthian. 



I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the 
building of Babylon by Nimrod, B. C. 2217. The 1st period of its history 
may be that from Mmrod to Ninias, B. C. 1945. 

In this period reigned the celebrated queen Scmiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the 
empire gained its greatest extent ; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and the In- 
dus, including Persia, Media and Bactriana: comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria 
and Asia Minor to the Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by mount Caucasus, 
and on the south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included 
only the three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
and Babylonia. 

The 2d period may be that from Ninias to Sardanapalus. who died B. C. 

747. 

This long period, of" about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity* During it 33 kings are 
&aid to have reigned. — On the death of Sardanapalus, three kingdoms were formed out of the 
empire ; the Assyrian, With Nineveh as its capital ; the Babylonian, With Babylon for its capi* 
tal ; and the Median, having Ecbactana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider 
"the Assyrian monarchy as still continuing ; and 

The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681. 

During this period of 66 years 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the 
'Jast ; and 10 kings reigned at Babyion. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately 
connected with that of the Israelites* In the year B» C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two 
of the three kingdoms, viz* the Assyrian and Babylonian. 

The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cyrus the Great, B. C. 
536. 

At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. — At the same time, also, Cyrus 
united to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the 
death of Sardanapalus. 

For a general view of 1 the Assyrian history ; Rollin's Ancient History, bk. iii. — MilloVs Ele- 
ments of History, vol. 1. p. 62. (Ed. Edinb. 1823. 5 vols. 8.) — The English Universal History. 
Lond. 1779-83. 50 vols. 8. (18 vols. Ancient.) vol. in. -» Prideaux, Connection of the O. and N. 
Testament, (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.)— Berosus &c. in Cory, cited P. II. $236. 
— Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethio- 
pians, Egyptians, &c. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. Transl. from his Tdeen> cited P. I. $ 17.1. — Sainte 
Croix, La mine de Babylon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 1. — — For Assyria, and 
likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Heeren's States 
of Antiquity, cited $ 215. 6. — Cf. also Meusel, cited P. II. § 240. 



It. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B. C. 
1921. It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from 
\fibraham to the entrance into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451. 

During this period they remained a nomadic nation. 



EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 709 

The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B. C. 
1060. 

During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel 
was thelast of the judges. Saul, the first king-, was anointed as such some time hefore Sam- 
uel's death. 

The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two 
kingdoms of Judah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. 

This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of Da 
vid and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital. — Respecting 
these reigns, see Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 5 v. 528. 

The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restora- 
tion from the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. 

The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians* The ten 
tribes of Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Salmanazar, B. C. 
721 ; the two tribes of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 606. During this time 19 kings reigned 
over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of 
Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. 

The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of 
the Jews to Alexander, B. C. 332. 

During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the 
throne of Persia. 

The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independ- 
ent monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 168. 

After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were 
claimed by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both. — The per- 
secution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the reestablishment 
of independence. 

The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference 
under Pompey, B. C. 63. 

During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. 

The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final 
Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 

For the Jewish history, the historical books of the O. Testament. — Berruyer, Histoire du 
peuple de Dieu &c. Par. 1742. 10 vols. 8. — Basnage, Histoire des Juifs &c. Haye, 1716. 15 vols. 
12. — Prideaux, Connect, of the O. and N. Testament. The French translation, said to be bet- 
ter than the English original, is entitled Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la de- 
cadence des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda &c. Amst. 1725. 5 vols. 8. — J. L. Bauer, Handbuch 
der Geschichte der Hebr. Nation &c. Niirnb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable. — H. H. Milman, Histo- 
ry of the Jews. (Am. ed.) N. Y. 1830. 3 vols. 18. Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xxm. p. 234. — 
John, Hebrew Commonwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E. Stowe. And. 1828, 8. 



III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is 
placed as early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say, 
that the state was destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about 
B. C. 1184. 

The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. III. § 132. —Mit- 
.fords' l s Greece, ch. i. 



IV. The Lydian. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties 
of kings are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the 
reign of Crcesus ; and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. 
C. 536. y 

The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Crcesus very rich and powerful ; 
its fate was decided by the battle of Thymbra. 

For the Lydian histoiy ; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited. — Freret, on 
the battle of Thymbra, with a plate, in the Mem. de VAtad. des Jnscr. vol. vi. p. 532. 



V. The Phcenici an. This was in existence in the time of David, under 
a king named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of 
Tyre by Alexander, B. C. 332. 

Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities 
with petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. 

On the Phoenician history ; Sanconiathon &c. cf. P. II. <$ 238. — Rees, Cyclopedia, under Pha- 

60 



710 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

nice. -^Mignot, Sur les Pheniciens (several dissertations), in the Mem. Acad; Inscr. vols, xx#i¥ 
-xlii. — The English Univ. Hist. — Also 11th vol. of Heeren's Works. Gbtt. 1824. 



VI. The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant un- 
til the time of Cyrus the 'elder, B. C. 536. We may include the whole his- 
tory after this date in two periods. 

The 1st period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Greece, and 
was defeated in the famous Battle of Salamis, B. C. 480. 

In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained iW 
greatest extent; reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Jaxartes and Mt. Caucasus on the 
north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya. The capitals were Babylon, Susa, 
Ecbatana, and Persepolis (cf. $ 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes in one and 
sometimes another of these places. 

The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire? 
by Alexander in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. 

About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the younger Cyrus, described ifl 
the Anabasis of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401. — Alexander com- 
pleted the subjugation of Persia by the victory at Arbela, B* C. 331. 

For the Persian history ; Rolling Anc. Hist. bk. iv. and following. ■*- MilloVs Elements, vol. 
i. p. 88, ed. before cited. — The Universal History, before cited, vol. iv. and ix. — Brissoniusj 
de regno Persarum. 1591.8. — Hyde, Rhode, Recited P. II. $ 183. 3. — Herder's Persepolis in 
his Works. — Heeren, as above cited. — Grotefend, &c. cited P. I. $ 18. 4. — J. B. Frazer, Hist, 
of Persia, in Harper's Fam. Library, No. lxx. — Sir J* Malcolm, Hist, of Persia from the earli- 
est period &c. Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8„ 2d ed. 



VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of the Seleucidce. This was one of 
the four monarchies formed out of the empire of Alexander. It was com- 
menced after the battle of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may* 
include its history in two periods. 

The 1st period is from Seleucus JYicator to the time of the collision with the? 
Romans in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. G. 190. 

The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the norths 
ern part of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except Bithynia ; Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, In- 
dia, Persia, and the valley of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with the Ro- 
mans especially by protecting Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, de- 
prived him of part of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom. 

The 2d period extends from Antiochus the Great to the complete conquest 
of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiati- 
cus, B. C. 69. 

In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 
168, in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. — The throne of this king- 
dom, on its overthrow by the Romans, had been held by 23 successive kings, most of them 
lawful heirs of the house of the Seleucida?. 

For the Syrian history ; Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum, cited P. I. $ 93. l. — Frolich, An^ 
nales rerum Syriae. Vienn. 1754. — The Universal Hist, above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient. 



VIH. The Parthian; or the Arsacidce. The Parthians occupying the 
country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when 
conquered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share? 
of Seleucus Nicator. But under the 3d king of Syria they revolted and estab- 
lished an independent kingdom under ARs'aces, B. C. 256. 

The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans ; 
but could not be conquered. Thev obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian ocean, 
and from Syria to the river Indus ; including Bactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of 
the Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hccatompylos. 

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who de- 
throned the Arsacidse, and established the kingdom of Modern Persia, A. 
D. 223. 

For the Parthian history ; Vaillant, as cited P. I. § 93. — C. F. Richter, Historisch-kritische* 
Versuch iiber die Arsaciden-und-Sassaniden-Dynastie &.c. Lpz. 1804. 



§ 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of 
these we have but two of importance ; the Egyptian and the Carthaginian. 



TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGYPT AND CARTHAGE. 711 

I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is 
Menes, generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and 
grandson of Noah ; he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the 
real chronology of Egypt commences. 

A most absurd and ridiculous antiquity was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian works 
now lost ; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus ($ 201) ; the other the work of Mane- 
tho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. II. § 236). 

The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes 
to the Escape of the Israelites, B. C. 1492. 

Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can 
be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers 
place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period ; some consider him to be the Pharaoh 
that was drowned in the Red Sea. 

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammet- 
icus, B. C. 670, when the history begins to be authentic. 

No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted 
for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures. — Twelve different governments under 
12 different chiefs are said to have been united under Psammeticus. 

The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of 
Egypt by the Persian king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C.525. 

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. 
The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common. 

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest 
of Egypt by Alexander, B. C. 332. 

After the time of Cambyses Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception 
of a few instances of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con- 
tinued subject to Persia until it now changed masters. 

The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the 
Romans, resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, 
B. C. 31. 

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt ; and Ptolemy, after 
the death of Alexander, became king of the country B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of 
the Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, 
lost it by the success of her lover's rival. — Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the 
previous periods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new 
court. — Egypt remained a part of the Roman empire, until it was wrested away by the Sara- 
cens, A. D. 640. 

For the Egyptian history ; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. i. — Marsham, as cited P. II. § 236. — Cham- 
pollion le jeune, L'Egypte sous les Pbaraons &c. Par. 1814. 2 vols. 8. (for period before Camby- 
ses.) — For the period after Alexander, Vaillant, Historia Ptolemseorum, cited P. I. $ 93. 1. — 

Champollion Figeac, Annales des Lagides &c. Par. 1819. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Mavors, Universal 

Historv, vol. i. (ed. N. Y. 1804. 25 vols. 12.) — Also the Universal History before cited, vol. i. 
and vni. —M. Russel, View of Egypt.— Cf. $ 177. 



II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally 
divided into three periods. 

The 1st period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880, to the beginning 
of the wars of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B. C. 480. 

In this period the following points are worthy of notice; (a) the origin of the city Carthage, by a 
Tyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled ; (b) the pursuits of the people; 
commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guin- 
ea, by caravans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) 
their conquests; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts 
of the Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles 
and Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa; the 
chief conquests were effected by Mago, and his sons and grandsons ; (d) the form of govern- 
ment ; it was a republic, but of a strongly aristocractic character ; the executive consisting of 
two chief magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grand- 
ees, and an Assembly of the people ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popu- 
lar and an aristocratic party ; (e) the revenue ; its sources were 1. tributes from the subject 
cities and states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds 
of the mines in Spain. 

The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syra- 
cuse to the beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, 
B. C. 264. 

The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to 
obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracu3ans were involved in al- 
most constant wara. 



712 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

Thj3 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruc- 
tion of Carthage, J3. C. 146. 

The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both 
Hesired to own, furnished the occasion.— There were three wars called Punic ; each disastrous 
to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and 
splendid victories of Hannibal ; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 2*32. The third lasted onlv 
about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had 
existed about 700 years. 

For the Carthaginian history ; Rollings Anc. Hist. bk. ii. — Hendrick, De Republica Carthagi- 
niensium. 1664. — Heeren, as cited above. — The Universal History, vol. xv. of the Ancient. — 
Biittiger's Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. 



§ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be men- 
tioned. Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this 
sketch will be accomplished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and 
Rome. 

I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 1500 or 1600 
years, from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a 
Roman province. This whole space may be very conveniently and happily 
presented by a division into six successive periods, each limited by distin- 
guished events, and characterized by prominent circumstances. 

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Daicn of civili- 
zation to the Trojan War, 1184 B. C, and from its peculiar characteristic 
may be denominated fabulous. 

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as 
idle fiction ; yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — 
Civilization had its first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and 
Phoenicia, who laid the foundations of some of the principal cities, as Argos 
and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Little advancement was made, however, 
until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, other colonies were planted, 
at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about the time of Moses (P. 
I. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable progress must 
have been made in cultivation. 

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this 
period ; particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleu- 
sis, and the four sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the 
celebrated Amphictyonic Council. — The arts and sciences likewise received 
considerable attention. Letters had been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy 
was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to furnish the Argonauts with an 
artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The accounts of the siege of 
Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in the various 
arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that 
singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chiv- 
alrous adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from 
the Trojan war to the time when the regal jorm of government was abol- 
ished, about 1050 B. C. From the most important and characteristic circum- 
stances it may be called the period of colonization. 

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they contin- 
ued such without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. 
Soon after this we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the 
people, under a number of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered ex- 
tremely from calamity and oppression. These evils seem to have led to the 
change in the form of government, and the substitution of the popular in- 
stead of the regal system. The same evils also probably contributed to the 
spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The emigrants 
who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. 
The earliest were the JEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the 
north-western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which 
Smyrna was the principal, The second were the lonians, who went from AU 



STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. 713 

tica (originally called Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of 
the iEolians, where Ephesus was one of their chief cities. The third were 
the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and Sicily, and founded numerous flour- 
ishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the most important. — In the 
period of colonization we notice the origin of the four principal dialects in the 
Greek language. (Cf. P. II. § 4.) 

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) 
from the abolition of monarchy to the Beginning of the Persian War. about 
500 B. C. 

In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens 
and Sparta ; and from the special attention of these states to provide them- 
selves with a suitable political constitution and civil code, this portion of the 
history may be designated as the period of laws. 

Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent 
cast to her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — 
Many years later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, 
who executed the task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. II. § 167; 
P. IV. § 8, 9.) — The other principal incidents in the history of this period 
are the repeated wars of Sparta with her neighbors the Messenians, and the 
usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons at Athens. — In the war 
Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suffered much from the devot- 
ed skill and patriotism of Aristomenes the Messenian general. It was in this 
struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame poet of Athens, 
Tyrtffius. (Cf. P. II. § 53.) 

In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort 
of regal authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his 
power to promote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was 
assassinated at a public festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, 
fled to Asia, and sought revenge by instigating the Persians to invade his na- 
tive country. 

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persian 
War, 460 B. C a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever af- 
ter looked back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have 
drawn their favorite examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion 
called forth the highest energies of the people and gave an astonishing im- 
pulse to Grecian mind. It may properly be called the period of military 
glory. 

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the 
Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a 
pretext and occasion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia 
Minor, in which Sardis the capital of Lydia was pillaged and burnt. The war 
was carried on by three successive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, 
but on neither of them did it confer any glory ; while the battles of Marathon, 
Thermopylae, Salamis, Mycale, and Platasa secured immortal honor to the 
Greeks. — A succession of splendid names adorns the history of Athens du- 
ring this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, 
acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried in 
the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The 
period of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national 
character of the Greeks. Before it, there existed little union comparatively 
between the different states, and it was not till Athens had alone and success- 
fully resisted the strength of Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states 
were aroused to effort against the common enemy. In the confederation 
which followed, Sparta was the nominal head, but the talents, which actually 
controlled the public affairs, were found in the statesmen of Athens. To 
Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred and before the 
close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece. 

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close oj the Persian war to 

60* 



714 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY, 

the Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the 
general affairs of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens 
was unrivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — « 
But a spirit of luxurious refinement soon took the place of the disinterested 
patriotism of the preceding age, and the manners of all classes- became signal- 
ly marked by corruption and licentiousness. This may be designated as the 
period of luxury. 

The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — 
Owe of these is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta, termed the 
Peloponnesian. Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon 
fell a victim to the terrible plague which desolated Athens. The unprinci- 
pled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades successively gained the predominant in- 
fluence. The war was continued with slight intermissions and various suc- 
cess, for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle of iEgos Potamos 
B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained a final vic- 
tory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in Greece 
and was deprived even of her own liberties. Her walls were thrown down, 
and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, how- 
ever, the Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were 
expelled. 

The same year was remarkable for Uoo other events. The first was the ac- 
cusation of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism 
can boast. The trial for some reason was delayed several years, bot the re- 
sult was utterly disgraceful to the city and to all concerned (cf. P. 11. § 171). 
The other memorable event was the expedition of Cyrus the younger, the sa- 
trap of Lydia, against his brother the king of Persia. Ten thousand Greeks 
accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphra- 
tes, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 10,000 in re- 
turning to their homes, are recorded by Zenophon with beautiful simplicity. 
— The assistance, which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved 
them in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially 
Athens, Thebes, Argos and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which 
followed. They even united in a league against her, and Athens furnished 
the commander, to whom the Persians were indebted for the almost entire de- 
struction of the Spartan fleet. This war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 
387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, and was alike dishonorable to all 
the Greeks. 

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens 
and Sparta, were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third, 
to seek the ascendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly 
by the talents of two distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — 
But a war with Sparta shortly consummated her glory, and exhausted her 
strength; she gained a brilliant victory in the final battle of Mantinea, 363 
B. C. but was in the same instant ruined by the death of her general Epami- 
nondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states, Athens, Sparta, 
and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, reduced 
Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, 
already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the 
Grecian states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B. C. 357. (Cf. P. 
IV. § 72.J This commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the 
Phocians. The Spartans and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians* 
became involved in it. Shortly after this contest was terminated, a new Sa- 
cred war arose, called the Amphissian^ in which the council of Amphicty- 
ons appointed Philip king of Macedon as general and leader of their confede- 
racy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized a favorable 
moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of 
Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and 
to rouse them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was ef- 
fected, but in vain. The battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 337, made Philip* the mas- 
ter of Greece. 



STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. ROME. 715 

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the bat- 
tle of Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous 
defeat at Chaeronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, 
and the subsequent history exhibits little else than the steps by which the 
country was reduced to a dependent province. We may therefore denomi- 
nate this the period of decline and fall. 

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and auto- 
crator of Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his ex- 
tensive conquests. Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will 
follow with interest his march from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, 
to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; 
but every reader will regret his follies at Persepolis and be disgusted by his 
beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years after Alexander's death 
the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels among his gener- 
als. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia B. C. 301, these contests were termi- 
nated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising 
Macedonia and Greece ; a second Thrace and Bithynia ; a third Egypt, Lib- 
ya. Arabia, Palestine, and Coelosyria ; and a fourth called the kingdom of 
Syria, including all the rest of Asia even to the Indus. 

To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals 
sought to arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jeal- 
ousy between the states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their 
exertions fruitless. All that is really honorable and memorable in the proper 
affairs of the Greeks at this period, is found in the history of the Achaean 
league, — The Achaean league was originally a confederacy between 12 small 
cities of Achaia, established very early, when the Grecian states first assumed 
the popular instead of the regal form. It took scarcely any part in the per- 
petual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral even in the Pel- 
oponnesian war. 

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B. C^ 
Subsequently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Un- 
der the presidency of Philopoemen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power 
and reputation, that its alliance was sought by some of the governments of 
Asia. Had the other states at this time risen above the foul and mean spirit 
of envy, the independence of Greece might probably have been restored. But 
unhappily the Romans were requested by one of the states to aid them against 
the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced the opportunity, and shortly 
after this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his triumph the last king 
of Macedon, 167 B. C. 

Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling 
an instant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy 
averted this destiny for twenty years ; then it came, under the pretext of just 
punishment for insult upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured 
upon Achaia, Corinth was taken, and with all its wealth and splendor com- 
mitted to the flames and consumed to ashes. This completed the subjugation 
of the country, which became of course a province of Rome. 

The principal helps in the study of the Grecian history have been mentioned, P. II. $7.7. (d). 
— A good elementary work is PinnocWs improved edition of Goldsmith's History of Greece 
Sec. Philad. 1636. 12. — A valuable text-book and guide to deeper research ; A. H. L. Heereji, 
States of Antiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1828. 8. — For the later 
periods of Grecian history ; J. Gast, Hist, of Greece from accession of Alexander tiil the finat 
subjection to the Romans. Lond. 1782. 4. — Brcitcrbauch, Geschichte der Achaer und ihres 
Bundes. Lpz. 1782. 



§ 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more 
than 1200 years ; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into sin 
periods. 

1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C, 
752, to the Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of 
the Kingg, or of Regal Power. 



716 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, begin- 
ning with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose de- 
scent is traced from JEneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted 
whether this portion of the Roman history is entitled to much credit, and 
some have even contended that it is altogether fabulous. (P. II. § 510. J — Seven 
kings are said to have reigned (P. IV. $ 193, 579). One of the most important 
events of this period, was a change in the constitution effected by the sixth 
king, Servius Tullius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He divided the 
citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a 
much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. IV. 
§ 252.) — The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of 
his influence on the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious 
ceremonies and several classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 
244 years, the Roman territory was of very limited extent, and the people 
were often involved in war with the several states in their immediate vicinity. 
Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the s'ege of an enemy's city 
only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed the outrage upon the 
person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and the over- 
throw of the regal government. 

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when 
the Plebeians were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At the 
beginning of this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at 
the close of it had become a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and 
may be designated as the period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of 
Party strife. 

Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exer* 
cised almost precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to 
the Plebeians or common people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or de- 
scendants from the Senators or Patres. — The first step in the undermining 
of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, which allowed a citizen condemned 
to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from the magistrate to the people. Un- 
der the protection of this law, the people, discontented with their poverty and 
hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies, which the wars 
with neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patricians to in- 
vent a new office; that of Dictator (P. IV. $ 248). But the dissatisfaction of 
the Plebeians was not to be thus removed. They united with the army and 
withdrew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating 
the office of Tribunes, who were to be chosen annually, from the Plebeians, 
and to possess the power of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and 
even the Senate. (P. IV. § 245. J — This arrangement only led to new dis- 
sensions, the Tribunes generally making it their object to oppose the Consuls 
and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually encroaching upon the Pa- 
trician. — In a few years another fundamental change was effected. The 
important business of state had, from the time of king Servius Tullius, been 
transacted at the Comitia Centuriata, or assemblies voting by centuries. It 
was now, B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in the 
Comitia Tributa, or assemblies voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians held 
the control. 

The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy 
between the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring 
it. This was the Decemvirate, B. C. 451, which superseded both consuls 
and tribunes, but continued only three years, and then the two other offices 
were restored. — In a few years the people made another advance, the Sen- 
ate conceding, that six military tribunes, three Patrician and three Plebeian, 
might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — Another office was created 
during this period, the censorship ; two Censors being appointed to take the 
census of the people every five years, and to watch over the public morals. — 
But this office does not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had 
it any influence in healing the dissensions between the higher and lower or- 
ders (cf. P. IV. § 247,259). 



STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 717 

One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They 
were not eligible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove 
this disability they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for 
many years, and occasioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in 
their complete success ; as they gained admission to the consulship, the cen- 
sorship, and finally to the priesthood, and thus obtained a virtual equality 
with the Patricians about B. C. 300. 

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in 
frequent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the 
Etrurians, under king Porsena, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, " a 
war fertile in exploits of romantic heroism." — The second was with the city 
Veii, a proud rival of Rome. It was at last taken by Camillus B. C. 390, 
after a siege of ten years. — The last was with the Gauls, who invaded Italy 
under Brennus, and are said to have taken Rome and burned it to the ground 
B. C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the clamors of the populace to 
go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy flight the barba- 
ian conquerors. 

3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph of 
the Plebeians to the Capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. 

Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, 
and had extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The ad- 
mission of Plebeians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted 
the consolidation and strength of the republic, and the career of conquest 
was soon commenced. This may be remembered as the period of the Punic 
Wars, or of Foreign Conquests. 

The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which 
resulted from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by 
Grecian colonies (§ 50), and contained at this time several cities flourishing, 
wealthy, and refined by letters and the arts. On their invitation, Pyrrhus 
the king of JEpirus passed over from Greece with a large army and a train of 
elephants to aid them against the Romans, and was for a time successful, but 
finally, being totally defeated at the battle of Beneventum B. C. 274, fled pre- 
cipitately to his own dominions. The allied states and cities immediately 
submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy. 

She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily be- 
came an object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into con- 
tact with Carthage, which was now flourishing and powerful. The Cartha- 
ginians had settlements in Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the do- 
minion of the whole island. Hence sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. 
Sicily was chiefly settled by Greek colonies. These colonies preferred inde- 
pendence, but, situated between Rome on one side and Carthage on the other, 
were in no condition to resist both, and had only the alternative of joining- 
one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in the first Punio 
War, which began B. C. 264, and was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty exceeding- 
ly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra- 
cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government. — 
The tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Punic War. 

After a peace of twenty -three years, the second Punic War began in the 
siege of Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this, 
city, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon 
Italy with a victorious army. The Romans were defeated in three engage- 
ments before the memorable battle of Cannse, in which they were completely 
conquered, and 40,000 of their troops left dead on the field. But after the 
battle of Cannae the Carthaginians gained no advantages. A king of Mace- 
don came to their aid in vain. — Scipio, a Roman general, having conquered 
Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls of Car- 
thage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly 
defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second 
Punic War ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war, Syra- 
cuse in Sicily took part with the Carthaginians, and was on that account be- 



718 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

sieged by the Romans. It was ably defended by the scientific genius of Ar- 
chimedes, but at length taken by Marcellus, and made a part of the province 
of Sicily, B. C. 212. 

The result of the second Punic War may be considered as the occasion, 
which carried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle qf Zama, 
fled to the protection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which 
compelled the king to cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, 
B. C. 190. — The interference of the king of Macedon, in the second Punic 
"War, also furnished the ground for a war with him, which was the first step 
towards the conquest of Greece. A few years after, the Romans on the pre- 
tence of aiding the iEtolians, subjected Macedonia, B. C. 167. The Achaean 
league preserved the southern portions of the country a little longer ; but in 
twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the capture 
of Corinth, B. C. 146. 

Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged aihird 
Punic War, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate 
struggle with the Numidians. The third Punic War continued but about 
three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under cir- 
cumstances of aggravated cruelty' and faithlessness on the part of the Ro- 
mans. 

4. The 4th period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth, to the 
establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 
31. During this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domes- 
tic disturbances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the Civil 
Wars. 

The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances, which 
grew out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored 
to check the growing corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstan- 
ces of the people, but both fell victims to their own zeal and the hatred of 
their enemies, Tiberius 133, and Caius 121 B. C. N Some have ascribed their 
efforts to ardent patriotism ; others to mere ambition. (Cf. Niebuhr's Rome, 
cited P. II. $ 299. 7. ) Not long after the fall of Gracchus arose the Social War, 
by which the states of Italy demanded and obtained of Rome the rights of cit- 
izenship, B. C. 90. — Scarcely was this ended, when the Romans began again 
to imbrue their hands in each other's blood in the fierce war of Sylla and Ma- 
rius, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized this 
contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet 
resigned his power at the end of four years, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is 
soon followed by the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by 
the vigilance of Cicero, B. C. 62. 

Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first 
triumvirate, a temporary coalition between Pornpey, Crassus and Caesar, re^ 
pressed the flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added 
Syria to the Roman possessions ; Caesar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his 
life in an attempt to conquer Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke 
the bond which held Caesar and Pompey together, and they hastened to deter- 
mine in the field of battle, who should be master of Rome. The contest was 
decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly, by the entire defeat of Pom- 
pey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was beheaded the instant he landed 
on the shore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at Rome, but was 
assassinated in the Senate, by a company of conspirators headed by Brutus 
and Cassius, B. C. 43. 

A second triumvirate was now formed on the pretext of avenging this mur- 
der, between Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of 
Caesar. A horrid proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the 
party of the conspirators necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 
42, put an end to the hopes of Brutus and Cassius, at the head of this party.. 
Octavius, who was the nephew of Caesar, easily effected the removal of one 
member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of feeble talents and insignifi- 
cant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by love for Cleopa- 
tra the queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the 



STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 719 

fate of battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The arma- 
ment of Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius, at Actium^ 
B. C. 31. This battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her pos- 
sessions 4 to the power of Octavius, by whom the Imperial government wag 
finally established. 

The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, pre- 
sents but a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy ^ 
and civil war. 

5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the 
Imperial Government to the reign of Constantine, A. D. 306. As Christiani- 
ty was introduced into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end 
t>f it by the Roman government, we may designate it as the period of the 
Pagan Emperors. 

The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has 1 
become proverbial for an age flourishing in peacej literature, and the arts. It 
is distinguished, also> for the birth of our Savior j as the next reign, that of 
Tiberius, is, for his crucifixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. 
those of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the 
tyranny of the emperors, and the profligacy of their families and favorites. 

On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed 
in which Galba, Otho, and Vitellius successively gained the Empire and lost 
their lives. — The Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons> Titus and Do- 
mitian, next in order receive the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the 
final conqueror of the Jews, whose obstinacy provoked him to rase their city 
to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the predictions of Christ. His 
reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities Her- 
Tsulaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the family ^ 
provokes his own assassintion, A. D. 96. 

Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful 
Adrian, we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of thd 
Antonines, extending from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years* 
Their reigns appear in the midst of the general sterility and desolation of the; 
imperial history like the verdant oasis in the desert. Literature and the arta 
of peace revived under their benign influence. 

After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of dis- 
order, profligacy, conspiracy arid assassination. The army assumes the abso-> 
lute disposal of the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to 
the highest bidder. Within the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty em j 
perors are successively proclaimed, and deposed or murdered. — In the year" 
284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted a new system of admin- 
istration. The empire was divided into four departments or provinces, and 
three princes were associated with him, in the government. This system only 
laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a few 
years Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two of the princes associated with 
Diocletian, appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective claims to the 
imperial purple. The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the 
throne. 

This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagari 
Emperors, those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to perse- 
cution and suffering. Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the 
firstunder Nero A. D. 64, and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. Di 
303, and continuing ten years, unto A. D. 313. But, notwithstanding these 
repeated efforts to hinder the progress of the gospel, it Was spread during 
this period throughout the whole Roman Empire. 

6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending 1 
from the reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the 
Heruli, A. D. 476. The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to 
the commencement of this period. He embraced the Christian faith himselfj 
and patronized it in the empire, as did also most of his successors ; on which 
account this may be called the period of the Christian Emperors* 



720 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

One of the mo3t important events of his reign, and one which had a great- 
influence on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Govern- 
ment to a new seat. He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither re- 
moved with his court, giving it the name of Constantinople, which it still 
bears. He left his empire to five princes, three sons and two nephews; the 
youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 360. By the death 
of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he was already 
on his march from Gaul to seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the 
Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the 
Christian religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jeru- 
salem, with the express purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the 
Bible. 

From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, 
A. D. 379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the 
jealousies between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew 
out of the removal of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last 
emperor who ruled over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius 
and Honorius separately the east and the west. — From this time the Eastern 
portion remained distinct, and its history no longer belongs to that of Rome. 

The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are 
scarcely able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian 
invaders. At length, under Augustulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is 
taken by Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, and the history of ancient Rome is 
terminated, A. D. 476. 

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the 
continued inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the 
greatest annoyance was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three 
tribes, under three celebrated leaders ; the Goths, under Alaric ; the Vandals, 
under Genseric ; and the Huns, under Attila; the two former of which actual- 
ly carried their victorious arms to Rome itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid 
prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the world ; and the latter was 
persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by ignoble concessions and 
immense gifts. 

§ 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also 
the Greek Empire was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of al- 
most 1000 years after the overthow of the Western. After the fall of Rome 
nearly sixty different emperors had occupied the throne at Constantinople, 
When, A. D. 1202, that city was taken by the crusaders from France and Ven- 
ice. By this event the Greek emperors were forced to establish their court at 
Nicaea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their former capital was 
recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held the scep- 
tre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent, 
until it consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was prolong- 
ed to A. D. 1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who 
have retained it to the present day. 

For the principal works on the Roman history, see P. II. §299.7. — We mention here as 
valuable, Alex. Tras. Ttjtler , s Universal History. Bost. 1835. 2 vols. 8. — The student in an- 
cient history will derive advantage also from B i g 1 an d >s Letters on the study and use of His- 
tory, and Priestley's Lectures on History ; also Ruh's Propadeutik des historischen Studiums« 
Berl. 1811. 8. 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



'Afiaxio-xog, 94 
*A^au^axtvara, 518 
A(i{yaiag, 113 
ApQaOadafioa, 113 

'AyaXuara, 92, 466, 552 
> Ayi7.ai, 516 
"Ayxvqa, 530 
3 Ay 'lata, 446 
^AyvtCuol, 466 
^yo^oi, 503, 509, 674 
'AyQititvia, 491 
'Ayxiuaxot, 476 
> Ayuiyi n 516 
> ^yo>v i7TiT<X(pib$, 499 
'^fywvtj /novOixoi, 38 

tsool, 498 
'^ywviffTcn, 500 
'-^ycovo^ixai, 38 

^yum^'-rui, 38, 495, 500 
> A5a^ag, 110 
J ^f<Jauafrtvo£, 274 
"-rf^s, 416, 550 
'Advvarot, 508, 528 
w ^dt/rov, 484 
3 Afovia, 491, 492 
> Aiiatroi, 514 
'^,.'5, 420 
'^dt/ytti, 671 
*^i> 9 , 671 
i A&7.r,rai, 500 
*^d;.ov, 496 
7 ^tx^ov, 518 
"^io;.o ? , 429,433 
f ^ipsToi, 506 
'AioQijOig, 89 

* Aiovuv^xai, 38 
'-.-fiTijrttfu, 486 
J ^irio, 512 

* Aixuixl.wTog, 482, 528 
*Aixui n 474 
'Ai^qat, 500 

* Axioxqa, 548 
'^xtvaxj,?, 524 
'^xorrtov, 474 
5 ^4x6vTtat?, 497 

^X^uTtfTua, 534 

^xpioffi's, 324, 329 
'Ay.QopoZioTal, 523 
*Ax(to6ivia, 468, 528 

* Ay.Qoutpu7.ia, 34 
*Axq6vw, 530, 533 
' AxQono/.ig, 671 

1 Ay.Qoaxo7.ia, 463 
*Ax{)ooTi/ti(, 158 

61 



'AxQtoTyQia, 533 
j ^xt; /? 670 
y A7.u(iaoxQog, 112 
5 ^4AaAayuo?, 526 
'Akciuuara, 540 
VAAElOl, 48 
^ttTTT^iov, 133, 539 
?,42«£|mfeia, 474 
'Altt-upctQuaxa, 168 
'-4/«t/()ouavTtia, 490 
*-4A»/0i / 5 toxoQia, 220 
"AXpa, 496 
"^1$ ^*fo ? , 537 
'AlTijQtg, 497 
'AXvrdQxiS, 498 
f ^;.<5a, 428, 491 
'^uator*;, 450 
y AueGvorog, 110 
y A t utpTov (iaoiXiug, 56 
*A/j.7tv!;, 538 
5 A^(fiyvi]tig, 424 
*A<pi7inot, 523 
1 AutpMQoOTvlog, 132 
'A/tKpoQtvg, 545 
'Avapabpbg, 540 
'Avaparyg, 496 
'^vayAv^a, 90, 93 
'^vayvioarui, 39 

'.^VUcJl/OiUtVJf, 422 

^vaflijuara, 468 

'^ivaxtiov, 673 
'^vaxP.ivoTruA*/, 497 
^4rux^i(Tic, 506 
FANAKTEI, 48 
5 Avavuuxoi, 533 

* AvSqa7ToSoxu7tt]?.oi } 504 
> Av8qutcoSov, 482 
i Avdqsia, 519 

' AvOQo7.i]\fjla, 513 
y Av8Qtavirig 1 540 
' Av&tOTtlqia, 491 
^r^sorr/^twv, 699 
"^rd 9 a§, 111 

* Arxaiog, 132 
'Avxiqoyg, 110, 423 
' Avxiyqaifitg, 508 
*AycUol % 529 
*AvTQ<x, 484 
^iV>,, 524 
"^or*?, 32 
"A01801, 27, 158, 159 
3 Anayoiyii, 513 

' AnaxoxQia, 491 

"^7x:« ? , 442 

5 AnopudQai, 530 



* Ano&txTcti, 508 
5 -47ro#i;T>;£tov, 133, 539 
i Ano&irui, 516 
^AnoxkrjToi, 521 
5 Ajtoxqvtpa, 257 
'^7roAoyo?, 165 
'^TroAvrixa, 165 
3 ATtouvtjfiovii'/j.ara, 227 
i A7Toqqt]ra, 41 
^ATioreixiOiibg, 527 
'AnoTQonoi, 455 
'Anotpijrai, 488 
'^atoffrvio^, 132 
> ^4^y«t«fo»Tij$, 425 
^^yt'^ta, 84 
5 AqSuvtoVf 550 
> -4^«to7rayrrut, 510 
'^eioTzrucyos, 510 
"^ ? ^, 421 
* Aqioxot, 534 
"^xreia, 550 
'AQfiartia, 161 
r '^u B) 496, 550 
'AQpeviOTal, 532 
c Aquooral, 517 
c Aqfioovvoif 517 
"-^ot^o*-, 542 
''Aqovqa, 545 
"AQTcayig, 532 
° AftTtvtfu* 447 
"Aqqa, 548 
'Aqxtutg, 418, 432 
"Aqrvvoi, 520 
3 AQxayixai, 516 
'Aqxetej 517 
*Aqx*?oy, 484 
AQxifQtuovvt], 485 
'AQxiQiwQog, 496 

'AQxixvfieQvt'jXijg, 533 

'AQxiTQixJ.ivog, 536 

*Aqx 0VTb ?, 506 

^aciv^or, 530 

5 Aoifteia, 513 

"' Aaxaqov, 546 

* Aay.av7.og, 547 

5 Aox?.tj7t:iu5cov, &c. 262 

'"Aoxwfia, 530 

'^fa/ris, 474, 524 

'AoXQuXSVXOl, 528 

'AoxQa7.ioy.og, 34 
' Aoru(to7.oi, 536 
i Ao(fd7.iog, 414 
'^Ttteta, 504, 514 
'_4t0^s,25O 
'Artfiia, 513, 519, 633 



722 



INDEX OP GREEK WORDS. 



v ArQ07tog, 446 
y AvXl h 540 
y AvXb s , 496, 546. 
3 Avri h 526 
3 AvroxapSccXot, 174 

"AvTOXQuTtOQ, 517 

^AvrouoXot, 528 
^Avrox&ovsg, 21 
*A(pctuicoTai, 520 
"^sffts, 496 
*A(pXaoTa, 530 
'AqiQoSLrtia, 492 
> A( Pi )oSiTt 1 , 42.2 
'.^aTqS, 110 

J? 

Bairij, 538 
JBuxxaif 485 
.Bax/era, 492 
JBax^og, 425 

BaXfilg, 496 
JBa7rTtor^iov,538 
J?«^a^or, 514 
Baaavixov (Xi6ov),-53> 
BuCarog } 564 
EaaiXtlg, 470 
Uafftievs, 494, 506, 536 
Baaxavia, 491, 570 
Baxt^, 496 
JBav, 30, 544 
Bi(tiiXoi r 486 
Btidiaiot, 517 
Bsii?.07veQ t 519 
JB«7i;, 474 
Bt).ouavrel(t, 491 
jB?;ua, 675 
BtJQvXXog, 110 
BtfiXia iaTQixa, 165 
BifJAov, 34, 263 
BifiXioTvtjYol, 70 
JBi/Mos, 32, 34, 263 
BotjdQopi&v, 699 
JBo^off, 469 
BoioTuQ/ai, 520 
.Bo;.^, 530 
B6u(iog, 491 
B6upv%, 634 
Boufivxiu, 32 
JBotioa, 516 
2?ot/difmti, 486 
BouP.sfov, 510 

Bot'^EVTlXO?', 133 

BovXsvral, 502 
BovXsvrtlQia, 674 
Bow;.;,, 502, 510 
BotJg, 543 

BovOT(Jo<pt]dbv, 30, 48 
BgapiLOv, 496 
B(>a(iEVTui } 38 
BqavQajvicC} 492 
Bgovrtiov, 500 
ByorTtjrbg, 490 
BQugog, 514 



Bvaiog, 488 

Baytoi, 467, 484 

J5 w ( uo$, twv dwdey.a, 404 



raut'jXia, 161 
rautiXLu, 413 
rvcinjXiaiv, 699 
raut'jXioi -frsbt, 550 

jtfjtos, 536, 550 
Z'aar^a, 529 
raarqofiavrtia, 491 
riqavog, 500 
TsQouxrai, 515 
rsqovoiu, 517, 520 
JT^or, 524, 527 
reu)yQ<x(pix.a, 242. 

riOJUOQOt, 520 

rtutrcovixa, 264 
-T/7S 7T£^ I odo?, 165 
i"tyy^«, 546 
riyyqaofibg, 492 
rW£, 542 
i^>.ttvxw7rtc, 420 
rXvyeiav, 33 
/7uy; /f 90 
fl&ooai, 215 
JTv^aioi, 550 
rvw&i otavrbv, 488 
JTvwuaif 165 
Tv(buo}v, 698 
rovvTceXBtv, 467 
.A^yovEf, 449 
Z'o^yoviov, 450 
rquixoi, 459 
r^uiiuaru <&oivixtia } 28, 

49 
JTquu p vera orjUtta, 369 
/^uuuuTftJ?, 170, 506,507, 

508, 521 
rQauuarixol, 41, 215, 332 
rQuiiuartar^g, 41, 73 
l\>a(peiov, 33 
JT^a(pi n 513 
JTyuHpixtj, 120 
r Q «(plg, 33, 123 
/V»/g, 542 
IVJiiov, 476 
r-Vf.tr UoiHy 37 
T'vfiraartlQtor, 133 
rvuvaoT^g, 500 
rvfnaatuQxiu, 507 
Fvfivixal ayoyrsg, 38 
2\lV«tX6f0V, 481 

rt/vatxwv, 481, 540 



Jadovxog, 494 
Juiuorsg, 447 
JuiuoroXtjTZToi, 490 
JuiTQog, 536 
^«xryP.ioyAvyta, 108 



JaxrvXtoyXvcpoi, 116 
JaxTvXio&i'jXat, 116 
^/uxtvAov at(J£, 497 
JuxrvXog, 244 
davaxT]) 550 
Au.vprr\, 486 
doupvtiipoQia, 492 
Ja(pvtj(poQixa } 161 
^a>/, 697 
JstXivbv, 534 
Juitvov, 534, 536 
^emvoaoqiiaraly 40s 
dsxaddvxoi, 502 
Jixag, 518 
Jsxaafibg, 513 
JsxvHpQtrot, 698 
JiXroi, 34 
JeXylv, 532 
JtVtog, 490 
JiTiara, 537 
JiQfux, 529 
Jeofibg, 513 

JcxtfttQct, 699 
2/»;a.*, 492 

Jl'tflCCQXOl, 506 

Jw'miQ, 427, 428 
JtjfDjTQta, 492 
dtlfitoTCQara, 507 
JqfiiovQyol, 521 
^%ot, 171, 501, 50$ 
Jtjfiooiot, 507 
^t/A, 428 
^iay^.t;(/}a, 90 
Jtayqafpeig, 508 
Jiuhjfia, 470 
Jiaduaag, 508 
Jiatwucira, 133 
Jiu6i' t xtj, 550 
JiaiTtjTui, 512 
^ttUegts, 208 
JiuXXuxtiIqioi, 512 
JiafiaorLyayOig, 42 
/fiurouul, 508 
JtaQxi n 517 
JuxOxtvaOTui, 170, 181' 
JiuorvXog, 132 
JLuvXog, 496 
Jiddaxiir Sqaua, 175 
JiSaoxaXiat, 175 
didQaxf'og, 543 
JrivQixftpog, 161, 425. 

JiinoXsia, 492 
iiwi, 512, 504 
Jixaia, 550 
Aixanxbi Xbyot, 204 
Jixuorai, 512 
JixaOTi'jQior, 511 
///*>;, 363, 504 
JixQora, 476 
Jiftdx ai i 523 
Jiovvoia, 39, 492 
Jiorvoog, 425 
JiaiCBTiJ, 484 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



723 



4ibq&toOtig, 215 
diooxovqia, 455 
^ftboxovqot, 455 
4i7V?.aoiaoubc, 525 

J'tTVTtqog, 132 

jdinxvxa, 34 

d'lTCvl.QV, 671 

Jioxog, 497 
jduf&iquu, 32, 71 
Jlyqog, 410, 474 
4ib)(lo?.La, 508 

jdiJjxwv, 512 
Jiumoola, 510, 512 
y#ft»§c S , 512 
doxiuaaia, 506 
Jbliyog, 496 
^/ovui, 33 
Jbqaxa, 532 
jdoqacoifbqot, 523 
Jbqnog, 534 
Jbqv, 474 
JoqvdXwroi, 528 
Jov?.sia, 513 
^/otJAot, 482, 503, 504, 537 

4ovqo$UX)j, 474 
^get/it a, 168 
Jda X ur h 510, 543, 544 
4qt7Ttxrtj(pbqoi, 523 
dqinavov, 532 
Jqbuog, 496 

JwSiXU &£0 1, 404 

^lotfwvttfov ;ftf?.>f£fov, 488 

^«, 468, 537 
^wqoboxia, 533 

'Eyxavarbv, 33 
'.EyKoi'P.ia, 529 
^Eyxouftoua, 538 
> Eyxo>utaOTixoi, 204 
> Eyy.a>uiov, 161 
^Eyytiqibiov, 524 
*'Eyyog, 474 
i Eyy<oqiu, 62 
e £a«;.i«, 132, 530 

*jBtiJta;.ior, 164 

'jE.zag, 699 
'tttfowxfe, 92 
? JBt^r, 123, 514 

1 Ei/.u7iivr h 534 
y Eati6vta, 419 
5 £(/ ( ;j/«t«, 34 
^EilioTse, 516 

*Eiqsvtg, 516 
3 Ei()8CiiGjrui) 164 
'E.o,;,^, 435,446 
> £ia«-/-/«/(«, 513 
'Eiao/u, 115 
>EiO(poQal, 507, 508 
r Ey.uT6ii(Suta, 492 
c Ey.uTou{iuiojr, 699 
'Ey.uTviiptj, 467 



'Exarbufioia, 413 
r ExaTuf.iTttSov, 672 
'JExduata, 435 
'ExxXtjoiai, 509, 517 
5 ExxXtjoiaOTixij iaroqia, 
272 
'Exxouidij, 550 
'JExAoyets, 508 

'EXOTUTIXOI, 490 

"Exrvna, 93 
'Excpoq'a, 551 
i E?.aitjg oriipavog, 519 
5 £;.aio5*'oior, 133 
'EXaibonovdv, 467 
'JEAucp^o^v, 699 
5 jBAjy£ia, 163 
"EAeyoc, 163, 164 

f £;.mo;. t$ , 525 

'EAtuoivtu, 492, 493 
"EAixe?, 538 
'JE/J.urotfizai, 498, 500 
c E?.Ztjvo$ixaiov, 498 
"EAvua, 542 
"EXv/uog, 546 
'.EitjSa^ 501 
'EppaTi'iQiov, 526 
>EupoV, h 527 
"E/tpolov, 525, 529 
^EyueX.eta, 169 
'Eunsiqia, 262 
'Euni?.wqoi, 517 
3 EiiiTiVEvOTa, 546 
'Evdyiopa, 469 
"£»'«{)«, 528 
''f'v^^is, 513 

'Erdsxa, 506, 512 
'Er&ovotaoTitL, 490 
'.Ei'vayfiivoi, 698 
^EvvtdnvXov, 671 

3 Ei'VTVVlOV , 490 

'Evva,, 422, 438 
'Evw/Liorla, 525 
3 '-E^*5oat, 133 
'E^Atyuog, 525 
'jB^sTaarut, 506 
"Ehtfoi, 516 
'El^'atg, 215 
'Eir i Yy]Xixt n 41 
'££0;^, 115 

'EjldlxXoV, 518 

'Ercaivbg, 161 
J £;T£ laoJiov, 168 
'Errsvvay.Toi, 516 
'EmfidSqai, 527, 530 
'Empdrai, 532 
'Eniyovoi, 456 
'Ejiiynuuuara, 47, 166, 

528 
'Ejtiyqacpal, 552 
'E/riyQaiptig, 508 
' Ercibeiy.Tiy.bg, 324 
'li7li<}«ii;6i£, 39 



'ETvidtiTtva, 536 
'ErciQaXduta, 161 
'.E7ri6uP.atuof, 550 
'E7r t '*a>7i:oi, 529, 532 
'ErciXaqyla, 525 
'ErcO.oiuia, 161 
'Em/iuy'ia, 526 
'EniuilT}Tal, 550 
'Eicivixiov, 161 
'Emaqxia, 487 
'Eniqqtjiia, 172 . 
'Emotion', 530 
'Erclar^iu, 30 
'ETttordrtjg, 509, 510 
'ErciaroXai iQwrixal, 22Q 
'ETciaro/.tvg, 533 
'EniOToXoyqd (fog, 381 
'ETTlTQOTtlj, 530 

'EntTqonog, 548 
'ErcoptXia or 'JE7ra>j$«2ltt, 

512 
'Enbnrai, 493 
'JE/irog, 163 
'Enovqdvioi, 404 
c Enra aotpwv avunbo^w^ 

40 
'Enayvvuoi, 515 

'£7TWTj<JfC, 530 

"Eearocr, 479, 53 
'EqaTw, 445 
'Eqydrtg, 420 
'Eqirai, 530 
'EqcT/ioL, 530 
'Eqitqiu, 674 
'£ ? t/fl«is, 672 
'Eqiy&eiov, 672 
'Ispivvvec, 446 
'£§15, 433 
'Eqiarixij, 41 
'J?exo ? , 552 
"JE^ua, 530 
' EquaQi'jVt], 93 
"Equant, 492 
r Eqimxiog XlQog, 93 
r Equtiqax?.ijg, 93 
'£?«>;?, 93, 424 

"Eqtag, 423 
'Eqorcixbc uiXtj, 166 
'Eoniqioua, 534 
r £(TT/a, 428 
'Eoriuaig, 507 
r Eanarbqiov, 540 
r Earidrwq, 536 
'EoyuQsvg, 533 
'EoyuToxoXXov, 34 
f Eraiqat, 548 
c Ersqoiovuiva, 165 
f EnqoiidcfyaXoi, 504 
'Ervuot.oyty.bv, 219 
5 EvayytXiy.ij anbbzi^ig, 272 
"Eufluro/, 506 
'JEvxrixu, 161 



724 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



^EvfitvlSts, 446, 491 
'Ewl h 530 
'Evvo^ia, 435, 446 
>EvaxvXog, 132 
> EvriQ7if], 445 
*Evx«t, 466 
x EvifQoavv*i, 446 
"Eipitoog, 497 
'Eyioia, 492 
> Htptaiaxa, 221 
*E<pixai, 511 
>E(p>ipstov, 133 
'Etpi^ixbv, 133 
> E<pr i (ioi, 516 
'Eipi'fliioig, 513 
> E(pr i us()ig, 261 
'EipiulTyg, 490 

3 E(pi7T7TtOV, 597 

y EipoStia 556 
y E(poQeiov, 517 
> £«/)o ? ot, 493, 517 
'-EWrJla, 542 



Ztvyirat, 502 
Zttfs, 410, 411 
Z«t)g cfrryjo? 416 
Z^pfo, 513, 519 
ZijTi'iuara, 215 
Zvy«, 530 
Zi/yt'u, 413 
Zvyixat, 532 
Zvyoe, 524, 525 
ZtoyQcuptxi,, 120 
Zombg fti?.ag, 518 
Zwh], 469, 474 
Zfoar^Qtg, 529 
Zwotqov, 538 

r Hdovixol, 227 

"H6 t uog, 48 

y maxur>i, 530 

'HXiuiu, 511 
'HXiaaral, 506, 511 
w jr;.io ff , 417, 430 

C H?.IOTq67TIOV 1 698 

~//i,« ?1 697 
c Hfiiqa, 432 

c Hui()ag aqnayt], 432 
T H^tqoSqbiioi, 528 
c Hui6(jj()ay.iov, 523 
*Ifvioxog, 474 
< Hnuxoaxon'ia, 490 
°^a, 412 
f %l«, 413, 492 
r H(puiOTtia, 492 
"Ntpaioxog, 423 
'Hxutx, 500 g 
«?, 432, 697 



©aAaurrat, 532 



©odajuo?, 550 
QdUia, 445, 446 

©« *;.<>;, 467 

0aXXo<poQoi, 495 
0a'vaTO5, 448, 514 
0a^)y»/>lt<wv, 699 
©avAaw/dat, 485 
QtUTQOV, 132 

©e«i at /aval, 511 
OspiXiog, 530 
0t>t?, 435 
©sot ot jueya'Aoi, 404 
©eoioytfov, 500 
Geouavxsia, 490 
©toijtvta, 673 
GeonQonoi, 487 
©covgyoi, 485 
GeauoGixcu, 506, 511 
Qtafto(poQtiov, 494 
Gtouoybqia, 428, 492, 494 
@iopo(p6()og, 428 
0*toc, 550 
GtwQixa, 501, 508 
©ea^oi, 487 
©/J*?, 552 

©i^iuxa, 165 

©,Jt«<?, 482, 502 
©(Javfrat, 532 
Qodvog, 532 
0@»/»'«n'"*$a()/oi t 551 
0^tyx6?, 552 
© ? ovo ; , 39, 479, 542 
©i;'«;.;.ut, 447 
0i/,ii «';.»/, 169 
©vfiiaua, 486 
©i'qo, 540 
©vpeo?, 524 

GvQtO(fOQOl, 523 

©wotutt, ©t'o?, 467 
0t;rat, 485 
Gwqdxiov, 527 
©a.^, 474, 523 



J a' Xtuoi, 551 
laHpog, 161 
laorcig, 111 
Iuxqbg, 37 
7at»>, 113 
iSaioc, 411 

7^a, 482, 671 
7s£*ror, 486 
7f(jsi)?, 158 
IsooSovXoi, 485 
IsQoiiiurrtta, 490 
Itobv, 436 

IsQ07tOlOt, 494 

Itqoaxonia, 490 

7e£ov()yot, 485 
f ItQoipccvrai, 485,494 
f Ixtximoc, 412 
"7^ta, 530 



r IXaGjibg, 486 
r 72a<rrixa, 486 
*7;U,, 525 
'7^,529,542 
'Ifidriov, 538 
v 7o ? , 474 
J 7otUoi, 161 
f Innayqixcu, 517 
e Innuywyoi, 523 

( l7l7tdQX , l?7 ^23 

' InnaQx'"*} 525 
" iTcnaQxot, 524 
f 77r7ter ? , 473, 502 
r Inn tag t uetLtav, 92 
'Innodqouog, 678 
r InnoXvxtia, 672 
r 77r7roTo£orat, 523 
T 7 ?ts , 433 
'loopixqtixa, 92 
5 7ooTt'pavro5,517 
f 7<m'a, 530 
r Iaxo(fott'g, 542 
f 7aTo?, 530 
*7raAoff, 65 
* Ix&vouavria, 490 
5 7a>|Suxj!fot, 161 

> '7(i»'*;, 24 

Ka^tiat, 28 
JSCa^ot, 510 
Kudos, 545 
Ka&aQuoi, 466 
TfaiaJa?, 518 

jr«;i«0iov, 494 

KuXafiog, 33 
JTaA^iypuyoi, 35 
KaXXiomj, 445 
tf^oe, 530 
ICuAu^T^a, 538, 548 
Kal£>9tov, 497 
KufitjXot, 530 
Kavtjtpoqoi, 496 
ffarwv, 497 
Kanroiiuvrtia, 490 
KuQapog, 113 
tfa^«««, 492 
Kaxa(iu8ubg, 692. 
KarapXtjTixt], 497 
Kaxa(ioX> h 536 
Kaxayqaiplj, 521 
KaraniXxai, 527 
Kaxanovxio/nbg, 514 
Kaxuoxaoig, 521 
Kaxoupquyuaxa, 530 
Kaxuipqaxxoi, 523 
Kaxijyoqiat, 206, 513 
KUxonxqa, 539, 542 
Kaxuivuxtj, 538 
Kavxi'.qia, 123 
KsXsvaxi^, 533, 616 
KU. n xtg, 476, 496 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



•25 



KsvijQta, 552 
Ktvoruyia, 519, 552 
Kivrr t oig, 519 
Ksvtqov, 597 
KsQaia, 530 
Keqaueixbg, 40 
JCtqauiov, 545 
Kiqag, 547 
Kiqaxa, 34, 524, 530 
Keqarivlj, 547 
IT* o tin ov, 544 
Jfs^auvoffx'OTrsror, 500 
KtqxiSeg, 133 
JTe'eua, 543 

KiOTQttiOig, Ksoxqov, 123 
Ki(fa7.ij Seircrov, 536 
Kt]7toi "ASwviSoc, 492 
JCf^S, 449 
Kr t qouavxii.ct, 491 
KHPONOZ, 31 
JE*fcv£, /u;?i;zs,', 468,471, 
485, 507, 525, 537 
K^qvxsiov, 525, 526 
Kiyx7.Loig, 512 
Jfi3a£a 546 
Kiuoiviov xefyog, 671 
KiorrjSbv, 30 
JTtn:§o:, 546 
Kioxr,, 542 
KiorocfoQoi, 494 

K7.U0OI lXT)' t QlOl, 467 

JOfia>, 445 
KXixi'iOQct, 512, 570 
IQijoixoi, 205 
JQijoouarreia, 490 
jOr;ocirroi, 506 
K/.>' l ro}Q, 512 
KUuaxtg, 133, 527, 540 
JLlivai, 536 
JOt^, 542 
K/.Loig, 525 
JOktuos, 479 
jaocos, 513, 519 
X;.w3<u, 446 
KvtjutSeg, 474 
Kviaatj, 468 

Kbcoqrog, 501 
Koi7.iuflo7.ov, 525 
Jfoa>?', 529 
Xof;.ov, 132 
7£o(ur,T/'()iov, 552 
JCofrj?, 542 

JtoiTcoV, 540 

Ko7.oo~coi, 92 
XovtaT^'oiov, 133 
Kovxol, 530 
KovToyoooi, 523 
Xonue, 524 
Kinna, 30, 69, 544 
K6n8a-, 169 
ifooii, 543 
Xo^wWauaTa, 161 



JCooj/kjiov, 133 
KoQvrtj, 524 
Koqvg, 474 
Koovyaiog, 169 
Koauoi, 519 
Koxivog, 498 
Korra^og, 537 
Kori'7.r h 545 
Kovgoi. 537 
K6y7.oi, 526 
Koy7.iaQiov, 545 
JSCouroc, 474 
Kqaxf:qeg, 537 
Kqax^q, 48, 534 
KqtjSsttvov, 538 
Kqij t uv6g, 514 
Kqijitlg, 552 
Kqibg, 527 
Kqoy.oTCt7i7.og, 433 
Kqoxa7.ov, 547 
Kqdxog, 39 
KqvTCXsia, 516 
Kqiaxu7.7.og, 111 
Kxioxr t g, 52 

Kvaftoi, 506, 510 

.Euaros, 110 
KvSeia, 534 
KvpeQvijTiig, 533 

iTi ; *;.oc, 160,167,674 
KvUonoStig, 424 
KvufSala, 547 

Kvvir], 474 
KvvoOovqa, 515 
Kiqpsig, 32 

jKttoc, 529 
Kfyaw, 513, 519 
KcbSwv, 547 
Kwur h 171 
KojVSlOV, 514_ 
Ktanai, 530 
.KaOTJj/uTat, 530 
Korcilqt], 529 
jBTto^i'/f£joi-, 133 

AUy.y.og, 469 
jia^va^f?, 551 
Aaot'jiov, 524 
Aaipvqa, 528 
^u^£a«?, 446 
AsiTcoravxui, 533 
.ifinrocrroaTior, 513 
yfitrroTtirzTai, 528 
Asixovqyiai, 507 
Aixxqov, 469, 550 
^ig«$, 215 

AsTVXOV, 543 

AiOyyj, 516 
Jevzavfyg, 407 

Atvxoma, 506 
^*>oc', 542, 550 
A^xvdog, 123 



Jr^'iaqyoi, 506 
jiqro), 434 
.Jtyt'oiov, 111 
Ji6opo7.iu, 514 
Jido?67.oi, 527 
Aidoy7.v(pia, 108 
Ai&6xo7.7.a, 92 • 

^fWot, 524, 92, 112, 108 
Aidog Tcqax^q, 504 
-ioyti^g, 519 

Aoyttov, 500, 576 
Aoyia, 487 
Aoyioxal, 506 
Aoyioxi t g, 533 
Aoyoyqaifiai, 250 
Aoyoi O7.vurciy.ol, 39 

iKot, 41 
Aoipal, 467 
^ogi'ag, 418, 489 
Aovxtog i^'Ovog, 220 
Aovx^qiov, 542 
Aovxqbv, 539 
Aocpsiov, 542 
Aocpog, 474 
Aoyayol, 524 
Aoyog, 524, 525 
Avxaia, 434,492 
Jvoeig, 215 
^Liatktovo?, 673 

M 
MayaStg, 546 

Mayava, 527 
Mayvijng ?.L6og, 386 
May <u, 491 
MaCai, 518 
Mad/,Wa, 37, 240 
Maiuaxrtjqicov, 699 
Mimao^?, 485 
Maxqct OxiXrj, 672 
Maxqai Tiixqai, 673 
Mavxeia, 487 
31avxsvuaxa, 487 
Mccvtlx,;, 490 
Mavrig, 158 
Maqxi'qsg, 512 
Maoxiywoig, 519 
Mayaiqa, 524 
MiSiuvog, 545 
Ms6o3ixi h 41 
Mi7.av yoacptxbv, 33 
MiUrt], 208 
Me7.h], 474 
Mt7.io7tov§a, 467 
Mi7.iooui, 485 

Ms7.lXX0VXU, 550 
M*7os fti^ar^qtov, 182 
Ms7.7Couivrj, 445 
JMeupquva, 34 
31iqaq/'nx, 525 
MtOoSuT], 530 



62 



726 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



MeaoxoO.og, 529 

31so0fi(fa7.tov, 524 
Mtaovavrai, 532 
JHeGoxoQog, 169 
Msrapo7.7 h 525 
3/Lvtayswvitav, 699 
jM%Ta<Jo§7ria, 536 
MsTsuipvxoiOig, 226 
itftTo^ot, 204, 495, 503, 

504, 508 
MsToixiov, 504 
MsTQtjrijS, 545 
.MfTcoTrov, 524, 529 
Mrjxavai, 527 
.Mjj^cm/', 500 

iHl/T'O? itfTOCilfVoV &C. 699 

JMT^oi, 468 
MIJA1, 48 

3Il7.T0T€aQt]0l, 529 

Mllrog, 33 
Jiflitot, 287 
M-ia&bg ^ov7.svnxbg, 8&C, 

508 
i»f t'r^, 524, 538 
jMVa, 543 
JMvr^iuov , 552 
Mvola, 519 
ilfoijoai, 446 
MoXni h 537 
Malvpdvvai, 474 
MovavZog, 547 
MoviJQsig, 476 
JMovoyQaftuara, 31 
31ov6y.QOTix, 476 
MovoTtraQog, 132 
JHovoriooccQov, 271 
M.ovoxQu>uaTct, 122 
itf^ai, 516, 525 
Moqlai, 495 
JMoq<pjj, 449 
Movvvx'ia, 675 
.Movfiijfior, 672 
Movacu, 445 
Movostov, 94, 673 
Movaix\ h 37, 545 
JMovGirA) ipO.il, 546 
IHovotxoi ayaivsg, 38 

.MtJdoi, 399 

JlfufloAoyia, 399 
jMiUtoves, 504 
2Mfoei6|Si/W.ov, 218 
MvoTt'jQia, 493 

2V 
lTa'|?;.a, 546 

iTaoi, 482 
Naoifv/.axig, 485 

AlavuQx ?) 532, 533 
Navrai, 532 
Mavtfv7.axsg, 530 
Neural 8tard%eig, 393 
Jfity.Q()!!jtiTCVov } 469 



NsxQoiiavrtia, 491 
NtoSociiidjSsig, 516 
Nsopitjvia, 692 
NsvQodtra, 546 
Nsvqov, 474 
NsyiJ.yiysQiTYjg, 412 
Nswxoqqi, 485 
iWysg a/iKpiTVQVuvoi, 530 
Nrjors ia, 494 

JWxi/, 672 
JVofloe, 550 
loiters, 529 
Noutua, 550 
Nouioina, 543 
Nouo-Qtrai, 507 
JWjtoi, 158, 545 
Nofiog, 515 
Nouotfvkaxsg, 496, 506, 

517 
Nvtupata, 444 
Nvfuprj, 542 



^vio, 537 
J^tviog, 480 
/Zivoi, 504 
Xiortjg, 545 
♦Styos, 474, 514 
JzvXoxdQTiov, 32 
£vot<x, 134 

£vOTC/QX r l$'> ^00 

£WT<n r , 134, 497 

^VOTOtfoQOl, 523 



'O^?, 543, 544,550 
v Oy*os, 500 
'OJPY2H2 NYM- 
&AI2, 427 

} 066vat, 530 
'Otxirai, 504 
"Oixo?, 540 
'Otxovusvtxol, 216 
'Oixot^oi^oyEiS, 67« 
'OirouarTEia, 490 
'OivouiZi, 536 
'Oivq'z-ool, 537 
J Ofros uv^Qivlrtjg, 534 
'Oiotk, 474 
'OxQ'tpag, 123 
'OxrasTtjQig, 698 
'O7.tyog)o()oi, 534 
\0?.xdS^, 529 
'07.otfVQitoi, 550 
'OP.tutTrsfoT', 673 
'Ouotoi, 515, 
r OiiojcaTQtovg, 548 
"Ouna^, 494 
'Ofitfa7.bg, 34, 524 
'OiKfa7.bg yyg, 488 

'OvtlQOy.QlXlxd, 264 

'Ov£i§07roP.oi, 490 



w O»et?o?, 448, 449, 490 

'OvSlQOOXOTtOl, 490 

'Ovouaonxbv, 217 

'Ovvxiov, 111 
'Ogv/JeiUrs, 527 
'OndcMiog, 110 
'OTriafiofyuog, 672 
'Omo&byQaifoi, 34 
:r OrcP.a, 530 
( On7.tr at, 521 
*" On7.irodQOiioi, 496 
:, 07r;.or, 523 
: ' OQaua, 490 
'0()ya£, 485 
s '0^ yi «, 492 
'OQyvtd, 544 
} OQs'txa7.y.og, 92 
"OQ&iog, 545 
WQ&07Ccc7.r}, 497 
"OQxta rt\uv£iv 7 487 
c ' OQxtog, 412J 
a O§^o? ^ot^Etrrixos, 510 
" OQxog fityag, 486 

Oquoi, 675 

OQttog, 538 

'Ogviflo.ita'rTsis, 490 

O^oi, 390 
"OQvy/tta, 514 
"OQwoig, 37 
'OQx^orQa, 132, 169* 
' Oq xyarvg, 537 
"Oata, 550 

f 0§IU>T>;(>, 489 

'Ooro&tjxat, 551 

'OffroP.oyioi', 551 

'OOTQaxtOubg, 51$ 
* OoxQaxov, 514 

'OaxotfoQia, 492 

'OoxotfoQixa, 161 

'OvP.at, 467 

> Ov7.6xvra, 468 
"Ovo7.xot, 97 
""OiOTiyyoi, 161 

'Oi^a, 524,529 

'Oi^ayoi, 609 
'OvjJayo?, [525 
'OvQavia, 445 
'QvQavbg, 430 
} OvQiog, 50 
'OtfGaXubg, 529, 530 
'Oa^aP.uot/s GvyxAEtEtf; 

469 
"Oxuvov, 524 
'Oxtvg, 474 

JT 

TIayy.Qdrtov, 497 
flfaify 161 526 
Uaiyvta, 161 
Ilaideta, 37, ?; int qvx%t 
40 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



727 



HaiSiQiag, 110 
Uaidixa, 161 
HaiSixij uovaa, 167 
ZTaidovouog, 516, 517 
Hakaioxqa, 133 
llcdl h 37, 497 
JloklaxlSsg, 548 
IlaUag, 420 
JIa?.iibi, 491 
Hcdrbv, 474 
Jlcuipaodsla, 517 
IIaui.iu X i0V i 497 
ZlduutXQOv, 167 
17av,' 434 

ZFava&rjvaia, 492, 495 
ZlavaQrjvaixbv, 495 
JlavSaoiat, 536 
i7a'v<? //«<)£, 673 
21o'vd(jooog, 672 
Ildr&sov, 673 
2Zav>;yv§i£,498 
JIavtxbv Seiita, 434 
2IavTo3a7TTj [oroQia, 252 
Zlaqafidoig, 172 
UaQayqa(pi n 512 
ZlaQaipdxrjg, 474 
JlaqatvsTLy.bg, 205 
ndqal-og, 683 
JlaqdwiMpog, 550 
HaQa^iipLdiov, 524 
UaQaorjiiov, 529 
Haqdoixot, 485 
JlaQaordoig, 512 
Haoaovv&^uara, 526 
HdqsdQoi, 506 
IlaQsial, 529 
UaQ6svta, 161, 166 
Haq6ivoi, 672 
ZlaqQevwv, 503, 547 
Ildqoxog, 550 
ZBiUa, 538 
Hetixbv, 521 
IIsiQaisvg, 675 
HsiOiavdxxiog, 673 
irsloiiara, 530 
Uslaoyixbv, 671 
midrai, 482 
HUeiai, 488 
iW.iy.vg, 524 
Uilxaoxat, 23 
HUrri, 523, 524 
mi.uQiu, 492,409 
Ileundg, 524 
Hsvrddiu, 34 
IlivTadiov, 496 
Hsvxaxooiouidiuvoi, 502 
JIevxt]xoaxvg, 525 
IIsvTrtQstg, 532 
Hiit lot, 479 
Hinlov a^iot, 495 
Jltqixupalala, 474 
HsoYQa^rjVT], 33 



U^i a^cSv , 273 
mqipolog, 132 
ZT£§t^£i7rvor, 469 
77££i£§ya, 491 
iZe^t £§coTt*a>v 7ta6t]ud- 

rwv, 221 
JJsqit'iytjOig, 165 
ntqiTjytjrdt, 489 
Usqioixoi, 516 
TIsQiTtaTog, 42 
TlEQiTtsrdouara, 468 
nzQiTroZoi, 526 

TIsQlTVTSQOg, 132 

IIsQtQyavTt'lQiQv, 484, 486 
UtQiTeixioiibg, 527 
IIsQLTovsia, 530 
UtQMpavij, 90 
IIsQKpQdyuara, 530 
TIsQovyjuara, 468, 548 
IIsQastpovy], 414 
UtraXioitbg, 514 
ffixaoog, 538 
Hirqai fiaxQal &C. 673 
TItTQopuloi, 527 
UiTQwiia, 493 
Tlirraia, 534 
HrjyouavXsia, 490 
TlrjSdJLiov, 530 
ntjxrig, 546 
^Ijjxvg, 544 
IZftoff, 538 
Tlivaxsg, 123 
Hivdxia, 506 
Hivaxi TtrvxTca, 35 
Il'tva^ ayvqxixbg, 491 
HioTig ^Arnxij, 487 
Ilirrdxiov, 34 
Ulay'iavlog, 546 
II?.aiOLOv, 525 
TD.axlg, 495 
n/.aorixij, 90 
Tllardviora, 517, 678 
Ularnaoabg, 146 

Iltt&QOV, 545 

m SV Qui, 530 

TIXiixrQov, 546 
mivQiov, 525 
m.ovrog, 172, 436 
Tlkovriov, 416 

IZWg, 509, 675 
JTo&S, 530 
Tloirjrijg, 159 

mix'd n , 42, 673 

IIoUfxaQxog, 506, 517, 

520, 524 
i7o;.i«?, 420, 672 
IIolioQxtjTtxa, 242 
i7o;.trai,503 
ITo?.vdvdQiov, 552 
TIo?.vxiora, 548 
Uo?.vin>ia, 445 
TIolvipoooi, 534 



Ho una l, 508 

TIOUTVSIOV, 673 

Uhnava, 367, 486 
HooQiitov, 550 
Tloqitaxsg, 524 
TIooi-tdcTiv, 628, 414 
IZbtfs, 544, 545 

IlQdxTOQsg, 508, 512 
nqeopug, 507, 526 
IlQeO(ivg, 517 
IlQoav?.iov, 540 
HqophjiiaTa, 474 
IlQopovleviia, 509, 515 
IlqoyviivdG^ara, 498 
TlQodoiiog, 540 
nqoSooia, 513 
IlQoxitmoi, 522 
IlqoxvTca, 91 

IlQoSlXOt, 517 

IlQoEdQLa, 514, 519, 528 
IlQ6edQot, 509, 510 
TlQoTjqoaia, 428 
Hqoixcoa, 548 
IZ£ot§/548 
TlQoraog, 131 
IZ^6|£vot,517, 537 
TlQo^svia, 537 
TlQooliiia, 160 
IlQoTtldoiLiaTa, 91 
UqonoXoi 6saiv } 485 
HQoTtoiia, 536 
HqoKiixaia, 484, 503, 671 
IlQooxaipdZaia, 536 
nqoaSSta, 161, 485 
IlQoaxdxtjg, 504 
Ilqooxvlog, 132 
II()6oxv7ra, 90 
IIqoOiotceVov, 500 
IIqoxLQso&ui, 550 
IlQoxoiiai, 93 
TIqoxovoi, 530 
Hqoiffjxai, 489 
IlqoyvXaxai, 526 
Jlqo^oog, 542 
Tlqviiva, 529 
Ilqv/LivTJoia, 530 
IlQvxavsia, 507, 512 
TlQvxavsia, 510 
Ilqvxavsiov, 429,510,675 
IlQvxaveig, 509, 510, 515, 

520 
IlQojqa, 529 
HqoQsvg, 533 
IlQ(jix6xo?.?.ovj 34 
Ilxaguol, 491 
Jir^a, 529 
Ilxv x'tg, 529 
Ilvaveyjiwv, 699 
Ilvyuii, 497 
TIv&Lxbg v6/j.o$ f 499 
J/u'dtot, 517 
7/^iov, 488 



728 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



JZtMioe, 418, 488, 517 
JlvxvoorvZog, 132 
Ilvxrtjs, 497 
JIv?.ayoQai, 509 
IlvXaia, 509 
J/u';.>7, 540 
7/tJ^, 514 
Jlvqa, 469 
7/^yo ? , 525, 527 
IIvQopoloi, 524 
IIvQOfiavrsia, 490 
IIvQcpoQot, 526 
IIvQuinbg, 110 
IIwhjTui, 508 
Zfc5 ( ua, 474 



^Pafidofiavrsia, 491 
c Pa(idov~xoi, 498 
r Pa</)^, 548 
c Paywdot, 27, 159 
'PrjroQsg, 507 
c Pt}TQai } 519 

r PtCoT6 ( uo5, 264 
c i , i^a<T7ri(j£s,528 
c Ptyue, 497 
'-Podo&brr^o?, 430 
C .P6<W, 536 
^.uara, 530 
c Pilno$, 544 



.2ay,ua, 524 
2a;.7riyy£?, 526, 547 
■S'aP.Ti^yzTj'e, 524 
2au(ivxt], 546 
^a ( u7r[, 30, 544 
^"c;r(Jaii«, 538 
.SaW?, 513 
2a7t(p£iQog, 110 
^aQ^io?, ^a^^trog, 111 
•2a@<Wv|;, 111 
2uQiaoa, 524 
^a^xoyciyog, 551 
.Santos, 295 
^CUTt^COV, 343 

^rar^or, 547 
^ £ ;i^, 418, 432 
2eUol,488 
2nxbg, 484, 552 
.2>7ua, 552 
2>jfiua, 31, 526 
2tjusioyQa(poL, 35 
2r]fi£io(poQoi, 524 
2tfvlla, 158 
2'iyXai, 31 
J^i<j£t;rai, 516 

2J* t w, 169, 173 
^*;.o e , 84 
^a;.oi, 174 

^ira^ior, 544 

Sirtjaig iv Tc^vravtim, 514 



^tri, 428 
2xa?.ftoi, 530 
2xafifia, 496 
SxaiprjipoQoi, 495 
2xi?.tj fiaQxa, 672 
2xtnt\, 552 
^x>/W ; , 132, 500 

2xiJ7VT(>0V f 470 

2xiayqa<pia, 123 
.2Kta ? , 518 

2xa;.«, 436 

2xiouavriia, 491 
2xiQQO(poqiwv, 699 
^;Uov, 163, 537 
■2"#o7ros, 496 
2*t7;.a, 528 

.2W;.«S, 486 

^xvtc*;^, 528 
.S'suTtUio:, 524 
2xvrog, 32 
■Sua^ay^og, 110 

^6;.o e , 497 
^o^oi,551 
2u)Qog, 441 
SoQioral, 35 
2tii]?.cuov, 552 
27ii6aiiij, 544 
.2'7rAa)';po<T;<07ria, 486 
2.7v66iog, 484 
^Tro.u^o:/, 467 
^Trcmty, 486, 526 
2tcvqiSov, 30 
-STcitfior, 133, 496 
2rari t Q, 57, 543 
Jrat^os, 514 
2t£i'§)/, 529 
2rif.ii.iara, 467, 486 
2rs(pavt]cp6Qog, 494 
2rkpavoi, 514, 452 
^r*>«™<;, 167, 468, 519 
2rt(pog, 468 
^T///lai, 134, 552 
^-np-if, 469, 513, 552 
2riyua, 534, 513 
2riyfiij, 32 
2rij(tj()(og, 32 
2x1X01, 525 
-Sri^ouai'TEia, 490 
^roai, 133, 134, 673 
2roa fiaxqa, 675 
TCOlXl?.ij, 42 

-SroAa^os, 530 
^•ro;.;/, 538 
^•to^os, 529 
2-T§ar»;y6 e , 517, 520, 521. 

524 
2rqaria, 524 
-2"T(jtfTox»/'()i/£, 524 
^T^oyyt/';.)/, 434 
2rq6(fiov, 538 
2rqu>fiara, 536 
StiUos, 33, 134 



2vxoq>avratj 512 
■SittAajSos, 34 
ZvupoXa, 491, 526, 537 
2vppoXi h 534 
2vfifiov).zvTixoi, 204 
2vf.ipu) t uot, 484 
2vfifiax'icc, 526 
2vf.if.uxTa, 215 
2vfifioqiat 507 
2vfiTc).iyuara, 93 
2vun6oia, 40, 537 
2vfLTTOoi.aqxog, 536 
-2"tlv#i>f0i, 507 
J2vv>;'y ? 0l > 507, 512 
SwQtjxij, 526 
2vv6i' j uara, 526 
'JSu'rvaoi, 484 
2vvrayfia, 525 
-2%y£, 546, 547 
2vaairla, 518, 536 
^vWaffi?, 208 
Svarvloq, 132 
.Jyaysfoj', 468 
2yayig, 468 
2(paiQian'jqiov, 133 
2q>evdov}i, 474 
2xadiaoua, 208 
SxoXtai 215 
2xoivo(iuTai, 534 
2xovia, 530 
JS"a>T£t^a, 2(ari l q, 672 

T 

Taivia, 538 
Taxnxbi, 525 
TdJ.avrov, 543 
Tau'iat r<av ItQwv, 485 
Tafiiag, 533 
Tafiiag, Ttgooodov, 508, 

Ta5v 6«aj^i^a»v, 501 
Ta^iaqx 01 -, 524 
2V£i<?, 524 
Ta t;7r«§ ©ovktjv, 220 
Tdcpog, 552 
Taxvyqdyoi, 35 
Tt'yaoi, 540 
Ti&qnmoi, 496 
Tsixog vonov, &c. 672 
T«;.a,uc«v, 524 
T^*;, 507 
TMoj, 525 
Ts?.£vat, 508 
Tifitvog, 484 
TtQipixoQtj, 445 
TiQfia, 496 
Tsooaodxovra, 512 
TsTQtjQsig, 532 
TtTQufioXov (ilog, 521 
Tirriysg, 538 
T r £T^a'y a »' £> 93 
Ttrqddia, 34 
TsTQaeTiiQiq, 698 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



729 



TtrqaUyla, 39, 495 
Ti^ujfiaroc, 507, 513 
ToixaQx°S> 533 
Tot X oi, 530 
Tovog, 147 
To^ov, 474 
To&rai, 507 
Tonatiov, 111 
ToQsvrixij, 90 
T§ti7ir«La fovTE^a, 536 

TQCCTTSLOTVOlbg, 536 

Tqacpr^, 530 
TQijiiara, 530 
Tgiaxafos, 501 
Tqi(jojviov } 538 
TiOtyun-ov, 546 
TqitiQaQxlct, 508 
Tqu'iquqx 01 ) 533 
TQitjQixvXrjg, 533 
TQn'jQsig, 476, 529, 532 
T^x^no!*, 536, 540 
Tquoy'kx, 39 
TqircoSsg, 468 
T£i7ro<fy<pooixa,*161 
Tqircovg XQ r i ar, 'iQ l0 Si 489 
T()iToy«r£ia, 420 
Tqixoqdog, 546 
TqimSing, 419 
T^oTraiov, 469,528 
T^o7rt5, 529 
Turcot, 530 
Tqoxoc, 513 
TqvTzava, 527 
Tv t upog, 552 
Tvunava, 514 
TvuTtavov, 547 
IV**, 436 

r 

'raxirdo?, 110 
CT r^av;.tg, 547 
r :T<}(na(/)c>£<H, 469 
^Ydqouavrsla, 490 
TtfooffTrovda, 467 
c Y$qo(p6qoi, 537 
c r/ii'raioi, 161, 550 

ir ruro $ , 158, 160 
'rvn/, 542 
''r/rai^og, 132 

c r7r»^oot, 529 

'YTiTjoirrjg, 525 
"ryrroc, 448 
''I'Troya'a, 552 
r Ynoyqa(pig, 123 
f l r 7ro5> / 'uaTa, 538 
r Ynot(ouaxa, 530 
r r7ro*ai;aTov, 539 
e JTnozQaTi'jQiov, 48 
c Ynoxniral, 500 
T"7rou«tore?, 515 



<- ]T7ro i ur> / 'uara, 215 
e YTCouooLa, 512 
^Ynoqx^a, 161 
c Ynoariyiu'i, 32 
c r7rw7ria, 497 

<2>airo?.r/s, 538 
<J>cd«yyao;fia, 525 
cfrtUayS, 525 
*ci;.a^a, 523 
f&alr^bv, 675 

<£a;.* t5 , 529 

tlWJ.ixa, 171 
<J>w;ios, 474 
<E>uvTao7<a, 490 
fpaquaxtia, 491 
<l>uQuay.ov, 123, 514 

*&<XQiTQCC, 474 

<J>Soog, 479, 538 

^ad?, 513 
<i>axva>iiaTa, 137 
<J>£yyiTqg, 625 
<&sidiria, 518 
*PiQsTQov, 469, 550 
<2>sQv} h 548 
<J>£i;yun', 512 

*»[u^, 436 
*<9org, 494 

<f>iAf/P.ia(5at, 161 
<&i?.Lria, 513 
c&tP.oust^g, 422 

<i>l7.000ifWV OVUTlOOlOV, 40 

<£;.oio ? , 32 
<f>o(5>/Tco§, 449 
<2>oij?oc, 417 
<f»oivi^/fta, 49 
<t>oviy.(ov, htl rwv, 511 
<f>y^uiy^, 546 

<&6qol, 507 

(&OQTTiyol, 529 
<t>qaTQl(Xl, 501 

<£>qarqiy.a, 536 
<f>0£trrrof, *v, 443 
<£>£)tiyiovcuv l^yov, 548 
3>i/ y ^ 513, 519 
tf^.ai, 501, 502, 503 
<J>t»P.axac, 526 
<t>v).aq x y ]S ■> 523 

(PvZayxoi, 506, 624 

^wrtxa, 526 



Xa;./? £ ra, 424, 495 

.Xod/^dwv, 111 
.Xodxioixog, 678 
Xcdxov?, 543 
Xaqiar^oia, 486 
XaOlTE?, 446 

-X«§t^9, 32 



Xci^Tiov poufivxlag, 32 

_X£l()OTOVqT<H, 506 

_XEi()OTOvia, 508, 510 
JXft^ cn<J»/()a, 532 
XfyUi'tfuaTa, 529 

■XeAkJoVIOC, 161 

.XsAwrq, 527 
Xiqvixp, 468 
X>jW<7*os, 529 
Xil.iaqxLa, 525 
JttTwv, 479, 538 
Xir&vti, 419 
XAcura, 479, 538 
Xoai, 467, 469 
Xot>^, 513, 545 
JXooeutoh, 169 
Xoqr t yia, 507 
Xo^/yot, 39, 169, 507 
Xoqbg, 501 
.XotJ?, 545 
Xqij^a, 543 
Xqijuarioubg, 490 
X^j/(7uo;,'l58, 487 
XqtjOuo?.uyoi, 487 
XqtjOucxpoqoi, 487 
XqriOTi'jqia, 487 
Xquiaxa, 540 
XjJto'Tog 7tarcr;£a)f, 288 
Xqovixa, 165 
X^o?, 407 
3Q)V(Toy(5a<pot, 35 
.X()ucro7.iAos, 111 
Xqvoonqaoog, 110 
Xqvobg iTtioijuog, 57 
Xqvoovg, 543 
Xqcofuxra, 123 
Xa)/.iau/?o$, 174 
Xc^a, 469, 527, 552 

Waln'tqiov, 546 
WUiov, 538 
WsvSoSinrsqog, 132 
W>\(fia^a, 509, 515 
l .F>/(j)oi, 510 
Wi&vqa, 546 
fPttoi, 473, 523 
Wvxo/iiavrsia, 491 
Wvxooraola, 417 

'J2/W, 515 
'■Gfcfov, 133, 673 
>J26>o 5 , 163 
"i2ta, 540 
'Sipo&exerv, 468 
e S2ooy.o7ria, 490 
■'fi ? ai, 435, 446 
5 i2oar«, 492 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



A. 

AMecti, 610, 612 

Abraxas, 113 

Accensi, 583, 608 

Accipe libens, 563 

Accusator, 592 

Acerra, 560 

Acetabulum, 601 

Acidalia, 422 

Acies, 607, 611, 616 

Aciides, 614 

Acta senatus, 369, 
publica, &c. 369 

Actia,668 

Actiories in person- 
am, in rem, 592 

Actor, 592 

Actuariae, 617 

Actuarii, 569, 583 

Actus quadratus, 601 

Adamas, 110 

Ad bestias &c. 594 

Adjudicatio, 600 

Admovere, 567 

Adonia, 422 

Adoptio, 623 

Adoratio, 567 

Adrastia, 435 

Adscriptitii, 404, 608 

Adulterii crimen, 593 

Adversaria, 71 

Advocatus, 592 

Adytum, 559 

JEcastor, 455 

iEdepol, 455 

JEdes sacrse, 436, 559 

^Ediles, 575, 580 

^ditui, 101, 566 

.ZEgeon, 443 

^Egis, 420 

Aello, 447 

^Eneatores, 606 

^Eolus, 433 

^Erarium, 588, 594 

Agaso, 610 

Agelae, 516 

Agger, 612, 614, 656 

Agmen quadratum, 
pilatum &c. 611 

Agmine, uno conti- 
nente, 608 

Agnomen, 620 

A gone, 568 

Agonalia, 571 

Agrimensores, 358, 
596 

Alee, 609, 610 

Alba linea, 573 

Alba Longa, 553 

Alecto, 447 

Aliptae, 140 

Alites, 562 

Altaria, 559 

Alveus, 616, 631 

Amanuensis, 71 

Amaracus, 423 

Ambarvalia, 428, 566, 
571 

Ambitus crimen, 592 

Ambrosia, 426 

Ambulacrum, 139 

Amiculum, 634 



Amor, 423 
Amphitrite, 414, 443 
Amphora, 601, 632 
Amtruare, 565 
Amussis, 129 
Anchora, 616 
Ancile, 565 
Ancilia, 421 
Anclabris, 559 
Anculae, 440 
Ancyranum Monu- 

mentum, 80 
Andabatae, 574, 575 
Angusticlavia, 586, 

634 
Anima mundi, 434 
Annales, 366, 562 
Annuli, 116, 637 
Annulus aureus, 588 
Annus Magnus, 366 
Antennae, 616 
Antesignani, 609 
Antestatio, 592 
Antistites, 567 
Anubis, 442 
Apaturia, 426 
Apes, 596 
Apex, 54, 562, 565 
Apis, 441 
Apodyterium, 139 
Apotheca, 632 
Aplustria, 616 
Apparitores, 583 
Aree, 559 
Aratrum, 596 
Arbiter bibendi, 630 
Arbitri causarum, 592 
Arbori suspendere,593 
Area, 639 

Archigallus, 410, 566 
Archimagira, 630 
Archimimus, 638 
Arcula, 71 
Arcula thuraria, 560 
Arcus triumphales, 

660 
Area, 597 
Arena, 578 
Areopagus, 510 
Argentarii, 595 
Aries, 614 
Armamenta, 616 
Armamentum Chirur- 

gicum, 629 
Armaria, 75, 626 
Armiger, 624 
Armillae, 607, 637 
Armilustrium, 572 
Arrha hospitalis, 630 
Arrogatio, 623 
Artes liberates, 72 
Arundo, 70 
Arx, 562, 658 
As, 598 
Ascia, 129 
Ascolia, 426 
Aspergillum, 560 
Asseres falcati, 614 
Assertor hbertatis,625 
Assessores, 591 
Astraea, 435 
Astrologi, 570 



Astronomicon, 310 

365 
Asyla, 485 
Asylum, 658 
Atellana?, 282, 286 
Atlantes, 137 
Atramentum, 70, 122 
Atria, 586 
Atrium, 626 
Atropos, 446 
Atticum, 122 
Auctio, 600 
Augurale, 612 
Augures, 560, 562 
Augurium, 562, 569 
Augustales, 566 
Augustalia, 572 
Aula, 626 
Aulaeum, 576 
Aureus, 598 
Aurora, 432 
Auspices, 562 
Autographus, 71 
Avena, 596 
Aviarium, 627 
Avigerium, 562 

B. 

Baccha;, 427 
Bacchus, 425 
Bacilli, 70 
Balista, 614 
Balistarii, 609 
Balnea, 628, 660 
Balneatores, 140, 624 
Barritus, 606 
Basilicae, 592, 658, 659 
Batiolae, 633 
Bellaria, 630 
Bellona, 422, 438, 689 
Berecynthia, 410 
Beryllus, U0 
Bes, 598 

Bestiarii, 574, 594 
Bibendi arbiter, 630 
Bibliopola, 71 
Bibliotheca, 71, 75 
Biblus, 70 
Bidens, 597 
Bibrons, 409, 598 
Bigae, 597 
Bigati, 81 
Bimater,426 
Bipennis, 560 
Bisellium, 586 
Bis millies, 600 
Boice,592 
Bombycina, 634 
Bombyx, 634 
Bona Dea, 410, 572 
Boreas, 433 
Brachia, 616 
Brontes, 423 
Bubo, 562 
Bubona, 438 
Buccinae, 604 
Bulla, 636 
Buris, 596 

C. 

Caballi, 597 
Cabiri, 455 



Caduceus, 54, 425 
Cadus, 632 
Caelum, 129 
Caerites, 651 
Caesarum acta, 369 
Caesia, 420 
Calamus, 33, 70 
Calcar, 597 
Calceus, 116, 636 
Calcei nigri coloris, 

588 
Calculi, 631 
Caldarium, 139 
Calendarium, Prae- 

nestinum, 80 
Calices, 633 
Caligae, 636 
Calliope, 445 
Calones, 611 
Calumnia, 592 
Camarae, 617 
Camilli & Camillas, 

566 
Campidoctores, 613 
Campus Martius, 569, 

589, 592, 657 
Campus sceleratus, 566 
Candelabra, 560, 627 
Candidati, 579 
Canistra, 560 
Cantharus, 441 
Canticum, 283 
Canus, 407 
Capedo, 560 
Capeduncula, 560 
Capillamentum, 636 
Capillitia vota, 568 
Capis, 560 
Capita jugata 5 adversa 

& aversa, 112 
Capite censi, 602 
Capite velato, 567 
Capitium, 634 
Capitolium, 658 
Capsa, 71, 75 
Capsarii, 140 
Capsum, 597 
Caput, 598 
Caput ccenae, 630 
Carbunculus,110 
Carceres, 573 
Cardines, 626 
Carenum, 631 
Carmen seculare, 574 

Saliare, 68 
Carmentalia, 571 
Carmine certo evocare, 

569 
Carnifex, 583 
Carpentum, 597 
Carptor, 630 
Carruca, 597 
Caryatides, 137 
Casae, 625 
Cassis, 606 
Cassita, 293 
Castalia, 445 
Castra stativa,hiberna, 

&c. 611, 613 
Catastae, 624 
Catalecta Virgilii, 305 
Catapulta, 614 



INDEX OP LATIN WORDS, 



m 



€ateiiss, 60? 
Catena, 593 
Catervus, 28o 
Cathedra, 586 
Catomidiare, 565 
Causa, 592 

Causa? fidei bonae, 592 
Cauteria, 123 
Cavaedium, 626 
Cavea, 132, 576 
Celaeno, 447 
Celeres, 602, 609 
Cella, 132 
Cellarii, 626 
Cella sanctiof , 559 
Cella vinaria &c. 626, 

632 
Cenotaphia, 639 
Censores, 582 
Census equester, 586 
Centauri, 450 
Centesima usura, 598 

centies &c. 690 
Centujnvirale judici- 
um, 592 
Centuriae, 603 
Centuriata Comitia } 

589, 592 
Centurio, 604 
Cerae, 70 
Ceraunia, 6 
Cerberus, 451 
Cereales, 575, 580 
Cerealia, 428, 572 
Ceres, 427 
Ceriti,570 
Cerussa, creta, 637 
Cessio in jure, 600 
Cestus, 423 
Chaldaei, 570 
Charta,71 
Charta bombycina, 32 \ 

lintea, 32 
Charybdis, 379 
Chimaera, 378 
Chirographum, 71 
Chironomi, 287 
Chirurgi, 610 
Chlamydatae, 93 
Chlamys, 634 
Chloris,437, 572 
Chorodidascalus, 106 
Cibum, 629 
Cinerarium, 639 
Cingulum laneum, 621 
Cippi, 639, 49 
Circinus, 129 
Circuitio vigilum, 613 
Circulus auri, 637 
Circus Maximus, 573, 

660 
Circus Flaminius &c. 

573 
Cisium, 597 
Cista, 590 
Cives, 590 

Civitates foederatae,591 
Claves, 626 
Claviger, 409 
Clarigatio, 564 
Classiarii, 616 
Classici, 585 
Classicum, 606,616 
Clavus, 616, 634 
Clavus figendus, 572 
Clepsydra, 355, 570 
Clima, 601 
Clio, 445 
Clitellarii,597 
Clotho, 446 
Clypeatae, 93 
Clusius, 409 



Coccus, 70 

Codex Justin ianus,393 
Codices* 59, 70 
Codicilli, 71 
Coslus, 430 
Coemptio, 621 
Cosnacula, 629 
Ccena nuptialis, 622 
Ccena recta, 631 
Coenationes, 629 
Cceus, 442 
Cognomen, 620 
Cohors, 604 
Cnortes vigitum, 619 
Coliseum, 576 
Collegia fabrorum &c. 

595 
Collegium, 562 
Collina, 438 
Collis hortulorum, 657 
Collocatio, 637 
Coloniae, 591 
Colum, 631 
Columbar, 593 
Columbaria, 639 
Columella, 627 
Columnae, 660 
Columna lactaria, 622 
Columna rostrata, 79 
Colus, 622 

Comes diceceseos, 619 
Comites, 619 
Comitia, 589, 592, 685 
Commentarii, 71 ; 

Pontificum, 366, 

Censorum, 367 
Commissiones, 73 
Compitalia, 572 
Compluvium, 626 
Concilia, 589 
Conciones, 589 
Conclamatio, 637 
Concordia, 440, 572 
Condere lustrum, 569 
Conditorium, 639 
Confarreatio, 621, 622 
Congius, 601 
Conisterium, 140 
Conjectores, 570 
Conntlbium, 621 
Conquisitio, 603 
Conquisitores, 584 
Conscriptio, 603 
Consecratio, 568, 640 
Gonsentes, 404 
Gonsivius, 409 
Constitutiones, 694 
Constratum navis, 616 
Consuales, 575 
Consualia,576, 414,572 
Consulares, 619 
Consul designates, 579 
Consules, 579 
Contubernales, 612 
Contubernium,612, 621 
Conventio in manum, 

621 
Coqui, 630 
Corbes, 631 
Corium, 71 
Corneum speculare, 

625 
Cornicines, 606 
Cornix, 562 
Cornua, 70, 604, 616 
Cornucopia, 54 
Corona, 613 
Corona castrensis, mu- 

ralis, civica, <kx. 

607 
Corona, emptio sub, 

600 



Correctores, 619 
Corrigia, 636 
Cortina, 576 
Gorvus, 562, 614, 616 
Corybantes, 410 
Coryphaeus, 175 
Gosmi, 519 
Cothurni, 636 
Covinus, 523 
Crates, 613 
Crepidag, 636 
Crepundia, 622 
Creta, 71, 637 
Crimen majestatis, 

peculatus, 584, 592 
Crista, 606 
Crius, 442 
Gruci affigere, 593 
Grystallus, 111 
Cubicula, 626 
Gucullus, 634 
Gudo, 606 
Culeus, 593, 601 
Culina, 626 
Cultrarius, 567, 560, 

568 
Culter, 596 
Cultri, 560 
Culullus, 560 
Cumerum, 622 
Cunei, 133, 576, 578 
Cuneus, 608 
Curiffi, 584, 658, 659 
Curia Saliorum, 565 
Curiones, 560, 566 
CUrrus, 597 
Cursus, 573 
Cutis, 71 
Cyanus, 110 
Cyathus, 601 
Cybele, 409 
Cyclas, 634 
Cylindri, 70 
Cyllenius, 425 
Cymbia, 633 
Cyegetica, 309 
Cynthia, 419 



Dactyliothecae, 116 
Damnum, 593 
Decennalia, 568 
Decemviri, 583 
Decreta, 594 
Decumae, 595 
Decunx, 598 
Decurise, 591, 604, 609, 

624 
DecUriones, 101, 591, 

596,604,609,623 
Dedicatio templi, 568 
Definitiones, 388 
Defrutum, 631 
Delectus, 603 
Deliberationes, 323 
Delubrum, 559 
Denarius, 84, 598 
Dentale, 596 
Dentata charta, 71 
Deportatio, 593 
Designatores, 578 
Detestatio sacrorum, 

623 
Devotio, 569 
Devovere, 569 
Dexter, 563 
Dianus, 409 
Diaria, 71 

Dicere diem, 592, 602 
Dictator, 582 
Dies comitiales, 589, 

festi, fasti &Ci 571 



Diespiter, 412 
Diffarreatio, 622 
Digesta, 388 
Digitus, 600 
Dii majorum et mino* 

rum gentium, 403 
Diis Manibus, 560 
Dimensum, 607 
Dionysia, 426 
Dioscuri, 455 
Dioscuria, 455 
Diosemeia, 310 
Diota, 632 
Diphthera, 71 
Diploma, 34, 71 
Dme,563 
Disci, 560 
Diribitores, 590 
Disci jactus, 573 
Diverbia, 283 
Diurna, 369 
Divoftia, 622 
Divus, 640 • 

Dodrans, 598 
Dolabra, 597 
Dolia, 631 
Dominus, 623 
Domus, 625 
Dona, 638 
Dona militaria, 607 
Donaria, 559 j 
Donatio, 600 
Donativa, 607 
Dryades, 444 
Duces, 619 

Duodena scripta, 631 
Duplicarii, 607 
Duumviri, 568, 583, 

591, 594, 616 
Dux, 611 
Dyndymena, 410 

E. 

Edicta, 594 

Edictum, 391, 580, 588 
Editiones Principes, 

394 
Editor, 574 
Egeria, 559 
Elatio, 637 
Eleusinia, 428 
Elysium, 416 
Emporetica charta, 71 
Emptio sub Corona, 60O 
Enceladus, 443 
Encaustum, 33 
Enyalius, 421 
Ephemerides, 71 
Ephebium, 140 
Ephialtes, 443 
Ephippia, 597 
Epibatas, 616 
Epilaenia, 426 
Epistola, 71 
Epitaphium, 639 
Epithalamia, 622 
Epulae, 563 
Epulares, 564 
Epulones, 560,563 
Epulum Jovis, 572 
Equites, 612, 634 
Equo publico merere^ 

588 
Erato, 445 
Erigone, 435 
Erycina, 422 
Essedae, 523 
Essedarii, 574 
Etymologicum mag 3 

num,219 
Euripus, 578 
Euryale, 449 



732 



INDEX OP LATIN WORDS. 



Eurus, 433 
Euterpe, 445 
Evocati, 612 
Excubia, 612 
Exercitus, 613 
Exilium, 593 
Exodia, 286 
Exostra, 576 
Expediti, 609 
Exponere infantem, 

622 
Exsculpta gemma?, 112 
Exsequia, 637 
Exta muta, 563 
Extispices, 563 
Extraordinarii, 582,610 

F. 

Fabiani,565 
Fabri, 610 
Fabrica, 610 
Fabr&m, 584 
Factiones, 573 
Falarica, 614 
Falces murales, 614 
Falcifer, 407 
Falsi crimen, 593 
Falx, 597 
Fama, 436 

Familia, 620, 623, 624 
Fanatici, 570 
Fanum, 570, 559 
Far, Farina, 596 
Fasces, 579 
Fascia, 636 
Fascinatio, 570 
Fascinum, 437, 570 
Fascinus, 282, 437 
Fasti Capitolini, 80 
Fasti dies, 571 
Fasti Magistratuum, 

366 
Fastigium, 626 
Fauna, 449 
Faunalia, 571, 572 
Faunus, 449 
Febris, 440 
Februa, 416 
Februatio, 571 
Feciales, 560, 564 
Femoralia, 636 
Fenestras, 625 
Feralia, 571 
Ferentarii, 608 
Feretrius, 412 
Feria, 571, 653 
Feronia, 438 
Ferrea manus, 616 
Ferrum vivum, 386 
Ferula, 593 
Festi dies, 571 
Festum mercatorum, 

572, 425 
Fibula, 607 
Fides, 440 
Fides Graca, 487 
Fidicines, 567 
Figlina, 90 
Fiscina, 631 
Fiscus, 595 
Flagellis, 593 
Flagellum, 593, 597 
Flaminia, 566 
Flaminica, 565 
Flamines,560,564,634 
Flaminii, 566 
Flammeum luteum, 

621 
Flora, 437 

Floralia, 438, 572, 575 
Focus, 6^6 



Foedera Regum, 367 

Foederata civitates, 
591 

Foenum, 596 

Folium, 71 

Fontinalia, 572 

Fora, 658 

Foramina, 616 

Fordicidia, 572 

Fordo, 572 

Forfex, 608 

Fori, 573 

Fortuna, 436 

Fortuna virilis, 572 

Foruli, 75 

Forum, 592, 638, 658 

Forus, 631 

Fossa, 612 

Franum, 597 

Fratres Arvales, 68, 
566 

Fraus, 440 

Frigidarium, 139 

Fritillus, 631 

Frontes, 70 

Frumentarii, 611 

Fucus, 637 

Fulcra, 629 

Fulguratores, 563 

Fumarium, 632 

Funambuli, 574 

Funditores, 609 

Funes, 616 

Funus indictivum pub- 
licum, 638 

Furiae, 447 

Furinalia, 447, 572 

Fustuarium, 607 



Gaia, 409 
Galea, 606 
Galericulum, 636 
Galerus, 562, 606 
Galli, 410, 565 
Gallinarii, 624 
Gallinarium, 627 
Gallus, 562 
Gausape, 140 
Gemmae, 108 
Gemmae diaglyphicae, 

insculptae, 112 
Gemma Veneris, 110 
Gemonia, 593 
Genethliaci, 570 
Genii, 447 

Genio indulgere, 447 
Gens, 620 
Gens togata, 633 
Gladiatores, 574 
Gladius, 606 
Gladius et hasta, 580 
Globus, 608 
Glossa Sacra, 2f8 
Glutinatores, 70 
Grammaticus, 332 
Gradivus Mars, 421 
Graphium, 70 
Gratiae, 445 
Greges, 573 
Grex, 285 
Gromatice, 358 
Grus, 614 
Gubernaculum, 616 
Gubernator, 616 
Gustus, Gustatio, 630 
Guttus, 560 
Gymnasia, 37, 45, 73 



H 

Habenae, 597 



Hades, 416 
Halcyoneus, 443 
Hamadryades, 444 
Harioli, 570 
Harpagones, 616 
Harpocrates, 442 
Haruspices, 560, 563 

568 
Hasta pura, 607 
Hasta sanguinea, 564 
Hastati, 603, 606, 608 

612 
Hasta velitaris, 606 
Hasta, venire sub, 60C 
Hebe, 413 
Hecate, 418 
Heliotropia, 111 
Helius, 430 
Hemina, 601 
Hercules, 453 
Hermae, 437 
Hermanubis, 442 
Hermeracles, 113 
Hermes, 93, 113 
Hexapla, 271 
Hilaria, 410, 566, 571 
Hippodromi, 660 
Hippona, 438 
Hippocrene, 445 
Histriones, 282, 638 
Hocage, 568 
Holocaustum, 568 
Homeromastrix, 215 
Honor, 440 
Honorati, 580 
Horae, 446, 570, 435 
Hora hiberna, brevis- 

sima, 570 
Hordeum, 596 
Hortator, 616 
Hortus, 627 
Horus, 441 
Hospes, 630 
Hostia, 567 
Humanitatis studia, 

18,73 
Hydra, 450 
Hygeia, 435 
Hyperion, 442 
Hypocaustum, 139 
Hypogaa, 639 



Iapetus, 442 
Iaspis, 111 
Idalia, 422 
Ignigena, 426 
Ignis, 429 

Ignominia, 582, 593 
Ilithyia, 419 
Imagines, 93, €38 
Imagines clypeatae, 93 
Immolare, 568 
Impedimenta, 611 
Imperator, 589 
Imperiu m, 617 
Impluvium, 626 
Inanes tumuli, 639 
Inaures, 637 
Indigetes, 404 
Inducula, 575 
Indusium, 633 
Infamia, 593 
Inferiae, 640 
Ingenui, 620 
Inscriptio, 47 
Insigne, 6J6 ' 

Instita, 634 
Institutiones, 388, 393 
Insula, 626 
Intercedere, 581 



Intercisi dies, 571 

Intercolumnia, 134 

Interdictus, 593 

Interrex, 583 

Invidia, 440 

Iris, 433 

Irpex, 597 

Isia, 441 

Isis, 441 

Itineraria picta, &c. 

361 
Itio in partes, 588 



Jactus Veneris, 631 

Jaculatores, 609 

Janua, 409, 626 

Janus, 409, 598 

Janus bifrons, 598 

Judices assessores, 591 

Judicia, 323, 591 

Jugarii, 624 

Jugerum, 601 

Jugum, 596, 597 

Julii, 565 

Juno, 412, 571, 572 

Junonalia, 413 

Jupiter, 410, Termina- 
lis, 437, Latiaris, 
618 

Juramentum, 569 

Jurare conceptis ver- 
bis, 569 

Jura provinciarum, 
praefecturarum, 
690 

Juris interpretes, 581 

Jus honorarium, 580, 
594 

Jushospitii, 630 

Jus militia, 602 

Jus imaginum, 585 

Jusjurandum, 569 

Jus Papirianum, 389 
Flavianum, 389 
/Elianum, 389 
Pontificium, 571 
auiritium, 590,621 
Latii or Latinita- 

tis, 590 
Civitatis &c. 590 

Juturna, 438, 440 

Juvenales, 755 



Kalendarium, 571 



Labarum, 604 
Labrum, 140 
Lacerna, 634 
Lachesis, 446 
Lachryma, 639 
Laconicum, 140 
Lacuna, 212 
Lacunaria, 137 
Lacus, 631 
Lana, 562, 565, 634 
Lancea, 606 
Lances, 560,629 
Lanista, 574 
Lapis specularis, 625 
Laquearia, 626 
Lararium, 448 
Lares, 443, 626 
Lares Prastites, 572 * 
Larix, 123 
Larvae, 447 
Laterculus, 611 
Lateres coctiles, 596 
Lacticlavia, 632 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



733 



iLatona, 434 
Latus clavus, 588 
JLaudatio, 323,325,638 
Laudationes funebres, 

367 
Lavacrum. 140 
Lavatio Matris Deo- 

rum, 571 
Laverna, 43S 
Lecti, 627 
Lectica, 638 
Lectisternia, 563 
Lectus feralis, 637 
Lectus summits, me- 

dius, imus, 629 
Legati, 584, 611 
Legem accipere, jube- 
re, abrogare, &c. 
594 
Leges asrariae &c. 594 

regias, 367, 389 
Legis actiones, 389 
Legitimus, 623 
Le mures, 447 
Lemuria," 572 
Lethuin, 449 
Leucanthes, 407 
Lex annalis, 579 
Atinia, 594 
Furia, 594 
Poppasa, 621- 
Porcia, 617 
Julia 621 
Liber, 426 
Liberalia, 571 
Liber, Libellus, 71 
Liberti, Libertini, 620 
Libitinarius, 637 
Libra, 597, 601 
Libra, 598 
Libraria, 71 
Librarii, 71, 611 
Libri fatales, 158 
Lintei, 366 
Elephantini, 659 
Liburnicae, 617 
Lictores, 579, 583 
Ligo, 597 

Ligula, 560, 601, 636 
Limbus, 634 
Linguis favete, 568 
Lino obligare, 71 
Linum, 596 
Litare, 563 
Liters, 71 
Liters, minutae, 69 

majusculs, 30 
unciales, 60 
Literati &. Literatores, 

73, 332 
Litui, 604 
Lituus, 54, 116, 560, 

562, 606 
Lixae, 610 
Loculamenta, 75 
Loculus, 71 
Locus consularis, 629 
Lora subjugia, 597 
Lorica, 93, 606 
Lucaria, 571 
Lucerne, 627 
Luci, 559, 659 
Lvcina, 413, 419 
Lucta, 573 
Luctus publicus, 640 
Ludii, 638 
Ludi, Apollinares,418, 

572, 575 
Ludi circenses, 342, 

572, 573 
Ludi scenici, 67 



Ludi osci, 283 

seculares, 418, 573 
magni, 572, 573 • 
plebeii, 572, 575 
gladiatorii, 574 
florales, 575 
megalenses, 575 
capitolini, 575 
votivi, 575 
funebres, 640 

Ludus, 574 

Ludus Magnus &c. 660 

Ludus Trojae, 573 

Luna, 432 

Lunalici, 570 

Luna patricia, 636 

Lunata acies, 616 
pellis, 636 

Lupercalia, 434, 565, 
571 

Luperci, 560, 565 

Lustrationes, 569 

Lustrum, 569 

Lychnis, 110 

Lychnuchus, 627 

Lydius lapis, 597 

Lyrnphati, 570 

M 

Maccus, 286 
Mactare, 568 
Magi, 343 

Magister collegii, 562 
auctionum, 600 
convivii, 630 
equitum, 582, 619 
militia?, 619 
navis, 616 
publicanorum, 595 
peditum, 619 
officiorum, 581,618 
publicus, 563 
libellorum, 391 
Magistratus, 582 

Maimactes, 572 

Majestatis crimen,584, 
592 

Mala, 630 

Malleoli, 614 

Malleus, 129, 560 

Malus, 616 

Mamurius, 565 

Manceps portuum, 595 

Mancipatio, 600 

Mancipia, 620 

Mandata, 594 

Manes, 447, 640 

Mangones, 624 

Mania, 447 

Manicae, 593 

Manicula, 596 

Manipulus, 603, 604 

Mansio, 611 

Mantilia, 629 

Manumissio, 623, 652 

Manus ferreag, 6^6 

Mappa, 629 

Marculi, 626 

Margines, 656 

Marra, 597 

Mars, 421 

Martiales, 575 

Mathematici, 570 

Matralia, 572 

Medecina, 384 

Medicamina, 637 

Meditrinalia, 572 

Medusa, 449 

Megara, 447 

Megalenses, 575 

Megalesia, 410, 572 

Melinum, 122 

63 



Mellona, 438 
Melpomene, 445 
Membrana, 71 

bicolor, 33 
Mensas, 627, 629 
Mensarii, 595 
Mensa sacra, 559 
Mephitis, 440, 654 
Mercatores, 595 
Mercatorum festum, 

425 
Mercurius, 424 
Metae, 573 
Metatores, 610 
Militias jus, 590, 602 
Milliare, 601 
Milliarium aureum, 

656 
Millies &c. 600 
Mimographi, 287 
Minerva, 420 
Minimi, 82 
Minium, 33, 70, 637 
Ministri, 566, 567 
Mirmillones, 574 
Miscellanei dei, 404 
Missilia, 81 
Modius, 601, 616 
Mola salsa, 568 
Molybdis, 616 
Moneta, 413, 572, 598 
Monilia, 637 
Monopodium, 629 
Mons Palatinus &c. 

657 
Monumenta, 639 
Morbus articularis, 297 
Morpheus, 449 
Mors, 449, 593 
Motoria?, 286 
Mulciber, 424 
Mulcta, 593J 
Mullei, 636 
Munera, 574, 638 
Munia pacis & belli, 

585 
Municipia, 590 
Murex, 633 
Murrha, or Murrhi- 
num, 111, 596, 633 
Musculi, 613 
Mnsivum opus, 94 
Mustum, 631 
Mystagogi, 343, 567 
Mythi, 399 

N 
Namia, 291, 638 
Naiades, 444 
Natalitia vota, 568 
Naturalis, 623 
Naumachia, 573, 660 
Nautea, 616 
Naves onerarise, lon- 

gae, rostratse &x. 

617 
Navis praetoria, 616 
Necessitatis inventa, 4 
Nefasti, 571 
Negotiatores, 595 
Nemesis, 435 
Neptunalia, 414, 572 
Nereides, 414, 444 
Nervus, 593 
Nidi, 75 

Nobilitas Romana, 586 
Nomen, 620 
Norma, 129 
Nota censoria, 582 
Notae, 389 

Nota; Tironianae, 70 
Nota interior, 632 



Notarii, 35, 71, 583 

Notus, 433 

Novel le, 383 

Novi homines, 586 

Nox, 433 

Nubentis utensilia,622 

Numerus legitimus, 

588 
Numismata maximi 

moduli, 81 
Nummi contorniati,81 
Nummu'arii, 598 
Nummus, 598 
Nundinae, 571 
Nuptialis cosna, 622 
Nymphsa, 660 
Nymphffium, 444 

O 

Obolus, 417 
Obsecrationes, 567 
Obsidianum, 117 
Obsignare, 71 
Occa, 597 
Occator, 438 
Occatores, 624 
Oceanus, 414, 442 
Ocrea?, 575, 606 
Ocypeta, 447 
Odea, 133, 660 
Odrysius, 421 
Olhe extares, 560 
Onager, 614 
Onyx, 111 
Opalia, 572 
Opalus, 111 
Opeconsiva, 572 
Opera committere, 73 
Opigena, 413 
Opiliones, 624 
Opisthographus, 71 
Ops, 409 
Oppidum, 553 
Optio, 604 
Optiones, 608 
Opus incertum, 578 
Orbis, 6H 
Orchestra, 132, 576 
Orcus, 416 
Ordines, 132 
Ordinibus compressis, 

608 
Ordo equester, 586 
Ordo plebeius, 585 
Oreades, 444 
Osci ludi, 283 
Oscines, 562 
Oscophoria, 426 
Osiris, 441 
Ossilegium, 639 
Ostiarius, 624 
Otus, 443 
Ova, 630 
Ovatio, 618 
Ovile, 590 



Pabulum, 438 
Psdagogi, 623 
Paenula, 634 
Paging, 70, 71 
Palaestra, 133 
Palassius, 110 
Pales, 438 
Palilia, 438, 472 
Palimpsesti, 59, 71 
Palla, 634 
Palladium, 420, 429 
Palliatse, 93, 283, 285 
Palliati, 633 
Palmus, 6^1 
Paludamentum, 634 



734 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Paludatae, 93 

Pan, 434 

Panajtolium, 520 

Panathenasa, 420 

Pancratium, 497 

Pandectas, 393 

Panes, 449 

Pantheon, 658 

Pantomimi, 287 

Pappus, 286 

Papyri, 62 

Paralus, 683 

Parcae, 446 

Pares, impares, tibia?, 
576 

Parma, 575, 606 

Parricidii, 593 

Passus, 601 

Patera, 637 

Paterae, 97, 413, 560 

Pater fiduciarius, 623 
" patratus, 564 

Patres minorum genti- 
um, 585 

Patres conseripti, 588 

Patricii, 585 

Patrinas, 629 

Patron us, 592 

Pavimenta tessalata, 
625 

Pax, 440, 571 

Pecudes, 598 

Peculates, 592 

Peculium castrense 607 

Pecunia, 598 

Fecus turpe, 7 

Pedes, 616 

PedicjB, 593 

Pedites, 612 

Pegasus, 451 

Pelops, 456, 452 

Peloria, 409 

Penates, 448 

Penicillus, 33, 123 

Penna, 33 

Ferduellionis, 592 

Peregrini, 590 

Peregrini dii, 404 

Pergamena, 71 

Pergulae, 73 * 

Perioaci, 516 

Peristylium, 133 

Perones, 636 

Perpendiculum, 129 

Perpetuas quaestiones, 
591 

Perseus, 452 

Ferticas, 597 

Pervigilationes, 290 

Pes, 601 

Pessinuntia, 410 

Petasus, 425, 636 

Petaurista, 574 

Petitio, 592 

Petitor, 522 

Phalarse, 607 

Phaseli, 617 

Phengites,625 

Phialae, 633 

Philvrae, 70 

Fhcebe, 419 

Piaculum, 569 

Pierus, 445 

Pietas, 440 

Pila, 606 

Pilentum, 597 

Pileus, 625, 636 

Pilumnus, 438 

Pilus primus, 604 

Pinarii, 566 

Piscina mirabilis, 627 

!?lagii, 593 



Plagulae, 70 
Plaustra, 597 
Plebiscita,5Sl, 589, 594 
Plebs, 585 
Pleiades, 424 
Plutei, 613 
Pluto, 416 
Plutus, 436 
Pocula fagina, vitrea, 

&c. 633 
Podium, 578 
Poecile, 134, 673, 678 
Poetarium, 366 
Polias Minerva, 420 

672 
Policem premebant, 

vertebant, 575 
Pollinctores, 637 
Polyhymnia, 445 
Pomona, 437 
Pompa circensis, 573 
Pons Milvius, 637 
Pontes, 590 
Ponticuli, 590 
Pontifex Maximus,562 
Pontifices, 562 
Popae, 560, 567 
Popularia, 578 
Populum calare, 564 
Populus, 585 
Porta praetoria, decu- 

mana, &c. 612 
Porta Carmentalis, 

&c. 6517 
Porta salutaris, 436 
Portenta, 562 
Porticus, 134 ; millia- 

rias, 660 
Portisculus, 616 
Portorium, 595 
Portumnalia, 572 
Portumnus, 444 
Postcenium, 576 
Postridiani, 571 
Potamides, 444 
Potitii, 586 
Praecinctiones, 133, 

578 
Praecones, 583 
Praedes, 592, 595 
Praefecti, 610 
Praefecturae, 591 
Fraefectus .<Egypti,619 

" annonae, 

583, 594 

" morum, 582 

" classis, 614 

" praetorii, 

618, 619 
Praefectus urbis, 583, 

619 
Praeficae, 638 
Praefericula, 560 
Praemia minora, 607 
Praenomen, 620 
Praesides, 619 
Praestigiatores, 574 
Praesul, 565 
Praetextatae,283 
Praetor, 580, 592 
Fraetorium, 612 
Prandium, 629 
Prata, 596 
Precationes, 567 
Precum arbitri, 581 
Prelum, 631 
Priapus, 437 
Frincipes,603, 606, 608, 

612 
Principia, 612 
Proconsul, 583, 619 
Procurator, 574 



Procurator Caesaris, 

584 
Prodigia, 562 
Prodigiatores, 563 
Professores, 73 
Profesti, 571 
Froficere in profluen- 

tum, 593 
Propraetor, 584 
Proquaestor, 584 
Prora, 616 
Proreta, 616 
Proscriptio, 600 
Proscenium, 576 
Provinciae, 591 
Prytaneum, 510 
Psylli, 695 
Publicani, 595 
Publicum, 595 
Pugilatus, 573 
Pugillares, 71 
Pugnae simulacra, 640 
Pulli, 563 
Pulpitum, 576 
Pulvinaria, 567, 597 
Pulvinus, 139 
Functum (omne tulit), 

590 
Puppis, 616 
Purpura, 70 
Puteal,658 
Futiculae, 639 
Fylae Caspiae, 687 
Pyra, 638 
Fyrakmon, 423 

a. 

Quadrans, 83, 139, 598 
auadrantal, 632 
Quadratae literae, 30 
Quadrigae, 597 
Quadrigati, 81 
Cluadriremes, 617 
Quaesitores, 591 
Quaestiones, 591 
Gluaestores, 581 
Gluaestorium, 612 
Quaestor sacri palatii, 

581, 619 
Quartarius, 601 
auaternio, 34, 631 
auinarius, 84, 598 
auincunx, 598, 608 
Quindecemviri, 566, 

569 
Quingenaria, 604 
Quinquatria, 420, 495, 

571, 572 
Quinquernia, 568 
Quinquevirr, 583 
Quintiliani, 565 
Quintana via, 612 
Quirinalia, 571 
Quirinus Mars, 421 
Quiritium jus, 590 
<» 

R. 

Rallum, 596 
Ramentum, 71 
Rastrum, 597 
Rectae viae, 608 
Rector, 616 
Recuperatores, 592 
Regia, 562, 564 
Regina Sacrorum, 564 
Regula, 129 
Relegatus, 593 
Religio, 557 
Religione solvere, 569 
Religiosi dies, 571 
Remancipatio, 622 
Remi, Remiges, 616 



Repetundarum cri- 
men, 592 

Repositoria, 630 

Repotia, 622 

Repudium, 622 

Rescripta, 594, 391 

Rescriptus Codex, 61 

Responsa, 388 

Res privataa, 600 

Respublica, ne quid 
detrimenti capiat, 
583, 589 

Retiarii, 574 

Reus, 592 

Rex sacrorum, 560, 564 
" sacrificulns, 564 

Rhamnensis, 584 

Rhea, 409 

Rheda, 597 

Rica, Ricinium, 634 

Robigalia, 572 

Rogatio, 592 

Rogus, 638 

Rorarii, 608 

Rosa, sub, 536 

Rostra, 616, 638, 658 

Rubacellus, 110 

Rubescens, 95 

Rubrica, 33, 70 

Rudentes, 616 

Rudera, 656 

Runcatores, 624 

Runcina, 438 

Rusticanus (sermo) 68 

S 
Saburra, 616 
Sacella, 559 
Sacerdotes, 567 
Sacramentum 602 
Sacrincia, 567 
Sagittarii, 609 
Sagum, 634 
Saligenita, 423 
Salii, 421, 560, 565 
Saltus, 573 
Salus, 434 
Sandapila, 638 
Sapa, 631 
Sapphirus, 110 
Sarcinas, 611 
Sarcophagus, 639 
Sarculum, 597 
Sarda, 111 
Satisdare, 592 
Sator, 407 
Satura, 295 ^ 

Saturnalia, 336, 409, 

572 
Saturnia, 407 
Saturnus, 407 
Satyrus, 295 
Scabella, 626 
Saxo Tarpeio dejicV 

re, 593 
Scalae, 578, 593, 613 
Scalmus, 616 
Scalper, 129 
Scalpium, 129 
Scapus, 70 
Scaraba?i, 113 
Scena, 576 
Scenici, 67, 282 
Schedae, 70 
Schola Romana, 73 
Scholar, 73, 139, 6lB 
Scorpio, 614 
Scribae, 583, 611 
Scrinium, 71 
Scriptores historice At&- 

gustce, 382 
Scriptorium, 35 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



735 



Scriptura, 595 

Scrupulum, 84 

Sculptura, 90 

Scutica, 593 

Scutum, 575, 606 

Scyphi, 633 

Secespit®, 560 

Sectio, 600 

Securi percutere, 593 

Securis, 560, 579, 597 

Secutores, 574 

Sedilia, 616 

Segetia, Seia, 438 

Selecti, 404 

Sella, 579, 627 

Sella curulis, 565, 5S1, 
586 

Sella portatoria, 586 

Sembella, 598 

Sementina, 571 

Semis, 598 

Semones, 404 

Senatus auctoritas, 
588 
" consultum, 

588, 594 
" de Baccha- 
nalibus, 80 

Sententiae Receptae, 
388 

Sentina, 616 

Sepia, 70 

Septa, 590 

Septunx, 598 

Serae, 626 

Serapea, 442 

Serapis, 442 

Septemviri, 563 

Septicollis, 553, 657 

Sepulchrum, 639 

Seres, 634 

Sermo urbanus, 68 

Serra, 129, 603 

Serrati,81 

SerTitus, 593 

Servus admissionalis, 
cubicularius &c. 624 

Sestertius, 84, 598 

Sestertium, 598 

Sextans, 83, 598 

Sextarius, 601 

Sicarios, crimen in- 
ter, 593 

Siclus, 84 

Sigilla, 93, 116 

Sigma, 629 

Signa, 562, 604 

Signatorii, 116 

Signiferi, 604 

Sifeni, 449 

Simpulum,560 

Sinister, 563 

Sinopis pontica, 122 

Sirennusae, 444 

Sitella, 590, 

Smaragdus, 110 

Smegmata, 637 

Smintheus, 418 

Socci, 636 

Socii, 610 

Sodales Titii, 566 

Sodalitates, 565 

Sol, 430 

Solaria, 570 

Solarium, 626 

Soleae, C36 

Solennia, 567 

Solidus, 598 

Solvere epist ias, 71 

Somnus, 448 

Soracte, 438 

Soranus, 416 



Sors, 598 
Sortes, 570 
Sortilegi, 570 
Sortitio, 590 
Spathae, 606 
Spectabiles, 333 
Spectacula, 573 
Specula, 625, 637 
Specularia, 625 
Spes, 440 
Sphaeristerium, 133, 

140 
Spina circi, 573 
Spinellus, 110 
Spoliarium, 578 
Spondae, 629 
Sponsalia, 621 
Sponsio, 621 
Sportula, 631 
Spurius, 623 
Stadium, 133, 601, 660 
Stapiae, 597 
Stata, 567 
Statariae, 286 
Statio, 612 
Stator, 412 
Statuae iconicae, 93 
Statuaria, 90 
Statumen, 656 
Statumina, 616 
Stega, 616 
Sterculinus, Stercu- 

tius, 407, 438 
Stheno, 449 
Stibadium, 629 
Stipendium, 606 
Stipulatio, 621 
Stiva, 596 
Stola, 634 
Stragula, 629 
Strangulate, 593 
Strategematlca, 359 
Strenae, 571 
Strenua, 440 
Strigiles, 140, 639 
Stroppi, 616 
Structor, 630 
Studia humauitatis, 

18,73 
Stylus, 70 
Subcenturio, 604 
Subdivale, 626 
Subitarii, 603 
Subligaculum, 575 
Subscriptio, 71 
Subsignani, 604 
Subucula, 634 
Succina, 633 
Sudatorium, 140 
Sudes, 612, 614 
Sugaestus, 658 
Suile, 627 
Summanus, 416, 447, 

572 
Suovetaurilia, 569 
Supplicationes, 567, 

617 
Supplicia, 567 
Surculi, 70 
Sylvae, 315 
Symbola, 612, 637 
Syngrapha, 71 

T 
Tabellae, 590 

" legitimae, 621 
Tabellarius, 71 
Tabemariae, 285 
Tabula auctionaria, 
600 
" lusoria, 631 
Tabulae. 123 



Tabulae ceratae, 70 
" votivae, 568 
" Eugubinae,80 

Tabulariae, 658 

Tabularium, 588, 658 

Taenia, 616 

Talaria, 71, 425 

Talentum, 598 

Tali, 570, 631 

Talio, 593 

Tantalides, 456 

Tartarus, 416 

Tatiensis, 584 

Tecta laqueata, 137 

Tegulae, 626 

Teiorum Dirae, 49 

Tellus, 409 

Temo, 596, 597 

Templa, 559, 562 

Tepidarium, 139 

Terebra, 129, 614 

Termiualia, 437, 571 

Terminus, 93, 437 

Ternio, 631 

Teruncius, 598 

Tesselatum, 94, 625 

Tessera, 612, 630 

Tesserae, 631 

Tesserarii, 613 

Testa, 632 

Testamenta, 600 

Testudo, 527, 611, 
613 

Thalia, 445 

Theatra, 660 

Theca calamaria, 71 

Themis, 435 

Thensa, 597 

Theriotrophium, 627 

Thermae, 628, 660 

Theseus, 454, 699 

Thoraces, 93 

Thorax 606, 

Thraces, 574 

Thuribulum 560 

Thyrsiger, 426 

Thyrsus, 426 

Tibiae, dextrae, sin- 
istrae, 576 

Tibialia, 636 

Tibicines, 567, 606 

Tintinnabula, 626 

Tisiphone, 447, 

Titaea, 407 

Titanides, 407, 442 

Tituli, 392 

Titulus, 47, 639 

Toga, 579, 633 

" praetexta, 562, 

564, 565, 580, 

581, 618, 633 

" pulla, 633 

" virilis, 633, 636 

Togatae, 93, 283, 285 

Tocati, 633 

Tollere infantem, 622 

Tomentum, 629 

Topiarii, 627 

Torcular, 631 

Torcularium, 631 

Toreumata, 633 

Torques aureae, 637, 
607 

Trabea, 562, 618 

Trabeatae, 285 

Tragularii, 609 

Traha, 597 

Tralatitia, 580 

Transtra, 616 

Transvectio, 588 

Triarii, 603,606, 608, 
C12 



Tribula, 597 

Tribunal, 5S0, 590, 
612, 658 

Tribuni militum,583 
" plebis, 581 

Tribus, urbanae, rus- 
ticae, 584 

Tributa, 595 

Tributa comitia, 593 

Triclinium, 626, 629 

Tridens, 574 

Triens, 83, 598 

Trieterica, 426 

Triga, 597 

Trinundinum, 594 

Tripes, 629 

Triplex acies, 611 

Tripodes, 560 

Tripudium, 116, 563 

Triremes, 617 

Triticum, 596 

Tritonia, 420 

Triumphalis lex, 617 

Triumphus, 617, 6l£ 

Triumviri, 583, 59fci 

Trivia, 419 

Tropsea, 661 

Trutins, 598 

Tubs, 560, 604 

Tubilustrium, 571, 573 

Tudes, 129 

Tullianum, 593 

Tunica, 633 

" laticlavia, 588 
" angusticlavia, 
588 

Tumultuarii, 603 

Tumulus, 639 

Tunicatse, 285 

Turmae, 604, 609 

Turricula, 631 

Turris, 611, 614 

Tutela, 616 

Tutelarii, 101 

Tympana, 597 

Typhon, 443 

U 
Udones, 636 
Ultimum, 589 
Umbilici, 70 
Uncise. 598 
Unctuarium, 140 
Unio, 631 
Uragus, 604, 609 
Urania, 445 
Uranus, 407, 430 
Urbs, 553 
Urceus, 560 
Urius Jupiter, 50 
Urna,601 

" feralis, 639 
Urnas lachrymales, 630 
Ustrina, Ustrinura, 639 
Usucapio, 600, 621 
Usura, 598 
Usurpatio, 622 
Usus, 621 
Utensilia, 622 
Utres, 632 
Uxor, 622 



Vacatio honorata, 603 
Vacuna, 440 
Vades, 592 
Valetudinarium, 623 
Vallonia, 438 
Vallum, 612 
Vasa murrhina, 59f3 
Vasa sacra, 560 
Vasa sculpta, 633 



736 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Vaticinatores, 570 
Vectigalia, 595 
Vehas, 597 
Vejovis, 412 
Vela, 616 
Velats, 93 
Velitea, 603, 606, 608 
Vellum, 71 
Venalitiarii, 624 
Venatio, 573 
Veneficii crimen, 593 
Ventus textilis, 634 
Venus, 422, 631 
Veneralia, 572 
Verbera, 593 
Vermiculatum, 94 
Verns, 620 
Versus Fescennini, 

282 
Vertumnus, 437 
Veruculum, 123 
Vespillones, 638 



Vesta, 428, 572, 559 
Vestales, 429, 560, 566 
Vestalia, 571, 572 
Vestes Cos, Series, 

634 
Vestis stragula, 597 
Vestibulum, 626, 637 
Veto, 581 
Vexillarii, 604 
Vexillationes, 619 
Vexillum, 604, 607 
Vexillum purpureum, 

616 
Via Sacra, Appia, etc. 

656 
Viatores, 581 
Vicarii, 333, 619 
Vicennalia, 568 
Vicesima, 595 
Victims, 567 
Victimarii, 567 
Victoria, 440 



Vicus albus, &c. 657 
Vigiles, 613 
Vigilis, 570, 612 
Villa urbana, rustica, 

&.c. 627 
Villicus, 627 
Villicus amphitheatri, 

578 
Vinalia, 572 
Vinaria cella, 632 
Vincula, 593 
Vindicatio, 592 
Vindicta, 625 
Vineae, 613 
Vinum Falernum, Cs- 

cubum, &c. 632 
Virgo, 435 

" maxima, 566 
Virgis, 593 
Viri epulares, 564 
Virtus, 440 
Visceratio, 640 



Vis publics, 592 
Vitisator, 407 
Vitrea, 596 
Vitrea specularia, 625 
Vitrum Obsidianum, 

117 
Vitta, 560, 636 
Viva voce, 600 
Vivarium, 627 
Volones, 603 
Volumina, 70 
Volusia, 438 
Vomer, 596 
Vota, 568 
Voti reus, 568 
Votivi ludi, 575 
Vulcanalia, 424, 572 
Fulcanus, 423 
Fiilpium combustio, 

428 

Z 
Zephyrus, 433 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Abana 


690 


Agathyrsi 


645 


Abdera 


'62 


Agrigentum 


€ 81 


Absynthi 


'62 


Alabanda 


'89 


Abydos 662 


687 


Alani 


'86 


Abyla '49, 


'96 


Alba Longa 


'52 


Abyssinia 


'94 


Albania 


'86 


Acarnania * 66 


'86 


AlbanisPyls 686, ' 87 


Ace, or Aco 


'90 


Albanus Lacus 


'53 


Achaia 


'76 


Albis 


'46 


Acharns 


'70 


Albulus Lacua 


'53 


Achelous 668 


682 


Alburnus 


'55 


Acheroa 


'67 


Aleria 


'80 


Aciris 


'55 


Alesia 


'47 


Acradina 


'81 


Alexandria 689 


'92 


Acritas, Prom. 


'76 


Alfenis 


'54 


Acro-Ceraunia, 


'66 


Algidum 


'52 


Aero Ceraunii, 




Allia 


'53 


Montes, 663, 666 


Allobrogea 


'47 


Acte 


670 


Alos 


'66 


Actium 


'68 


Alpes, Graiae &c. 


'47 


Actium, Prom., 


'67 


Alpheus 


'77 


Adramyttium 


'88 


Alti3 


'77 


Adrianopolis 


'62 


Am an us 


'89 


Adrumet-um 


69 


Amasia 


'88 


Adulis 


694 


Ambracia 


'67 


Mb. 


'86 


Ambracius Sinus 


'66 


yEdui 


'47 




'67 


-^Egades or iEgates 


'81 


Amida 


'87 


^Ege 


'76 


Amisus 


'88 


^Egajum Mare 663, 


'66 


Amiternum 


'52 


^Egina 676, 


'83 


Amphipolis 


c 64 


iEgissa 


'49 


Amphissa 


'69 


iEgium 


'76 


Ampsagus 


'96 


.^Egos Potamos 


'62 


Amsanctus 


'54 


iEgyptus 


'92 


Amycls 


'77 


^Egusa 


'81 


Anactorium 


'68 


^Elanites Sinus 


'91 


Anaphe 


'83 


iEnos 


'62 


Anapus 


'81 


Mnus 


'48 


Anas 


'50 


JEolis Insula? 


'81 


Anchesmua 666, 


'71 


iEolis oriEolia 


'88 


Ancona 


'52 


^Estuarium Itunae 


'80 


Ancyra 


'88 


^Ethiopia 


'94 


Andros 


'83 


^Ethria 


'82 


Angli 


'46 


yEtna 


'81 


Anio 651, 


'53 


uEtolia 


'68 


Anthela 


'69 


Africa 


'92 


Anticyra 


'69 


Interior 


'96 


Antilibanua 


'90 


Propria 


'96 


Antiochia, 





in Pisidia 689 

in Syria ' 89 

Antirrhium ' 67 

Antium ' 52 

Anxur ' 52 
Apamea 

on Rhyndacus ' 88 

on Marsyas ' 88 

Aphetse ' 66 

Apia ' 76 
Apollonia 662,663, '95 

Apulia '54 

Aquae Sextis ' 47 

Aquileia ' 51 

Aquinum ' 52 

Aquitani ' 47 

Aquitania ' 47 

Arabia ' 91 

Arabicus Sinus ' 91 

Arachosia ' 86 

Aracthus ' 67 

Aracynthus ' 86 

Aragus ' 87 

Arar ' 47 

Ararat ' 87 
Araxes or Phasis 

686, ' 87 

Arbela ' 91 

Arbiti Montes ' 84 

Arcadia ' 77 

Arcati Regio '84 

Ardea ' 52 

Arduenna Sylva ' 47 

Arethon ' 67 

Argsus Mons ' 89 

Argia ' 76 

Argos, in Argolis ' 76 
Amphilochius ' 68 

Aria ' 86 

AriaPalus '86 

Arimathea '90 

Ariminum ' 51 

Armenia ' 87 

Armorica ' 47 

Arnus ' 51 

Arpi ' 54 

Arpinum ' 52 
Arsinoe 692, 693, ' 95 

Arsissa Palus '87J 



Artabrum Prom. 650 
Artacoana ' 86 

Artaxata ' 87 

Artemisium ' 83 

Arze « 87 

Ascanius * 54 

Ascra ' 70 

Asia ' 83 

Asia Minor 687 

Aspendus * 89 

Asphaltites Lacu9 

690, ' 91 
Assyria ' 91 

Astaboraa ' 94 

Atalanta '69 

Aternum ' 55 

Athens urn Prom. ' 53 
Atliesis ' 51 

Athos ' 63 

Atinum '53 

Atlanticus Oceanus' 96 
Atlantis ' 98 

Atlas ' 96 

Atropatene ' 86 

Attica ' 70 

Aufidus ' 54 

Augusta Emerita ' 59 
Taurinorum ' 50 
Vindelicorum ' 48 
Augustodunum ' 47 
Au4is ' 70 

Aurea Chersonesus 

644, 684 
Ausonia ' 50 

Auxume ' 94 

Aventinus, &c. '57 
Avernus Lacua ' 53 
Axius ' 63 



B 



691 



Babylonia 

Bactriaua ' 86 

Bstica ' 49 

Bstis 649, ' 50 

Bagdat ' 91 

Bagradas ' 91 

Bais ' 53 
Baleares Insula? '80 

Barium ' 54 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



37 



Basanites 693 

Bastuli ■ 50 

Batavi ' 47 

Selgae ' 47 

Belgica ' 47 

Benacus ' 51 

Beneventum '54 

Bersa ' 89 
Berenice 690, 693, ' 95 

Berytus 391 

Bethsaida 690 

Bethsan ' 90 

Bibracte ' 47 

Bilbilis c 49 

Bithynia ' 83 

Bceotia ' 69 

Boii ' 51 

Boium c 68 

Bononia ' 51 
Borysthenes 645, ' 46 

Bosphorus ' 62 

Bradanus 1 55 

Brauron ' 70 

Brigantes c 79 
Brigantinus Lacus ' 47 

Britannia ' 79 
Brivates Portua ' 47 

Brixia ' 50 

Brundusium ' 54 

Bruttii ' 55 

Brifttium * 55 

Buthrotum c 66 

Buxantum ' 55 

Byrsa * 96 

Byzantium ' 62 



Cabira 689 

Cadmea e 70 

Caere * 51 

Caesar Augusta ' 49 
CEesarea 647,689, '90 

Casarea Philippi ' 90 

Caieta * 52 

Calabria 654, ' 55 

Calagurris ' 49 

Calaris ' 80 

Calauria * 83 

Calor (fl.) * 54 

Calle * 49 
Gallipolis 654, '62 

Calpas, ' 88 

Calpe ' 49 

Calycadnua ' 89 

Calydon ' 68 
Cambunii Montes 

663, ' 66 

Camerinum '51 

Camicus ' 81 

Campania ' 53 

Cana * 88 

Canae ' 90 

Canaria ' 96 

Cannas ' 54 
Canopicum Ostium, 

&c. 692 

Cantabri ' 49 

Cantii * 79 

Canusium '54 

Capernaum ' 90 

Caphareus ' 83 

Capitolinus &c ' 57 

Cappadocia '89 

Capreae ' 80 

Capsa ' 96 

Capua ' 53 

Carambis ' 88 

Carambucia ' 43 

Cardia ' 62 
Carducbi 687, ' 91 

Caria ' g9 



Carmania 686 

Carmel ' 90 

Carni '51 

Carpathus ' 83 

Carrhaj ' 91 

Carteia ' 49 

Carthago ' 96 

Carthago Nova ' 49 

Carvstus ' 83 
CasiaRegio 643, ' 84 

Casilinum ' 53 

Caspioe Pylae ' 86 
CaspiumAIare646, 686 

Cassandria ' 64 
Cassiterides 679, ' 80 

Castalia ' 69 

Castrum Minervte '54 

Catabathmus ' 92 

Catti ' 46 

Caucasus ' 86 

Caudium '54 

CaudinaeFurculaa '54 

Caulon '55 

Cayster '88 

Cebenna ' 47 

Celtee ' 47 

Celtiberi ' 49 

Celtica ' 47 

Cenchreae ' 76 

Cenomanni ' 50 

Centum Cellae '51 

Ceos ' 83 

Cephalenia ' 82 
Cephissus 669, ' 71 

Ceramicus ' 74 

Cerasus ' 88 

Cerbalus ' 54 

Chaberis ' 84 

Chalcedon ' 88 
Chalcis 664, 668, ' 82 

Chalcidice .' 63 

Chaldaea, '91 

Chalybes ' 88 

Chaonia * 66 

Charran ' 91 

Charybdis * 55 

Chelonites ' 76 

Chaeronea ' 70 
Chersonesus Cim- 

brica ' 45 

Taurica ' 45 
Aurea 644, ' 84 

Thraciae ' 62 

Cherusci ' 46 

Chios ' 82 

Choaspes ' 84 

Chrysoceraa ' 62 

Cicones '62 

Cilicia ' 89 

Cimbri ( 45 

Cimmerii ' 86 
Cimmericus Bos- 
phorus 646, ' 86 

Circeii '52 

Cirrha '69 
Cisalpina Gallia 

646, ' 50 

Gispadana '50 

Cissa ' 62 
Cithaeron 668, ' 70 

Citium ' 92 

Clanius ' 53 

Clazomenae ' 88 

Clusium '51 

Clypea « 96 

Cnemia '69 

Cnidus '89 

Cocytus ' 67 

Codanus Sinus ' 46 
Caele-Svria, or 

Caelo-Syria ' 89 

64 



686 



'89 



Colchis 
Colophon 
Comagene 
Comana 

Comaria ' 84 

Gomplutum ' 49 

Comum '51 

Consentia ' 55 

Constantinopolia ' 62 

Copais Lacus ' 70 

Coptos, ' 93 

Coracesium ' 89 

Coras ' 68 

Corcyra ' 81 

Corduba ' 49 

Corfinium ' 52 

Corinthia ' 76 
Corinthiacus Sinus 

667, ' 76 

Corinthua ' 76 

Corioli ' 52 

Coronea ' 70 

Corsica ' 80 

Corycus ' 88 

Cos « 83 

Cosetani ' 49 
Cotiaris 643, '84 

Cragus ' 89 

Crathes « 55 

Cremaste « 60 

Cremera ' 53 

Cremna « 89 

Cremona ' 50 

Creta « 83 

Crimisua ' 81 

Crissa « 69 

Crissaeus Sinus ' 67 

Cria Metophon ' 45 

Croton * 55 

Crustumerium ' 52 

Ctesiphon * 86 

Cumae « 53 

Cunaxa < 9l 

Cures « 52 

Curetea « 83 

Curia ' 48 

Custulo « 50 

Cyclades « 83 

Cydnua « 89 

Cydonia * 83 

Cyllene Mons * 77 

Cynos « 69 

Cynos Cephale ' 66 

Cyprus « 92 

Cyrenaica * 95 

Cyrene * 95 

Cyrnos * 80 

Cyropolis * 86 

Cyrus ' 86 

Cythera * 82 

Cythius Mons « 83 

Cythus ' 83 

Cytinium '69 

Cyzicas ' 87 



D 




Daci 


'649 


Dacia 


'49 


Dactyli 


'83 


Dalmatia 


'48 


Damascus 


'90 


Daphne 


'89 


Dardania 


'48 


Daunia 


'54 


Decapolis 


'90 


Decelia 


'70 


Delos 


'83 


Delphi 


'69 


Delphinum 


'70 


Delta 


'92 


Demetriaa 


'66 



86 



Derbe 688 
Deserta Libyae ' 96 

Dindymus '88 

Diospolis 690, '93 

Dirce Mons ' 70 

Dodona ' 67 

Dolonei ' 62 

Dorion ' 66 

Doris 668 

Doriscus ' 62 

Drangiana '86 

Drepanum ' 81 

Drilo ' 63 
Dromus Achillei ' 46 

Dryops ' 68 

Dulichium ' 82 

Duranius ' 47 

Durius ' 50 

Dyme '76 

Dyrrachium ' 63 

E. 

Ebal 690 

E bora cum ' 79 
Ebusus 
Ecbatana 

Echinadea '82 

Edessa 664, ' 91 

Edetani < ' 49 

Edonis '64 

Esnatia '54 

Eion ' 62 

Elataea ' 69 

Elaver , ' 47 

Elea 655, ' 88 

Elephantine ' 93 

Eleusis ' 70 

Elis ' 77 

Elymais « 84 

Elymander ' 86 

Emathia ' 64 

Emesa ' 89 

Emmaus * 90 

Ephesus '88 

Ephyra « 67 

Epidamnua ' 63 

Epidaurua 648, '67 

Epipolas '81 

Epirus ' 64, ' 66 

Equotuticum, ' 54 

Eretria « 82 

Eridanus ' 51 

Erigon ' 63 

Erineum ' 68 
Erymanthus Mons ' 77 

Erythrae ' 88 
Erythrsaum Mare ' 86 

Erytopolis ' 77 

Etruria '51 

Eubcea ' 82 

Evenus * 68 

Euganei ' 50 

Euphrates ' 91 

Euripus 667, ' 82 

Europa ' 44 

Eurotas 677, '78 

Eurymedon ' 89 

Euxinus ' 62 
Exploratio ad Mer- 

rium '96 

Ezion-Geber * 91 

F. 

Falisci 651 

Fidenaa '52 
Flanaticus Sinus '47 
Flavia Caesariensis ' 79 

Florentia ' 51 

Formiae ' 52 
Fortunatee Insula 

643, ' 96 



738 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Forum Julii ' 47 

Fossa Trajani -> ' 93 

Fretum Fossaj ' 80 

Gaditanum or 

Herculeum 650 

Siculum ' 80 

Frisii ' 46 

Fucinus Lacus '52 

G. 

Gabara 690 

Gabii ' 52 
Gadara . 690, ' 91 

Gades ' 50 

Gastulia ' 96 

Galatia ' 88 

Galesus ' 54 

Galilsea ' 90 

Gallia ' 46 

Gallorum Portus ' 49 

Ganges ' 84 

Gangeticus Sinus ' 84 

Gangra ' 88 

Garamantes * 96 

Garganus ' 54 

Gargarus ' 87 

Garumna ' 47 

Gaulon ' 91 

Gaulos « 81 

Gaza * 86 

Gedrosia '86 

Geloni « 45 

Genua ' 51 

Gersestus * 83 

Geranii Montes ' 68 

Gerizim ' 90 

Germania '45 

Superior ' 47 

Inferior « 47 
German icus Ocean- 

icus ' 46 

Getae ' 49 

Glycys Limen , ' 67 

Gnossus ' 83 

Gobseum Prom. ' 47 

Gomphi < 64 

Gonnus ' 64 

Gordium ' 88 

Gortyna ' 83 

Goshen ' 93 

Grascia 661, ' 63 

Granicus ' 87 

Grumentum ' 55 

Gyarus « 83 

Gyrtona ' 64 

Gytheum « 77 

H. 

Hadrumentum or 

Adrumetum 696 

Haemus 662, ' 63 

Halcyoneum Mare ' 67 

Halesus (river) ' 88 

Haliactnon ' 63 

Halicarnassus ' 89 

Halonnesus ' 82 

Halys < 88 

Hamaxobii ' 45 

Hebrus ' 62 
Hebrides, or Ebu- 

dffi ' 80 

Hecatompylos 686, ' 93 

Helicon ' 70 

Hellas ' 67 

Hellespontus ' 62 

Heliopolis 689, ' 93 

Helorus ' 81 

Helos ' 77 

Helvetii ' 47 

Heptanomis 692, ' 93 

Heptapylos ' 70 
Heraclea 655,662/88 



Herculaneum 653 

Herculis Prom. ' 55 
Herculis Monoeci 

Por tus 5 1 
Herculis Leburni 

Portus ' 51 
Hercynia Sylva 645' 49 

Herdonia ' 54 

Hermiones ' 46 

Hermon ' 90 

Hermunduri ' 46 

Hermus ' 88 

Heroopolis ' 93 

Heroopolites Sin. ' 91 

Heruli ' 45 
Hesperia 649, ' 50 
Hesperides ' 95, ' 96 
Hesperidum, Insu- 
la? ' 44, ' 96 

Hesperis ' 95 

Hierapolis ' 89 

Hierosolyma ' 90 

Himera (town) ' 81 

Himera (river) ' 81 

Hippo ' 55 

Hippo Regius ' 96 

Hirpini ' 54 

Hispalis ' 50 

Hispania ' 49 

Histria ' 51 

Horeb ' 91 

Hydruntum ' 54 
Hymethus 668, ' 71 

Hypanis ' 46 

Hypata ' 66 

Hyperborei ' 43 

Hyrcania ' 86 

I. 

Iberia 649, 687 

Iberus ' 50 

Icaria ' 83 

Iceni ' 79 

lchnusa ' 80 

Iconium ' 88 
Ida 683, ' 87 

Idumea ' 90 

Ierne or Hibernia, ' 80 

Ilerda 49 

Ilergetes ' 49 

Ilissus '71 

Ilium ' 87 

Illyricum ' 48 

II va ' 80 

Imaua Mons ' 43 

Imbrus ' 82 

Inachus ' 76 

India ' 84 

Indus ' 84 

Insubres ' 50 
Insulae ante Tapro- 

banam 644 

Hesperidum ' 44 

Iolchos « 66 

Ionia « 88 

Ionium Mare ' 67 

Ios ' 83 

Isaurae ' 88 



Isauria ' (!q 

Ismenus ' 70 

Issus ' 89 
Ister (Danube) ' 48 

Istria 648, ' 51 

Isurium ' 79 

Itabyrius ' 90 

Italia ' 50 

Italica ' 50 

Ithaca « 82 

Ithome ' 77 



Jabadii Insula 644, 692 



Japygia 654 

Japygium Prom. ' 86 

Jaxartes ' 86 

Joppa ' 90 

Jordan ' 90 

Jotapata ' 90 

Judeea '90 

Junonis Promont. ' 49 



Kibora 



K. 



L. 

Lacinium 

Laconia 

Laconicus Sin. 

Lagaria 

Lainia 

Lampsacus 

Laodicea 

Larissa 66( 

Larius 

Latium 

Latomae 

Laurentum 

Laurius Mons 

Laus 

Laus Sinus 

Lavinium 

Lebedsea 

Lechseum 

Leleges 

Lemanus Lacus 

Lemanis Portus 

Lemnos 

Lemnovices 

Leontium 

Leptis Magna 

Lesbos 

Leucadia 66£ 

Leucas 667, « 65 

Leucate ' 6 

Leucopetra ' 5i 

Leuctra 

Libanus 

Liburnia 

Libya 

Libyssa 

Liger 

Ligures 

Ligusticus Sinus 

Ligustides 

Lilybaeum 68( 

Lingones 

Li para 

Liris 

Liternum 

Locris 

Locri Epicnemidii 

Opuntii, Ozo- 

lae 
Londinum 
Longobardi 646, 
Lotophagi 
Lucania 
Luceria 

Lucrinus Lacus 
Lugdnuensis 
Lugdunum 
Luna 

Lunae Montes 644 
Lusitania 
Lycaonia 
Lycaeus Mons 
Lychnidus 
Lycia 
Lycus 
Lydda 
Lydia 
Lyrnessus 
Lysimachia 
Lystra 



552, 



I M. 

Macedonia 663 
Macoraba,or Mecca '91 

Macra < 51 

Madytos ( 62 

Maeander . < 88 

Maenalus Mons ' 77 

Maeonia • 88 

Maeotis Palus <43 

Magna Graecia f 53 
Magnesia 660, ' 88 
Magnum Promonto- 

rium « 84 

Magnus Sinus l 84 

Makrinoros < 68 
Malea 676, ' 77 

Malia < 66 
Maliacus Sinus 

664, 666, t 67 

Mandubii ' 47 

Mantinea '.77 

Mantua ' 50 

Maracanda '86 

Marathon ' 70 

Marcianopolis ' 49 

Marcomanni ' 46 

Mareotis ' 92 

Mariana ' 80 

Marmarica ' 95 

Marrubium ' 52 

Marsi '52 

Masius Mons '87 

Massaesili ' 96 

Massilia ' 47 

Massyli ' 9g 
Matinorum oppi- 

dum ' 80 

Mauritania ' 96 
Maxima Caesarien- 

sis ' 99 

Mazaca ' 89 

Meatae * 79 

Media ' 86 
Mediolanum 647, '50 

Megalopolis ' 77 

Megara ' 70 

Me gar is ' 70 

Melanis Sinus • 62 

Melas ' 62 

Melibcea ' 66 

Melite ' 81 

Melos ' 83 

Melpus ' 55 

Memphis ' 93 

Menapii ' 47 

Menuthias '44 
Mercurii Promon- 

torium ' 96 

Meroe ' 94 

Mesopotamia ' 91 

Messana ' 81 

Messapia ' 54 

Messembria ' 62 

Messene ' 77 

Messenia, ' 77 

Metapontum ' 55 

Metaurus ' 51 
Methone 664, ' 77 

Methymna ' 82 

Miletus ' 88 

Mimas ' 88 

Mincius ' 51 

Minturnae ' 52 

Misenum ' 53 

Mitylene '82 

Mceris ' 93 

Mcesia ' 48 

Molossis ' 67 

Mona Caesaris ' 80 

Mona Taciti ' 80 

Munda '49 

Munychia ' 75 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



739 



Muri Veteres 649 

Musaeus ' 71 

Mutina ' 51 

Mycale ' 88 

Mycenae ' 76 

Myconus ' 83 

Myoshormus ' 93 

Mvrtoum Mare ' 67 

Mysia ' 87 

N 

Naissus ' 49 

Napata ' 94 

Nar ' 51 

Narbo Martius ' 47 

Narbonensis ' 47 

Narisci ' 46 

Naulochus ' 81 

Naupactus ' 68 

Nauplia '77 

Naxos ' 83 

Nazareth ' 90 

Neaethes ' 55 
Neapolis 653, 661, ' 90 

Nemea ' 77 

Neritus ' 82 

Nervii ' 47 

Neryx ' 55 

Nessus ' 62 
Nicaea 651, ' 88 

Nicomedia ' 85 
Nicopolis 649, 688, ' 89 

Niger ' 96 

Nigritae ' 95 

Nilus ' 92 

Niniis ' 91 

Niphates ' 87 
Nisaea 670, ' 86 

Nisibis ' 91 

Nola ' 53 

Nonacris Mons ' 77 

Noricum ' 48 

Noti Coma ' 44 

Novus ' 89 

Nubia ' 94 

Numantia ' 49 

Numidia ' 96 

Nyinphaeum ' 63 



Oasis 


693, 694 


Ocha 


'83 


Ochus 


'86 


Odessus 


'49 


CEa 


'95 


CEchalia 


'77 


CEnotria 


'50 


CEta 


663, ' 67 


Olisippo 


'50 


Olympia 


'77 



Olympus 405, 411, '61 

688 

Olynthus ' 64 

Orabi '93 

One ius Mons '68 

Onion ' 93 

Opuntii ' 69 
Opuntius Sinus ' 67 

Opus ' 69 
Orbelus Mons ' 63 

Orcades ' 80 

Orcomenus 670, ' 77 

Orestis ' 66 

Oreus '82 

Oricum ' 66 

Orontes 684, ' 89 

Oropus ' 70 

Ortyeia 681, ' 83 

Ossa" ' 64 

Ostia ' 52 

Othrys Mons 664, '66 

Qxus ' 86 



Oxyrynchus 



Pachynum, or 
Pachvnus 680 

Pactolus ' 88 

Padus ' 51 

Paedum '52 

Paeonia ' 64 

Paestum '55 

Pagasae ' 66 

Paiaestiria '90 

Palmyra '90 

Pamphylia ' 89 

Pandosia '55 

Pangasus Mons ' 62 
Pannonia ' 48 

Panormus '81 

Panticapaeum ' 45 

Paphlagonia '88 

Paphos ' 92 

Pansii '47 

Parma ' 51 

Parnassus 668, ' 69 
Parnes, ' 68, ' 71 

Paropamisus '84, '86 
Paros ' 83 

Parrhasius ' 77 

Parthenius 677, '88 
Parthenope ' 53 

Parthia ' 86 

Parueti Montes ' 84 
Pasargada ' 84 

Passaro ' 67 

Patara '89 

Patavium ' 51 

Patmos '83 

Patra? '76 

Pausilypus ' 53 

Pelasgia '76 

Pelasgicus Sinus 

664, ' 66 
Pelasgiotis ' 64 

Pelion '64 

Pellene 663, ' 76 

Peloponnesus '76 

Peloriim,orPeIorus' 80 
Peneus 666, ' 77 

Pentapolis '95 

Pentelicus 668, ' 71 
Pereea ' 91 

Perga ' 89 

Pergamus 687, ' 88 

Perinthus '62 

Persepolis '84 

Persia ' 84 

Persicus Sinus 

684, 686, ' 91 
Persis '84 

Perusia ' 51 

Pesaurum '51 

Pessinus '88 

Petilia '55 

Petra 691, ' 92 

Phaacia '81 

P hal acru m P rom. ' 8 1 
Phalerum '75 

Pharos ' 92 

Pharsalia '66 

Pharsalus '66 

Phasis 686, ' 87 

Pheraj '66 

Philaenorum Area '95 
Philippi '64 

Philisteea '90 

Phlegethon '67 

Phlegra ' 63 

Phlegraei '53 

Phocis '69 

Phoenicia ' 90 

Phrygia Major ' 88 



Phrygia Minor 687 

Phylace ' 66 

Phyle, orPhule '70 

Picenum '52 

Pictones '47 

Pieria ' 64 

Pimpla '70 

Pindus 663, ' 67 

668 ; ' 69 

Piraeus ' 75 
Pisa 651, '77 

Pisidia '69 

Pistoria ' 51 

Placentia ' 51 

Plataea ' 70 

Platan ius '69 

Plemmyrium ' 81 

Plistus ' 69 

Plotae ' 82 

Pompeii ' 53 

Pons/Elii '80 

Pontus 648, '88 

Porphyrae '82 

Potidaea ' 64 

Praeneste '52 

Prasum Prom. '44 

Priene ' 88 

Prochyta ' 88 

Proconnesus ' 92 

Propontis, 662, ' 87 

Prusa ' 88 

Psylli '95 

Ptolemais Aco ' 90 

Ptolemais Hermii, ' 95 

Puteolanus Sinus ' 53 

Puteoli ' 53 

Pydna ' 64 

Pylos ' 77 



auadi 640 
auirinalis Mons ' 57 

R 

Rugae 686 

Ragusa ' 48 

Ravenna ' 51 

Reate ' 52 
Regillus Lacus ' 53 

Rha ' 46 

Rhaeteum ' 87 

Rhaetia ' 48 

Rhamnus ' 70 

Rhedones ' 47 

Rhegium ' 55 
Rhenus 646, ' 47 

Rhium ' 67 

Rhium Prom. ' 76 

Rhodanus ' 47 
Rhodope 662, ' 63 

Rhodus ' 83 

Rhyndacns ' 88 

Riduna ' 47 

Rubeas ' 43 

Rubico ' 51 

Rubricatus ' 96 

Rutuli ' 52 

Rutupiae ' 79 



S 



Sabaei 


691 


Sabatas 


'54 


Sabini 


'52 


Sabrata 


'95 


Sacae 


'86 


Sacer Mons 


'52 


Sacrum Prom. 650 


'89 


Saguntum 


'49 


Sais 


'92 


Salamis 


'83 


Salapia 


'54 



Salernum 653 

Salice ' 44 

Salmydessus '62 

Salona ' 48 

Salyes ' 47 

Samaria ' 90 

Same ' 82 

Samnis ' 54 

Samnium ' 54 

Samos ' 83 

Samosata ' 89 

Samothracia ' 82 

Sangarius ' 88 

Santones ' 47 
Santonum Portus ' 47 

Saphrae ' 45 

Sardinia ' 80 

Sardis ' 88 
Sarmatia 645, ' 86 

Sarnia ' 47 

Sarnus ' 53 
Saronicus Sinus 

667, 670, ' 76 

Saturnia ' 50 
Satyrorum Insulae ' 44 
Satyrorum Promon- 

ontorium ' 43 

Sauromatae ' 45 

Saxones ' 46 

Scamander ' 87 

Scan da '82 

Scandinavia ' 45 

Scheria ' 81 

Sciathos ' 82 

Scopelos ' 82 

Scordisci ' 48 

Scotussa ' 64 

Scylacium ' 55 

Scylla ' 55 
Scyllaeum 655, ' 76 

Scyros ' 82 

Scythia ' 84 

Sebaste ' 89 

Sebethus ' 53 

Segedunum ' 80 

Segusiani ' 47 

Seir ' 90 
Seleucia 689 ; ' 91 

Seleucis ' 89 

Selinus ' 89 

Sellasia ' 77 

Selymbria ' 62 
Senna Gallica ' 51 

Senus ' 84 

Sepias ' 66 

Sephoris ' 90 

Sequana ' 47 

Sequani ' 47 
Sera 643, ' 84 

Serica ' 84 

Seriphus ' 83 

Serus ' 84 

Sestos ' 62 

Sicambri ' 46 

Sicilia ' 80 

Sicyon ' 76 

Sicyonia ' 76 

Sidon ' 90 

Sigaeum ' 87 

Silarus ' 55 

Silures ' 79 

Simaethus '81 

Simois ' 87 
Sinae 643, ' 84 

Sinai ' 91 
Singeticus Sinus ' 63 

Singidunum ' 49 

Sinope ' 88 

Sinuessa '52 

Sion « 90 

Siphnus • 83 



740 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Sipontum ' 54 
Sirbonis Palus ' 92 
Sirmium ' 48 
Smyrna ' 88 
Socanda ' 86 
Sogdiana ' 86 
Soli ' 89 
Solymi ' 89 
Soracte Mons ' 51 
Sparta ' 77 
Sparti ' 78 
Sphacteria ' 82 
Spoletium ' 51 
Sporades ' 83 
Stabiae ' 53 
Stcechades ' 47 
Stratus ' C8 
Stratonicea ' 89 
Strongyle ' 81 
Strophades ' 82 
Strymon 662, ' 63 
Strymonicus Si- 
nus 662, < 63 
Stymphaei ' 63 
Stymphalus ' 77 
Styx 667, < 77 
Suessa Pometia ' 52 
Suevi ' 46 
Sulmo ' 52 
Sunium 667, < 70 
Surrentinum Prom. ' 53 
Surrentum ' 53 
Susa < 84 
Susiana ' 84 
Sybaris ' 55 
Syene ' 93 
Syracusae ' 81 
Syria « 89 
Syriae Pylae ' 89 
Syrtica Regio ' 95 
Syrtis ' 95 



Tabor 690 

Tabraca ' 98 

Taenarum 676, ' 77 

Tagus ' 50 

Tanagra ' 70 



Tanaia 645, ' 46 
Tanais Emporium ' 48 

Tamassus ' 92 

Taphiassus ' 68 

Taprobane 644, ' 92 

Tarbelli < 47 

Tarentum < 54 

Tarraco ' 49 
Tarraconensis ' 49 

Tarsus ' 89 

Tartessus ' 49 

Tauri ' 45 

Taurini ' 50 

Taurus Mons 687, ' 89 

Tavium ' 88 

Taygetus < 78 

Teanum 653, ' 54 

Tegea ' 77 

Telmessus ' 89 

Tempe ' 64 

Tenedos '82 

Teno ' 83 

Tentyra ' 93 

Teos ' 88 

Tergeste ' 51 

Termessus ' 89 

Terina ' 55 
Terinaeus Sinus ' 55 

Tetrapolis 669, '82 

Teutones ' 45 

Thapsus ' 96 

Thasus 662, < 82 

Thebais ' 92, ' 93 

Thebae 670, » 93, ' 66 

Themiscyra ' °8 

Theodosia ' |5 

Thera ' 83 

Therapne '7 
Thermaicus Sinus ' 63 

Thermodon ' |8 

Thermopylae ' 6g 

Thermus '69 

Tbespiae '70 

Thesprotia ' 66 

Thessalia ' 64 

Thessalonica ' 64 

Thracia ' 61 



Thracius Bospho- 




Tyrrheni 


'51 


rus 


661 


Tyrus 


6 90 


Thrasymene Lacus 


'51 


Tysdrus 


'95 


Thronium 


'69 






Thule 643, 


'80 


U 




Thurium 


'55 


Ubii 


647 


Thymbra 


'88 


Uliarus 


'47 


Thynae 643, 


'84 


Umbria 


'51 


Thyni 


'62 


Uria 


'54 


Tiberias 


'90 


Urius Sinus 


'54 


Tiberis 


'90 


Utica 


'96 


Tibur 


'52 


Uxantis Insula 


'47 


Ticinum 


'50 


Uxellodunum 


'47 


Tlcinus 


'51 






Tigranocerta 


'87 


V 




Tigris 684, 687, 


'91 


Valentia 655 


679 


Timolus 


'88 


Vascones 


'49 


Tirynthus 


'77 


Vectis 


'80 


Toletum 


'49 


Veii 


'51 


Tomi 


'49 


Vejentes 


'53 


Toronaicus Sinus 


'63 


Velia 


'55 


Torrens Egypti 


'92 


Venafrum 


'53 


Trachis 


'66 


Veneris Portus 


'9£ 


Trajanopolis 


'62 


Veneti 


'51 


Transalpina Callia 


'46 


Venusia 


'54 


Transpadana 


'50 


Verbanus Lacus 


'51 


Trapezus 


'88 


Vergellus 


'54 


Treveri 


'47 


Verona 


'50 


Trichonis Lacus 


'68 


Vesuvius 


'53 


Tricola 


'81 


Viadrus 


'46 


Tridentum 648, 


'50 


Vindelicia 


'48 


Trinacria 


'80 


Vindobona 


'48 


Trinobantes 


'79 


Vistula 


'46 


Tripolitana 


'95 


Vogesus 


'47 


Triquetra 


'80 


Volcae 


'47 


Tritaea 


S76 


Volsci 


'52 


Tritonis Lacus 


'95 


Volsinii 


'51 


Trixicum 


'54 


Vulturnus 653 


'54 


Troas 


'87 






Trocmi 


'88 


X 




Troszene 


'77 


Xanthus 666,687, 


689 


Troglodytae 


'94 






Troja or Ilium 


'87 


Z 




Tuneta or Tunes 


'96 


Zacynthus 


682 


Tusculum 


'52 


Zagros 


'84 


Tyana 


'88 


Zama 


'96 


Tycha 


'81 


Zariaspa 


'86 


Tyras 


'46 


Zephyrium 


<55 




GENERAL INDEX. 



Abacus, 136 

Abbreviations, Greek, 31, 48, 

, 60 ; Roman, 69, 78, 82 

Abracadabra, 113 

Abraxas, 113, 442 

Absalom's Pillar, 552 

Academic sect, 228, 344 

Academy, of Fine Arts, 107; 
of Inscriptions, 20 

Accents, 31, 148 ; discriminat- 
ed from stress, 147, 148 

Accius, or Attius, 299 

Achseus, 170, 173 

Achaia, constitution and 
league of, 521 

Achilles Tatius, 223 

Acron, 334 

Acrostics, 158 

Actions or suits at law, 510 

Actors, theatrical, 500 

Acusilaus, 250 

Adam, state in which created, 
3 

Adonai, 113 

Adonis, story of, 422; festival 
of, 492 

Adoption among Romans, 623 

Adoration, origin of the word, 
567 

Adrastia, 435 

Adultery, punished by Greeks, 
548; by Romans, 593 

^Eacus, 417 

^Ecastor, 455 

vEdepol, 455 

^Ediles Roman, 580 

^Egina, school of, 99 ; marbles 
discovered at, 107 

iEais of Minerva, 420 

.ZSlian Claudius, 252,258, 266 

^(Elius, Aristides, 211 ; Hero- 
dianus, 217 ; Mceris, 217 ; 
Donatus, 336 ; Spartianus, 
383 

jEmilius Macer, 310 

./Eneas, in Italy, 65 

^Eolus, 432 

iEschines, orator, 207 ; philos- 
opher, 234 

iEschvlus, 170, 186, 189 

./Esculapius, 262, 435 

^Esop, Fabnlist, 165,232; Ro- 
man Actor, 286 

^Esthetics, 89 

iEtius, 263 

^Etolia, confederacy of, 520 

Agate, vessels made of, 111 : 
of Tiberius, 119 

Agathias, 167, 261 

Agatho, 170 

Age, respect paid to, 482 

Ages, four of Roman litera- 
ture, 277 

Agriculture, antiquity of, 6 ; 
Roman writers on, 357; 
among the Greeks, 542; 
among the Romans, 357, 
596 

Agrippa, M.Vipsanius, 350,368 

Alabaster, 112 

Alanus, author of the Antl- 
Claudianus, 319 



Alaric, master of Rome, 553 
breviary of, 392 

Albricus, 365 

Alcseus, 162, 166 

Alchemy, Greeks works on, 
264 

Alcibiades, 200 

Alciphron, 222 

Alcman, 162, 166 

Aldine Classics, 394 

Aldobrandine festival, a paint- 
ing, 126 

Alexander, on a cameo, 118 ; 
his coffin, 551 

Alexander, physician, 263 

Alexandria, seat of letters, 44 

Alexis, 172 

Algebra, whence so named, 
244 

Alhambra, 142 

Allegory, in the arts of design, 
88,94 

Almagest, origin of the title, 
246 

Alphabet, Cherokee, 14 ; Per- 
sepolitan, 14; Siamese, 
14; Greek, 28; Roman, 
69, 66 

Alphabetical writing, origin 
of, 15 

Altars, Grecian, 467, 484 ; Ro- 
man, 559 

Amateur, distinguished from 
connoisseur, 88 

Amazons, 450 

Ambrose, 290, 346 

America, whether known to 
the ancients, 696; lan- 
guages of, 25 

Amethyst, 110, 113 

Ammianus Marcellinus, 382 

Amnion, 488 

Ammonius, grammarian, 218 ; 
philosopher, 231 

Amor, or Cupid, 423 

Amor and Psyche, fable of, 352 

Amphictyon, 452 

Amphyictyonic Council,27,509 

Amphitheatres, Roman, 576 

Amulets, 113 

Amusements, of Greeks, 481, 
545, 537 ; of Romans, 572, 
575, 628 

Amyntas, his coins, 56 

Anacharsis, 221 

Anacreon, 162, 166, 184 

Analytical and synthetical 
study of languages, 148 

Ancients and moderns, com- 
parative merits of, 18 

Andocides, 201, 203 

Andronicus Livius, 296 

Androtion, 250 

Angels, ministry of, a source 
of ancient fable, 401 

Annalists of Rome, 367 

Annual Register, or Calendar 
at Rome, 571 

Anteros, 423 

Anthemius, architect and 
mathematician, 241 

Anthologies, 167, 204 

Antias, 368 



Antigonus, of Carystus, 26G 

Antirnachus, Greek poet, 159;, 
164, 456 

Antinous, statue of, 103 

Antioch, Greek letters at, 44 

Antiphanes, 172 

Antiphon, 203, 208 

Antiquaries, Society of, 20 

Antiques, 89 ; temple of, 107 ; 
in mosaic, 106 

Antiquities, classical, utility 
of, 462, 553 

Antisthenes, 227 

Antoninus, Marcus, 105, 238 ; 
Liberalis, 249 

Aphthonius, Greek sophist,212 

Anubis, 442 

Anvta, 162 

Apicius, 364, 358 

Apis, supposed a symbol of Jo- 
seph, 441 

Apocrypha, Old Testament, 
267 ; New Testament, 270 

Apollo, 417 ; Belvidere, 103, 
417 ; temples of, 132, 408 ; 
oracle of, 488 

Apollinaris, 288 

Apollodorus, 248, 165, 173, 175 

Apollonia, school at, 44 

Apollonius, Rhodius, 160, 195, 
313 ; Dyscolus, 216, 267 ; 
Pergasus, 244 ; Sophistes, 
217 ; Tyanensis, 259 

Apologies of the early Fath- 
ers, 271 

Apostles' Creed, 270 

Apostolic Fathers, 269 

Apotheosis, of heroes, 452; Ro- 
man emperors, 440,456,640 

Appian, 258 

Apuleius, 352 

Aquamarine, 110, 113 

Aqueducts, Roman, 359, 661 

Aquila Romanus, 330 

Arabesque, 142 

Ararat, Mt., ascended by Pai*- 
rot, 687 

Aratus, 165, 194 

Arbitrators, at Athens, 512 ; at 
Rome, 592 

Arborius, 291 

Archagstratus, 165 

Archagathus, 262, 384 

Arches, remains of ancient, 
105, 135, 142 ; triumphal, 
651, 660 

Archias, 166 

Archiater, 384, 385 

Archilochus, 162, 165, 181 

Archimedes,- 243 

Architects, Greek, 137 ; Ro- 
man, 138 

Architecture, ancient, 127,140; 
Asiatic, 129 ; three 
branches of, 129 ; five 
orders of, 134 ; different 
styles, 142 ; of Greek 
houses, 480, 540; Tulta- 
can and Cyclopean, 130 

Architrave, 134 

Archons, 472, 501, 506 

Areopagus, 510, 675 

Aretsus, 265 



742 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Argonauts, 454 

Argos, oracular shrine at, dis- 
covered by Clarke, 487 ; 
constitution of, 520 

Aristaenetus, 222 

Aristarchus, critic, 215 ; math- 
ematician, 241 

Aristides, statue of, 104 

Aristophanes, poet, 172, 190; 
grammarian, 31 

Aristotle, 209, 229, 235, 266 

Arithmetic, very ancient, 16 

Armies, Grecian, 473 ; Roman, 
602; attendants of Ro- 
man, 610 

Armor, ancient, 474, 523, 606 

Arnobius, 346 

Arrian, 237, 257 

Arrow-headed letters, 14 

Art, distinguished from 
science, 87 

Artemidorus, 264 

Artisans, Roman, 595 

Artists, the three employed by 
Alexander, 115 ; eminent 
Greek, 100 ; Phoenician, 
models for Greeks, 26 

Arts, their origin, 6; imita- 
tive, 7; mechanical and 
fine,87; time of their high- 
est excellence in Greece, 
100 ; the mechanic, at 
.Rome, 595, 596; schools 
*of, 97 

Arundelian marbles, 50 

Asclepiades, 262, 384 

Asconius Pedianus, 335 

Asia, early residence of man, 
8,9 

Assemblies, of the Romans or 
Comitia, 589 ; Greeks, 509, 
517 

Assyrian empire, 708 

Astrasa, 435 

Astrologers, 570 

Astronomy, origin of, 17 ; 
Greek, 240, 246 

Asylum, privileges of, 485 

Athanasius, character of, by 
Villemain, 273 

Athenagoras, 272 

Atheneum, orschola Romana, 
73; Boston. 83, 107, 119 

Athenasus, 212 

Athens, suppression of her 
schools, 45 ; origin of 
name, 420 ; system of ed- 
ucation, 37 ; citizens of, 
503 ; government of, 470, 
501; political history, 461, 
472, 503; topography of, 
503, 670 ; magistrates of, 
506 ; revenues and expen- 
ditures, 507 ; senate and 
assemblies, 509, 510 

Athletics, Greek system of, 499 

.tftists and .Etists, 147 

Atlantides, 430 

Atridae, 456 

Attica,ancient treatises on, 250 

Atys, 410 

Augurs, Roman, 562 

Auction, 600 

Augustine, 334, 346 

Augustus, patron of letters, 76; 
head of on a gem, 118 ; 
author, 368 

Aulus Gellius, 334 

Aulus Sabinus, 308 

Aurelian, 213 

Aurelius, Marcus, statue of,104 

Aurelius Victor, 381 



Aurora, 432 

Ausonius Magnus, 294, 318 
Auspices, 562 
Auto-biography, Roman, 368, 

371 
Autolycus, 246 
Auxiliary troops of Romans, 

610 
Avatars or incarnations of 

Vishnu, 412 
Avienus, Flavius, 293, 316 ; 

Festus, 194, 317 

B 

Babel, confusion of tongues at, 
23 

Babrius, 165, 293 

Babylon, walls of, 432, 691, 
708 ; commerce of, 542 

Bacchanalian decree, 80 

Bacchus, 425 ; festival of. 39, 
492 ; theatre of, 132 ; cave 
of, 675 

Bacchylides, 162 

Balbec, ruins of, 689 

Balbi, statue of the, 104 

Ball, ornament worn by Ro- 
man youth, 636 ; playing 
with, 545 

Ballads of the Romans, 283, 
288 

Ballets, 287 

Banishment, 513, 519, 593 

Bankers at Rome, 595, 658 

Banquets, literary, 40, 73 ; eve- 
ning, 630 ; of Greeks, 479 

Barberini Vase, 97 

Bards, Grecian, 27 

Bark, material for writing, 32 

Barnabas, 269 

Bartlow Hills, remains at, 97 

Basil the Great, 45, 274 

Basilides, 113 

Bas-reliefs, distinguished from 
statues, 90 ; materials and 
subjects of, 93; remains 
of, 104 

Bassus, Cassianus, 264 ; Cae- 
sius, 292 

Bathing, among Greeks, 479. 
539 ; among Romans, 628 

Baths, construction of, 139, 539 

Bathyllus, 287 

Battering-ram, 613 

Battle, Greek order of, 477, 
525 ; manner of commen- 
cing, 526 ; Roman order 
of, "607, 611 ; at sea, 61b ; 
Hesiod's of the Titans, 
Homer's of the Gods, 443 

Beaks of ships, 530 

Beatification of saints, origin 
of, 456 

Beer, Greek treatise on, 264 

Beetle, gems in form of, 113 

Belisarius, 393 

Bellerophon, 452 

Bellona, 421,438; temple of, 
689 

Belvidere, 102 

Belzona, his entrence of a pyr- 
amid, 442 

Bentley's vases and gems, 96, 
117 

Berosus, 251 

Berytus, school of, 44, 73, 391 

Besieging, art of, 526 ; among 
Romans, 613 

Betrothing before nuptials, 548 

Biblical studies and writings 
of early Christians, 271 



Bibliographical works, 155 
Biography among the Greeks, 

252 ; Romans, 371 
Bion, 164, 193 
Bipontine editions, 395 
Birth-day celebrations, 40 
Body of Roman law, 393 
Boethius, 354 
Boeotian intellect, 670 
Bonaparte, his column, 105; 

medals, 118 
Books, ancient, form of, 70, 34; 

earliest known, 15 
Borghese Gladiator, 103 
Boston Latin School, 279 
Botany, father of ancient, 263 
Boundaries of land, Roman, 

94, 437, 358 
Boxing, 497, 573 
Brachina, Hindoo deity, 409, 

412 
Bread, inventor and god of 

kneading, 438 
Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 

637 
Breathings, 31 
Breviary of Alaric, 392 
Briareus, 443 

Bricks, Roman, 596 ; Babylo- 
nian, 14 
Bride, Roman, 621 
Bridges over the Tiber, 657 
British Museum, 107 
Brokers, Roman, 595, 658 
Bronze of the ancients, 92 ; 
bronze vessels with ena- 
mels, 97 
Broth, Spartan black, 518 
Bruchion, 43 
Bucolic poetry, Greek, 164, 

290; Roman 
Bularchus, his painting, 122 
Bull, Farnese, statue of, 102 
Burial-places, 469, 551, 638 
Burial-rites, importance of 

among the ancients, 552 
Burning of corpses, 551 
Burning-glasses of Archime- 
des, 243 
Busts, 93 ; of distinguished 

ancients, 104 
Butterfly, ancient emblem of 

the soul, 113 
Byzantine historians, 252 

C. 

Cabiri, mysteries of, 455 
Cadmus, 22, 27, 30, 452 
Caduceus of Mercury, 425 
Caesar, Julius, 372 ; Germani- 

cus, 310 
Calendar Roman, 371 
Calends, 571, 700 
Callimachus, 162, 164, 166, 194 
Callinus, 163 
Calliope, 445 
Caliphs Arabian, patrons of 

learning, 44 
Callisthenes, 251 
Calpurnius, Titus Julius, 290, 

318 ; Flaccus, 324 
Cambridge University, studies 

in, 152 
Cameo, 111, 112, 118 
Camp, Grecian, 526 ; Roman, 

612 ; discipline of, 613 
Campanian vases, 96 
Capella, 296, 353 
Canal of Claudius, 652 
Caper, 334 
Capital, 134, 137 



GENERAL INDEX. 



743 



Capita! trials, Roman, 592 

Capitol, Roman, 101, 658 

Capitolinus, 383, 657 

Captives, treatment of, 477, 
482, 527 

Carmen Saliare, 68 

Carneades, 342, 229 

Carriages, Roman, 597 

Carthaginians, History, 711 ; 
language of, 299 

Caryatides, 137 

Caspian gate or pass, 687 

Castalia, 445 

Castanets, 547 

Casting, how differing from 
sculpture, 90 

Castor and Pollux, 445 

Catacombs, 694 

Cato, M. Forcius, 362; oppos- 
ed to Greek philosophy, 67 
384; Dionysius, 317 

Catullus, 289, 290, 302 

Cavaceppi as restorer of an- 
tiques, 102 

Cavalry, Greek, 523, 664; Ro- 
man, 609 

Cebes, 234 

Cecrops, 22, 452 

Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, 386, 
384 ; rejecter of Christian- 
ity, 272 

Celtae, 65 

Cement, used in Grecian 
sculpture, 92 

Cenotaphs, 552 

Censorinus, 335 

Census Roman, 569 

Censors, Roman, 582 

Centaurs, 450, 664, 666 

Centimani, 430 

Cento, 302, 319 

Centum virate, 592 

Genturial games, 573 

Centuries, division of Romans 
into, 584 ; voting by, 590 

Cephalas, 167 

Ceraunia or thunder-stones, 6 

Cerberus, 417, 451, 550, 677 

Ceremonies of ancient wor- 
ship, 466,468; nuptial,481 

Ceres, 427 ; temple and statue 
of, found by Dr. Clarke, 
428 ; festivals of, 493, 494 

Cester or Chester, towns 
whose names end in, 613 

Cestius, pyramid of, 126, 552 

Cestus, girdle of Venus, 423 

Chairs, 542 ; of state, 586 

Champollion, interpreter of 
hieroglyphics, 51 

Chariots, race in ,496 ; Grecian, 
474 ; Roman, 597 

Charisius, 337 

Chariton, romancer, 224 

Charming or fascinating, the 
power of, 570 

Charon, 417, 550 

Charvbdis, 451 

Chase, 480 

Cherry-trees, whence brought, 
688 

Children, treatment of among 
Greeks, 481 ; at Sparta, 
516 ; legitimate &c. 550 ; 
among Romans, 622, 623 

Chil Minar, or palace of forty 
columns, 686 

Chimaera, 450 

Chimneys, 626 

Chinese, system of writing, 13 
architecture, 142 

Chion,222 



Chloris, 437 

Choerilus, 159, 170 

Choragic tripods, 39 

Choragium, in mosaic, 106 

ChoniSjOf Greek tragedy, 169, 
501 ; of comedy, 172 ; part 
of the Spartan Forum, 678 

Chrestomatuies, or reading- 
books in study of languag- 
es, 150, 152, 279 

Chrestus, 380 

Christ, year of his birth, 704; 
his head on a gem, 118 ; 
life of in Greek hexame- 
ters, 198 

Christian poets, early 271,290 

Christian writings, in Greek, 
268 ; in Latin, 394 

Christianity, influence of on 
literature and society, 45, 
; > 76 ; attacks of early pa- 
gans upon, and answers 
to them, 272 ; allusions to 
in classics, 380 

Christians, how put to death 
by Romans, 594 ; philoso- 
phy of, 270 

Chroaicum Parium, 50 

Chronology, classical &c. 155, 
697 ; systems of, 705 

Chrysoloras, 219 

Chrysostom, John, 45, 274 

Chrysippus, 228 

Churches called Basilica?, 659 

Cicero, 323, 325, 330, 339, 346, 
368, 600 

Giceronianus, 327 

Gircensian games, 573 

Cities principal Greek, 459 

Citizenship, Roman, 596 

Civil affairs of Greeks, 470, 
501 ; of Romans, 578 

Civil law, body of Roman, 393 

Civilization, the natural state 
of man, 8 ; original seats 
of, 9, 17 

Classes of citizens at Athens, 
502 ; Sparta, 515 ; Rome, 
584, 620 

Classic authors, origin of the 
phrase, 585 

Classics, excellence of, 19 ; 
utility of studying, 18, 19 ; 
uniform editions or sets 
of. 394 

Classical Journal, 20 

Classical study, history of, 396 

Glaudian, Roman poet, 289, 
290, 319 

Claudius Mamertinus, 328 

C lean thes, 195,228 

Clemens, Romanus, 269 ; Al- 
exandrinus, 272 

Cleon,200 

Clermont, Bishop of, 342 

Client and patron, 586 

Climate and materials as af- 
fecting arcitecture, 127 

Clio, 445 

Clitagorus, 163 

Clitodemus, 250 

Clocks, 570, 693 

Codex Alexandrinus, Vatica- 
nus, &c» 61 ; Gregorianus, 
&c. 392 

Code of Theodoric, 392 

Ccelus, 430 ; CceIus, Apicius, 
358, 364 ; Aurelianus, 385 

Coffins, 639 

Cohorts, 604 

Coins, Greek, 54, 57, 181, 543 ; 
Roman, 80, 598 j their use 



in chronology, 703 : num- 
ber of different ancient 
coins preserved, 57 ; col- 
lections of, 83 

Cointus or duintus, 197 

Coliseum, 140 

Collections, of manuscripts, 
62, 85 ; medals and coins, 
83 ; statuary, 106 ; en- 
graved gems, 116, 119 ; of 
Greek poets, 173 

Colleges or orders of Roman 
priests, 560 ; of artisans, 
596 

Colonies, planted in Greece, 
21 ; planted in Italy, 65, 
66 ; from Greece, 461, 688; 
of Rome, 591 

Colors used by Greek painters 
122 

Colossal statues, 92, 95 

Columella, 363 

Commentaries, or auto-biogra- 
phies, 368 ; on the N. Tes- 
tament, early, 271 

Column, of Duillius, 79, 618 ; 
of Trajan, &c. 105 

Coluthus, 191 

Comedy, Greek, 171 ; Roman, 
235 

Commerce,of Phoenicians, 26 ; 
Greeks, 472, 542 ; of Ro- 
mans, 595; of Babylon, 
542 

Composite order, 136 

Concubinage among the 
Greeks, 548 

Conic sections, 244 

Conon, mythographer, 248 

Consecration, of Roman em- 
perors, 640, 456 ; of tem- 
ples &c. 568 

Constantine, Greek physician, 
263 ; arch of, 105 ; Manas- 
ses, 166 ; of Carthage, 663 j 
the Great, his military 
system, 619 

Constantinople, university of, 
44, 316 ; situation and to- 
pography, 662 ; capture by 
the Turks, 46 ; tripod in 
its Hippodrome, 488 

Consular army, 602, 610 

Consuls, Roman, 579 

Controversial works of early 
Christians, 271 

Conversation, means of leam~ 
ing language, 278 

Convivial songs, 161, 163 

Copper, used before iron, 476 j 

Copyists, or Calligraphi, 34 

Corinna, 162 

Corinth, constitution of, 520 

Corinthian order, 136 

Cornelius Gallus, 291, 302 

Cornelius Severus, 308 

Corn, distribution of at Rome, 
594 

Cornice, 134 

Cornutus, 248 

Corpses, burning of, 551, 638 

Cosmas, geographer, 53, 242 

Cosmogony of the Greeks, 465 

Costume, Grecian, 479, 537 j 
Roman, 633 

Cottage of Romulus, 658 

Cotton, material for writing, 
32 ; other use of, 539 

Couches, for reclining at table, 
536, 629 

Courts, at Athens, 471, 510, 
511,518; at Rome, 591 



744 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Country-seats of Romans, 627 

Cow, symbol of Isis, 441 

Cousin, on the first seats of 
civilization, 9 

Covenants or leagues, 487 

Crassus, wealth of, 600 

Ciete, early constitution &c. 
471, 510 

Crimes at Rome, 592 

Crishna. Hindoo deity, 412,418 

Critias, 200 

Crowns, 470, 607 

Ctesias, 250, 257 

Culture of the Greeks, sources 
of, 26 ; causes aiding its 
advancement, 36 ; of the 
Romans ; 66 

Cunaxa, battle of, 233 

Cupid, 113, 423 

Cursive letters, 30 

Curtain, of the ancient thea- 
tre, 576, 468, 548 , 

Curtius, Ru'fus, 379 

Curule, officers, 586 ; chairs, 
586 

Cushites, 443 

Cybele or Rhea, 409, 52, 91 ; 
priests of, 565 

Cycles of the ancients, 701 

Cyclic poets, 160, 161 

Cyclopean architecture, 130, 
682 

Cyclops, 174, 423, 442 

Cymbals, 547 

Cynic philosophers, 227, 345 

Oynosarges, 42 

Cyrenaic sect, 227 

Cyrene, remains of, 695 

Cyrus the younger, 233 ; pal- 
ace of, 432 ; tomb of, 552 

Cytheris, 287 



Dredalus, sculptor, 98, 113; 
labyrinth built by, 683 

Daemons, 447 

Dagon, house of, 129 

Damasus, 290 

Danaus, 22, 452 

Dancing, at feasts, 157, 481, 
537, 545 

Daphnis, 164 

Dares Phrygius, 261 

Dates of ancient events, how 
ascertained, 702 

Days, reckoning and division 
of &c. 570, 697 ; origin of 
the names of, 700 ; Roman 
manner of spending day, 
628 

Death, as a god, 448 ; punish- 
ment of, how inflicted by 
Greeks, 514, 518 ; by Ro- 
mans, 593 

Decemvirs, 583 

Declamation by Roman ora- 
tors, 74, 322 

Dedication of Roman temples, 
568 

Deification , of heroes, 452 ; of 
emperors, 640 

Deities, classes of ancient, 
403 ; peculiar to Romans, 
437 

Deliberative Oratory, 202, 204, 
206, 323 

Delphi, Apollo's temple at, 
418 ; oracle of, 438 

Delphin Glassies, 395 

Deluge, of Deucalion, 666 ; tra- 
ditions of universal, 401 

Demetrius Phalereus, 202, 209 



Demi-gods, 403, 451 

Demo, 250 

Demonstrative Oratory, 202, 
204, 206, 324 

Demosthenes, 201, 206, 326 

Dentels, 136 

Departments, Greek authors 
1 classified under, 157 ; Ro- 
man, 282 

Deucalion, 452 

Dexter, F. Lucius, 371 

Dials, 570,698 

Dialectic Sect, 227 

Dialects, Greek, 146, 147, 154 

Dialogistic method of instruc- 
tion, 41 

Diana, 418 ; temple of, at Eph- 
esus, 132, 432 

Diastole, 32 

Dicsearchus, 165 

Dice, playing with, 631 

Dictator, Roman, 582 

Dictionaries, Latin, 280 5 
Greek, 153, 217 ; Classical, 
154 ; Mythological, 406 

Dictys Cretensis, 261 

Dicuil, 357 

Didactic poetry, Greek, 164 ; 
Roman, 291 

Digamma, 69 

Dinarchus, 201, 207 

Diodes, 262 

Diocletian, his persecution 
and massacre of Chris- 
tians, 139, 719 

Diodorus Siculus, 251, 256 

Diodotus, 251 

Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a 
slave, 504; his writings, 
160, 252, 259 ; the Cynic, 
227 

Diomedes, 337 

Dion, Chrysostomus, 210; 
Cassius, 258 

Dionysia, 492 

Dionysius, Halicarnasseus, 
209, 210, 251, 256 ; Perie- 
getes, 165, 246 ; Cato, 317 

Dionysius the tyrant, prison 
of, 681 

Diophantus, 244 

Dioscorides,265; curious man- 
uscript of, 61 

Dioscuri, 455 

Diphilus, 173, 298 

Diploma, 71 

Dirges, at funerals, 551 

Disa, goddess of Germans, 441 

Discipline, Lacedaemonian,42; 
military, 528; of Roman 
camps, 613 

Diseases deified, 440 

Dishes at a Roman supper, 630 

Dispersion, of men by confu- 
sion of tongues, 5 

Divination, art of, among 
Greeks, 469, 490 ; Ro- 
mans, 570 

Divinity, Greek and Roman 
idea of, 404 

Divorces, Roman, 622 

Doctrinal treatise of early 
Christians, 272 

Dodona, oracle of, 487 

Dogmatic, school in medicine, 
262 

Dogs of Molossis, 6$7 

Domestic affairs, of Greeks, 
479, 533 ; of Romans, 620 

Dominical letter, 702 

Donatus, iElius, 304, 336 

Door-way, Egyptian, 130 



Doric order .136 

Dorotheus, 165 

Dowry in marriage, 548 

Draco, his laws, earliest writ- 
ten in Greece, 35, 501 

Dramatic contests, 39 ; poe-» 
try, 168, 282 

Dramatic exhibitions, among 
Greeks, 500, 168 ss ; Ro- 
mans, 282 ss, 576 ; modern 
origin of, 287 

Dreams, on interpretation of, 
264, 490, 570 ; god of, 448 

Dress of Greeks, 479,537 ; Ro- 
mans, 633 

Drinking cups, 534, 537, 633 

Druidical temple, 468 

Drum, 547 

Dryads, 444 

Dwellings, Roman 625 ; Gre- 
cian, 540 



Ear-rings, Roman, 637 

Eating, Roman customs in,629 

Echinus, 136 

Eclectic, sect in philosophy, 
231, 346 ; school in medi- 
cine, 262 

Eclipses in ancient times, 526, 
703 

Economists, Roman, 357 

Edessa, school at, 44 

Edessan epistles, 270 

Edifices, remains of ancient, 
140 

Editions of classics, works on, 
155 ; sets of, 394 

Education among the Greeks, 
37, 41, 145, 481 ; Romans, 
72, 623 

Egeria and Numa, 558 

Egypt, cradle of the sciences, 
18 ,- productiveness of, 
594 ; deities of, 441 ; Ge- 
ography of, 692 ; Chronol- 
ogy of, 705, 711 ; works 
on, 694 

Egyptian inscriptions, 51, 52 ; 
sculpture, 95; Gem-engra- 
ving, 113, 114 ; painting, 
122 ; architecture, 130, 
137 ; gods, 441 

El Wah, site of temple of Ju- 
piter, 695 

Eleatic sect, 230 

Elections at Rome, 590 

Elegiac poetry, 163, 290 

Elephanta, care of, 136, 137 

Elephants used in war, 523 

Eleusinian mysteries, 428, 493 

Eleven, the Athenian magis- 
trates, 506 

Eliac sect, 227 

Elian inscription, 47 

Eloquence, of Themistocles, 
Pericles, and Demosthe- 
nes, 200, 201 ; school of, 
at Rhodes, 202; Roman, 
323 

Elysium, 416 

Elzevir editions, 395 

Emancipation, of sons, 623; 
of slaves, 625 

Emerald, given by Ptolemy to 
Lucullus, 111 

Empedocles, 190 

Emperors deified, 440, 456, 640 

Empire Roman, power of, 580 ; 
military system of, 618, 
619; extent of, 554; di- 
vision of, 619 



GENERAL INDEX. 



745 



Empiric school in medicine, 
262 

Empiricus Sextus, 238 

Employments, under guardian 
deities, 438 ; of Greeks, 
480 ; of Romans, 628 

Encaustic, a method of paint- 
ing, 123 

Enchorial, letters Egyptian, 51 

Encomiastic orations, 204 

Engines, military, 527, 613 

Engraved gems, devices on, 
112 

Ennius Quintus, 288, 291, 297 

Enoch, hook of, 5, 268 

Entablature, 134 

Entrails of victims, as prog- 
nostics, 563 

Epaminondas, 199 

Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 
419 

Ephori, 517 

Ephorus, 250 

Epic poetry, 159, 160, 288 

Epicharmus, 171, 298 

Epictetus, 237 

Epicurean sect 230, 345 

Epigenes, 168 

Epigrams, Greek, 166, Ro- 
man, 293 

Epiphanius, 264, 271 

Epistles and Romances, 220, 
338 

Epistles or letters, form of Ro- 
man, 76 

Equites or knights of Rome, 
586 

Eras and Epochs, 704 

Erato, 445 

Eratosthenes, 245 

Erigone, 435 

Erinna, 162 

Eristic sect, 227 

Erotian, 217 

Erotic poetry, 166 ; tales, 221 

Escurial, ancient paintings in, 
126 

Esoteric and exoteric doc- 
trines, 41 

Eteocles and Polynices, 455 

EtistEe, 147 

Etruscans, 65 ; plays of, at 
Rome, 67, 282 ; their sculp- 
ture and vases, 96 ; their 
architecture, 137 

Etymologicum Magnum, 219 

Etymology, attention to, 278 

Eucharis, 118 

Euclid, 243 

Eudocia, author of the Homer- 
ocentra, 198 ; of the Viola- 
rium, 219 

Eugubian tables, 80 

Euhemerus, 247 

Eulogies over the dead, 551, 
638 

Eumathius, 224 

Eumenius, 328 

Eumolpus, 157 

Eunapius, 260 

Euphorion, 160, 170, 303 

Eupolis, 172 

Euripides, 164, 170, 188 

Euryale, 449 

Euset' is, 252, 272 

Eustathius, 219, 224 

Eutecnius, 196 

Euterpe, 445 

Eutropius, 351 

Evil eye, superstition respect- 
ing, 570 



Evolutions military, 525 

Exercises of Roman camp, 613 

Exergue, 57 

Exhalations of Pontine marsh- 
es, 652 

Expenses of religion at Ath- 
ens, 50S ; at Rome, 567 

Expiation among the Romans, 
569 

Exposing of children, by 
Greeks, 190 ; by Romans, 
622 

Exsuperantius, 371 



Fabius Pictor, 368 

Fables, Mythological, sources 

of, 40"0 ; in Greek and 

Roman literature, 165, 

292; Atellane, 282,286 
Fabulists Roman, '293 
Falconer, shipwreck described 

bv, 670 
Falconius, 324 
Fame, goddess of, 436 
Families, Roman, 620 
Family memoirs, 371 
Fanatic, origin of the term,570 
Farces, Greek, 174 : Roman, 

286 
Farnese bull, 102 
Farnesian columns, 53 
Fasti, Capitolini, 80 
Fasting among ancients, 495 
Fate controling the gods, 405 
Fates, 446 
Father, power of the Roman, 

over his children, 622 
Fathers, early Christian, 269 
Fauns, 449 
Faunus, grove and oracle of, 

653 
Feast of the gods, 563 
Feasts, social, of Greeks, 480, 

534; literary, 40; of Ro- 
mans, 629 
Feet, covering for, 636 
Females, state of in Greece, 

481, 547 
Feronia, 438 
Fescennine verses, 282 
Festivals, Greek, 491 / Roman, 

571 
Festus, S. Pomponius, 336 ; 

S. Rufus, 382 
Financial inscriptions, 49 
Fire, use of unknown, 5 ; 

the Greek Fire, 264 j the 

vestal, 429 
Firmicus, 360 

Fish-pond of Hortensius, 627 
Fleece, Golden, of Golchis,455 
Fleet, Grecian, 532 ; Roman, 

616 
Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 140 
Flight of birds, ominous, 401 
Flood state of knowledge and 

arts before, 4 
Flora, 437 ; statue of, 104 
Florus L. Annaeus, 379 
Flowers, goddess of, 437 
Folio, 71 
Food, in early ages, 6 ; of 

Greeks, 479, 534; Romans, 

630 
Foot, means of determining 

the Roman, 601 
Fortunatianus, 330 
Fortune, goddess of, 436 
Forums, at Rome, 658: Ath- 
ens, 674 



65 



Fountain of the sun, 695 
Fourmont inscriptions, 47, 49, 

205 
Franciade, 704 
Fratres Arvales, hymn of, 68 
Free men and freed men, at 

Rome, '620 
French Republic, era of, 704 
Fresco-painting, 123 
Fret-work, 626 
Frieze, 136 

Frontinus Sextus Julius, 359 
Fronto, 324, 341 
Fulgentius, 365 
Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 

469, 550 ; Roman, 637 j 

Songs, 291 ; eulogies, 371. 

551, 638 ; pile, 469, 638 
Funeral orations, of Pericles 

and Demosthenes, 551 
Furies, 446 
Furnaces in Roman houses, 

626 
Furniture of houses, 627 



Gabriel, stone of, 691 

Gastulius, 293 

Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 
683 

Galen, 263, 265 

Galleys, or war ships, 529, 616 

Gallus Cornelius, 291, 302 

Gamblers of Pompeii, 630 

Games of the Greeks, 27, 37, 
496; Olympic &c. 498,499 
social, 537 ; Romans, 572 j 
in honor of the dead, 551; 
640 

Gardening, how ranked by the 
Greeks, 87, 90 ; god and 
goddess of, 437;" of the 
Romans, 627 

Gardens of Sallust, 374 

Gargilius, 364 

Gate of Lions, 131 

Gates of Rome, 656 • 

Gauls, Rome burnt by, 553 

Gazette, Roman, 369 

Geber, from whom Algebra 
took its name, 244 

Gem engraving 108ss 

Gems, names of principal, 109 ; 
in Aaron's breastplate, 111, 
113 ; genuine and ficti- 
tious, 116; largest of an- 
cient sculptured, US, 119 ; 
illustrative of Mythology, 
112, 403 ; appropriate to 
certain gods, 113 ; suppo- 
sed virtues of, 114 

Geographers, Greek, 240 ss ; 
Roman, 356 ss 

Geographus Ravennse, 357 

Geography, commencement of, 
17 ; works on ancient, 154, 
242, 280, 358 ; knowledge 
of Greeks in, 242, 356 ; 
epitome of classical, 643 

Geometry, origin of, 17 

Geoponics, 357 

Germanicus, 310 

Geryon, 450 

Giants, 442; temple of, 132 

Gladiator, Borghese, 103 ; dy- 
ing, 103 

Gladiators, Roman, 574, 640 

Glass, imitations of gems, 117 ; 
painting of, 124 ; how far 
used by Romans, 596, 625 

Glossaries, Greek, 217, 218, 219 



746 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Gnomic poets, 165 

Gods, Greek and Roman, num- 
ber of, 401 ; classes of, 403, 
404 ; Egyptian admitted 
among the Romans, 441 

Golden age, 409 ; number, 701 

Gordian knot, 48 

Gorgias, 207, 209 

Gorgons, 449 

Gothic Architecture, 142 

Goths, Rome taken by, 553,720 

Government, changes in form 
of Grecian, 459, 472, 501, 
503, 519, 712 ; of Roman, 
579, 715 ; by Romans over 
conquered nations, 591 

Graces, 446 

Graici, and other names of an- 
cient Greeks, 459 

Grain, kinds of, 596 ; distribu- 
tion of at Rome, 594 

Grammar, as taught among 
the Greeks, 40 

Grammars, Greek, 153 ; Lat- 
in, 279 

Grammar schools, 73 

Grammarians, Greek, 215 j 
Roman, 332 

Grapes, varieties of, 631 

Gratius Faliscus, 309 

Gravers on gems, ancient, 115 

Grecian sculpture, four periods 
of, 99 

Greece, first inhabitants, bar- 
barous, 21, 460,470 ; colo- 
nies in, 21, 460; origin 
and perfection of lan- 
guage, 23, 25 ; causes of 
culture and improvement, 
145, 157, 461 ; periods in 
the progress of iefinement, 
464; extent of, 459, 661, 
663: outline of the chro- 
nology of, 712; form of 
government in, 459, 460, 
470 ; climate of, 145 ; mod- 
ern travelers in, 141 ; re- 
mains of ancient Archi- 
tecture in, 140 

Grecian cities, 459 

Greek antiquities, utility of, 
462 ; writers on, 463 

Greek language, study of in 
Europe, 46 ; importance of 
studying, 146 ; pronuncia- 
tion of, 147 

Greeks, modern,47 ; education 
among the ancients, 145 

Gregorian calender, 700 

Gregorian us, 391 

Gregorius Pardus or Corinthi- 
. us, 219 

Gregory Nazianzen, 45, 167, 
274, 287 

Grinding, method of, 481 

Gromatic writings, 358 
Groups, in statuary, 93 

Groves sacred, 484, 559 

Guest-chambers, 629 
Gymnasia, Greek, 37, 42 ; Ro- 
man, 73 ; structure of the 
buildings, 133 
Gymnastic art, 157, 500 

H 

Habits domestic, of Romans, 

628 
Hades, 416, 552 
Hadrian, patron of letters, 76 
Hair, modes of dressing, 636 
Hallirrhotius, 421 



Hamilton's vases, 96 

Hannibal, his passage of the 
Alps, 376 

Hanno, 244 

Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
502 

Harmonies of the Gospels, ear- 
ly, 271 

Harpies, 447 

Harpocrates, 113, 442 

Harpocration, 217 

Harps, 546 

Harrowing, god of, 438 

Head, coverings for, 538, 636 ; 
of Antinous, 103 

Health, drinking of, 630 ; god- 
dess of, 436 

Heathenism, moral influence 
of among Greeks and Ro- 
mans, 403 

Hebe, 413 

Hebrew, Grecian writings, 267 

Hecataeus geographer 241 ; his- 
torian, 251 

Hecate, 411 

Hecatombs, 467 

Hegemon, 173 

Helicon, 157, 445 

Heliodorus, 165, 223 

Heliotrope, 111, 118 

Helius, 430 

Hell, rivers of, 416 

Hellanicus, 250 

Hellenes, 22 

Helmet, 474, 606; of Pluto, 
416 

Helots, 516 

Helps, in studying Latin, 279 ; 
Greek, 152, 156 

Hepheestion, 216, 249 ; friend 
of Alexander, 551 

Heraclitean sect, 230 

Heraclitus, 248 

Heralds, 471, 564 

Herculanean tablets, 150 ; 
rolls, 62 ; paintings, 126 

Hercules, 453 ; statue of, Far- 
nese, 103 ; title of a piece 
written by Prodicus, 237 ; 
story of explained, 454 

Herennius, 330 

Hermanubis, 442 

Hermas, 269 

Hermes, busts so called, 93, 
425, 437 ; Trismegistus, 
424,159 

Hermesianax, 164 

Hermogenes, 212 

Hermogenianus, 392 

Hero and Leander, 176 

Herodes Atticus, inscriptions 
of, 53 ; fragments of, 211, 

Herod ian us, historian, 259 

Herodotus, 39, 250, 253 

Hermolaus, 247 

Heroes, worship of, &x. 451, 
458, 468 

Heroic age, 451 ; manners of, 
481 

Hesiod, 164, 180 

Hesychius, 217 

Hexapla of Origen, 271 

Hiero, ship built for him, 94 
Hierocles, opposer of Chris- 
tianity, 259 
Hieroglyphics, 28 51, 12 
Hieromancy, 490 
Hieronymus, 251, 371 
Hilarion, 198 
Hilraius, 290 
Hills of Rome, 657 



Himerius, 213 

Hindoo pillar, 136 

Hippias and Hipparchus, 502 

Hippocrates, 202, 262 

Hippocrene, 445, 451 

Hipponax, 174 

Historians, Greek, 249 ; Ro- 
man, 366 ; plan for read- 
ing ancient, 253 

Historical paintings among 
the Greeks, 125 

Historical records of nations, 
comparative antiquity of, 
15, 16 

History, of principal ancient 
states, 708 ; illustrated by 
coins, 54 

Homer, his allusions to state 
of society, 25 ; his works, 
&c. 159, 166, 174, 176 

Homeridse, 160 

Homerocentra, 198 

Homilies, of earlv Greek fath- 
ers, 273 

Honor ius, 362 

Horace, 289, 295, 306 ; com- 
pared with Persius and 
Juvenal, 316 

Horsemanship, 477, 527 

Horsemen or knights, 602 

Horse-race, 496 

Horses, for chariots and for 
carrying burdens, 597 

Hortensius, 322, 368, 627 

Horus, 159, 417, 441 

Hosidius Geta, 285 

Hospitality, Grecian, 537 ; Ro- 
man, 630 

Hours, goddesses of, 446 ; of 
the day, 570 

Household gods, 448 

Household, Roman, 623, 624 

Houses, Grecian, 480, 540 ; 
Roman, 625 

Humanists, 18 

Hunting, fishing, &c, 480 

Hurdles, 613 

Husbandry, Roman writers on, 
357 

Hybrias, 163 

Hydra, 435 

Hydraulic organ, 547, 576 

Hydrophobia, 384 

Hygeia, 435 

Hyginus, 356, 358, 365 

Hymeneeus, 423 

Hymn of the Fratres Arvales, 
68 

Hymns, ancient, 158 

Hypatia, female mathemati- 
cian, 241 

Hypendes, 207, 201 

Hyperion, 430 

Hypodiastole, 32 

I 

Ibycus, 162 

Ides, 570, 700 

Idolatry, origin of, 400 

Idyl, 290 

Ignatius, 269 

Iliac table, 161 

Ilithyia, 413, 419 

Ilium or Troy, 687 

Images in temples, 559 

Image-work, 90 

Imperial history ,writers of,382 

Imperial government, Roman, 

580 
Imposture, literary, of ITeer- 

kms, 284 ; Higuera, 371 



GENERAL INDEX. 



74? 



Implements of agriculture, 
Roman, 596 

Imprisonment, at Rome, 593 

Inachus, 452 

Indian mythology, its resem- 
blance to Greek, 403 

Indiction, cycle of, 702 

Indo-Germanic languages, 23 

Industry, arts of, 542 

Inferior gods, 429 

Infernal regions, entrance to, 
653, 677 

Inheritances at Athens, 205 

Ink, used by Greeks, 33 ; Ro- 
mans, 70 

Inns, 537, 480 

Inscriptions, Greek, 47, 53 ; 
Roman, 77; on statues, 
94 ; on gems, 112 ; on the 
pillar called Pompey's, 53; 
in ancient ^Ethiopia, 53 ; 
use of in chronology, 703 

Institute, Royal of France, 20 

Instruction, oral among 

Greeks, 35 ; of Greek phi- 
losophers, 41 ; in London 
university, 151 ; Cam- 
bridge University, 152; 
Halle Orphan-house, 152 

Instruments, agricultural, 596; 
mechanical, 129 ; sacrifi- 
cial, 560 ; musical, 546,604 

Intaglio, 112 

Intelligence, means of con- 
veying among Greeks,528; 
Romans, 656 

Interest, rate of at Rome, 598 

Intermarriages at Rome, 585 

Interlinear translations, 149 

Ion of Chios, 170 

Ionians,whence their name,24 

Ionic order, 136 

Ionic, school of philosophy ,225 

Iotistae, 147 

Irenaeus, 272 

Iris, goddess of the rainbow, 
413, 433 

Irnerius, his law-school at Bo- 
logna, 393 

Iron not used as early as cop- 
per, 6 

Isa, Hindoo deity, 441 

Isaeus, 201, 205 

Iscanius, Joseph, 261 

Isidorus Hispalensis, 337 

Isis, Egyptian goddess, 419, 
441 ; her head on Egyp- 
tian pillars, 137 ; table 'of, 
441 ; temple cf, discovered 
at Pompeii, 441 

Isocrates, 201,204 

Istmian games, 499 

Italic school, 226 

Italica, mosaic of, 106 

Italy, original population of, 
65 ; geography of, 650 ; re- 
mains of ancient archi- 
tecture in, 141 

Itineraries, Roman, 357, 361 

Ivory,use of by the ancients,91 

Ixion, 413, 417 



Jamblichus, romancer, 221 ; 

philosopher, 239 
Jannelli, on hieroglyphics, 12, 

Janus, a Roman god, 409 
Japhet, similar to Japetus, 443 
Jason and Medea, 454 
Jerome, of Cardia, 251 



Jerome, St., 371 

Jesus, letter describing his 
person, 382 

Jewish chronology, outline of, 
709 

Job, book of, its antiquity, 15 

John of Stobi, 239 

Joseph Iscanius, 261 

Joseph, son of Jacob, 442 

Josephus, 251, 256 

Journals at Rome, 360 

Journals and Periodicals illus- 
trating classical literature, 
20, 146 

Juba, the younger, 356 

Judas, sum for which he be- 
trayed the Savior, 84 

Judea, symbol of her captivi- 
ty, 83 

Judicial proceedings, Greek, 
511 ; Roman, 591 

Judicial oratory, Roman, 323 ; 
Greek, 202, 204, 206 

Jugglers and rope-dancers, 574 

Julian the Apostate, 76, 214 

Julian period, 702 

Julius Pollux, 217; Capitoli- 
nus, 383 ; Caesar, 372 ; Fir- 
micus, 360 ; Paulus, 391 

Juno, 412 

Jupiter, 410 ; Ammon, 488 ; 
temples of, 132, 658 ; stat- 
ue of in Olympia, 432 

Jurisprudence, Roman, 388 

Justice, courts of, 471, 511, 
591 ; goddess of, 435 

Justinian's code, 43, 393 

Justinus, Roman historian, 381 

Justin Martyr, 272 

Juvenal, 295, 316 

K 

Kaaba at Mecca, 691 

Kalends, see Calends. 

Keys, ancient, 542 

King, Roman priest so called, 
564 

Kings, power of the early Gre- 
cian, 470, 516 ; the Spar- 
tan, 517 ; the Roman, 555, 
564, 578 ; ensigns of, 579 ; 
kissing the feet, 540 

Knapp, theory of origin of 
words, 10 

Knights, Roman, 586 



Laberius, 287, 310 

Labyrinth, Egyptian, 130, 693, 
694 ; Cretan, 454 

Lactantius, 346, 366 

Lacedaemon, see Sparta. 

Lacedaemonian discipline, 42 

Lachrymatories, 640 

Ladrorie isles, 5 

Lampridius, 383 

Lamps, ancient, 627 

Language, origin of, 7, 10 ; of 
Adam and Noah, 23 ; 
Greek, 22, 44 ; pronuncia- 
tion of Greek, 147 ; abo- 
riginal of American, 25; 
origin of Latin, 67 ; Latin, 
how vitiated, 77 ; utility 
of studying, 277 ; how pro- 
nounced, 278 ; Latin and 
Roman discriminated, 67; 
similar to Latin now used 
in Wallachia, 649 

Languages, families of Asiat- 
ic, 23 ; modes of teaching, 
148, 278 



Lanti vase, 105 

Laocoon, statue of, 102 

Lapithae, 450, 666 

Lares and Penates, 448 

Latona, 434 

Lava-glass, 117 

Law-schools, 77, 391, 393 

Laws of Greece, early, 471 ; 
of Athens, 515 ; Sparta 
and Crete, 519 ; Rome, 594 

Lawsuits, Athenian, 512 ; 
Spartan, 518 

Lawyers, Roman, 388 

Leaden tablets, for writing, 
34, 49 

Leaping, game of Greeks, 496, 
573 

Legal or judicial oratory of 
Greeks, 202 

Legend, of a coin, 57, 82 

Legion, the Roman, 602 

Legitimation, Roman, 623 

Lenses, whether used by an- 
cients, 116 

Lentulus Publius, letter of,382 

Leocrates, 205 

Leon, mathematician, 241 

Leonidas, his tomb, 678 ; of 
Tarentum, 166 

Letters, earliest use of, 15; 
form of Greek, 30 ; uncial 
and cursive, 30 ; on Greek 
coins, 58 ; resemblance of 
Greek and Roman, 66 ; on, 
Roman coins, 82 ; Roman 
in manuscripts, 84 ; used 
to represent numbers, 544, 
600 ; or epistles, Roman, 
71 ; or epistles, amatory, 
220 ; Socratic, 222 - 

Levying,Roman system of,603 

Lexicons, Greek, 153, 216 

Libanius, 214 

Libations, 467, 486, 568 

Libraries,Greek,42 ; Roman ,75 

Licentiousness of the Greeks, 
548 

Life, private, of Greeks, 533 ; 
Romans, 620 

Light troops, 523, 608 

Linus, 157 

Lipogrammatic Odessey, 198 

Lippert's impressions of gems, 
117 

Literature, Greek, circum- 
stances favorable to, 145 ; 
its most brilliant period, 
36 ; its decline, 43 ; places 
where cultivated, 43 ; val- 
ue of, 146 ,• introductions 
to, 155 ; periods of, 156 : 
Roman, when it began to 
flourish, 71 ; its decline, 
76, 277 ; periods of, 277, 
281 ; where cultivated, 77; 
introductions to, 281 ; of 
modern Greeks, 47 

Lithoglyphy, 108 ; earliest no- 
tice of the art, 113 ; among 
the Greeks, 115 

Livius Andronicus, 296; Ti- 
tus, 375 

Logographies, 250 

London University, study of 
Greek and Latin in, 151 

Longinus, 213 

Longus, 223 

Lots, used for learning the fu- 
ture, 490, 537 ; in choos- 
ing magistrates, 506 

Lucan, 289, 313 



748 



GENERAL INDEX. 



IiUcian, 211 

Lucilius, 167 ; Junior, 292 ; 
Caius, 301 

Lucretius, 301 

Lucullus, patron of philoso- 
phy, 343 

Luna, 432 

Lupercus, 434 

Lustrations, 466, 569 

Luxury of Romans, 555, 598 

Lycseum, 38, 42 

Lycophron, 162, 192 

Lycurgus, Attic orator, 201, 
205 ; Spartan lawgiver, 
225, 461 

Lydian coins, 56 

Lydian history, 709 

Lydus, 252 

Lyre, 546 ; invention of, 425 

Lyric poetry, 161, 289 

Lysander, 502 

Lysias, 201,204 

M 

Macedonian coins, 56 

Macrobius, 336 

Magical arts, 491, 570 

Magistrates at Athens, 506 ; 
Sparta, 517 ; Rome, 582 

Magna Gratia, colonies in, 66 

Makrinoros, pass of, 668 

Mallius Theodorus, 334 

Mamertine prison, 593 

Mamertinus, 328 

Man, his original state, 3, 8 

Manetho, 251 

Maniples in Roman army, 604 

Manilius Marcus, 310 

Manners, general of Romans, 
628 

Mantlets, 613 

Manuel Philes, 165 

Manumission of slaves, 625 

Manus Manilius, 389 

Manuscripts, classical, how 
lost, 46 ; forms of ancient, 
34 ; Greek, 58, 63 ; num- 
ber of in European libra- 
ries, 63 ; Roman, 84 ss ; 
discovery of on revival of 
letters, 85 ; of Coluthus, 
lac-simile of, 197; of Quin- 
tus, 197 ; the most ancient 
existing, 61, 62, 85 

Mantuan vase, 119 

Marble, material for sculpture, 
92 ; celebrated kinds, 92 

Marbles, Arundelian, 50 ; of 
Cyzicus, 52 ; of Colbert,52 

Marcella,wife of Porphyry ,239 

Marcellinus, 382 

Marcellus, Nonius, 335 ; Em- 
piricus, 388 ; Sidetes, 165 

Marching, Roman order of,611 

Marcianus Capella, 353 

Marcus Aurelius, statue of,104 

Marines, 616 

Market days at Rome, 571 

Markets, 658 

Marriages, Greek, 481, 548 ; 
Roman, 621 

Mars, 421 

Marseilles, schools at, 44 

Martial 293, 315 

Martialis Gargilius, 364 

Martial rewards and punish- 
ments, 607 

Masks, ancient, 501 

Maternus Julius Firmicus, 360 

Mathematicians, Greek, 240; 
Roman, 355 

Mattius or Matius, 287, 310 



Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- 

solus, 432, 552 
Meals, Spartan, public, 518; 

Grecian generally, 534 ; 

Roman, 629 
Measures and Weights, Gre- 
cian, 544 ; Roman, 600 
Mechanical trades at Rome, 

595 
Medallions, 57, 81 
Medals, utility of studying,54, 

81 
Medea, 455 
Medicine, origin and history 

of, 16 ; Greek writers on, 

262 ; Roman, 383 
Medusa, 449 
Megaric sect, 227 
Mela Pomponius, 360 
Melampus, 157, 264 
Meleager, 167, 293 
Melpomene, 445 
Memnon, sounding statue of, 

432 ; historian, fragments 

of, 251 
Memory, system of artificial, 

707 
Menander, 172, 191, 300 
Mendes, 434 
Merchants, festival of, 572 ; 

Roman, 595 
Mercury, 424 ,• peculiar busts 

called by his name, 93 
Messala Corvinus, 369 
Metals, early use of, 6 ; as ma- 
terials for writing, 32, 34, 

49 
Metemphyschosis, 226 
Methodic school in medicine, 

262 
Metics, or resident aliens at 

Athens, 204, 504 
Metis, wife of Jupiter, 411 
Meton, his Cycle, 240, 701 
Metopes , 136 
Metres, 154, 162 
Metrical inscriptions, 49, 53 
Michael Angelo, seal of, 118 
Midas, tomb and inscription 

of, 48 ; gift of Bacchus to, 

426 
Milesian tales, 220, 339, 352 
Military Affairs, of Greeks, 

473, 521 ,• of Romans, 601 
Milk in libations, 467 
Mimes, Greek, 174; Roman ,286 
Mimnermus, 164 
Minaret, 142 
Mineralogy, Theophrastus the 

father of, 263 
Minerva, 420 ; festival of, 495; 

temples of, 132, 672, 678 
Mines, 595, 664, 668, 679 
Minos, 417, 452 
Minotaur, 450, 454 
Minstrels, in Greece, 27, 160 
Mint, at Rome, 598 
Minuscule writing, 69, 84 
Mirrors, ancient, 117, 539 
Mithras, 417, 453 
Moderatus, 363 
Modestus, 356 
Modillions, 136 
Mceris, lake of, 693 
Mcero, 162 
Molding, art of, 90 
Molds, for casting coins, 82 
Moloch, 409 
Monev, by whom first coined, 

54; of the Greeks, 542, 

543 ; the Romans, 598 
Monograms, abbreviations, 31 



Monolithal temples, 130 

Months of Greeks and Romans 
698, 699 

Monument of Adulis and Ax- 
um, 53 

Monuments to the dead, 551, 
639 

Monumentum Ancyranum, 
80, 368 

Moon, prognostics from, 264 

Morals and manners in Rome, 
555 

Morpheus, 449 

Mosaic, 94 ; remains of, 106, 
124 

Moschion, 263 

Moschopulus, 219 

Moschus, 164, 193 

Moses, his account of creation 
3 ; comparative antiquity 
of his writings, 15 

Mosque at Cordova, 649 

Mother of gods, 410 

Mourning for the dead, 637, 
638, 640 

Mules, use of by Romans, 597 

Mummies, 694 

Municipal towns, Roman, 591 

Murra or Murrhinum, vases 
of, 111,596 

Murray, on origin of language, 
9 

Mussa, 384 

Mueaeus, 160, 176 

Museo Borboniro, 102 

Museum at Alexandria, 42 

Museum at Berlin, 118 

Muses, 445 ; on the ring of 
Pyrrhus, 446 

Music, in Greek education,34S, 
37, 481 : connected with 
poetry, 157, 169; accom- 
paniment of banquets, 537 

Musical instruments, 546; in 
Roman army, 604 

Musical contests, 38, 73 

Muster or Review of Roman 
soldiers, 603 

Mutules, 136 

Myrtis, 162 

Mysteries, 26 ; of Cabiri, 445 ; 
Elusinian, 493 

Mysteries and moralities, 287 

Mythic cycle, 160 

Mythical personages connect- 
ed with the gods, 442 

Mythographers, Greek, 247 ; 
Roman, 364 

Mythology, 399 ; utility of a 
knowledge of, 402 ; resem- 
blance between classical 
and oriental, 403, 410, 412 ; 
differences between Greek 
and Roman, 403 
N. 

Naevius Cneius, 297 

Nail, ceremony of fixing in 
the temple of Jupiter, 572 

Names of Romans, 357, 620 f 
of towns in England end- 
ing in cester, 613 

Natural history among the 

Greeks, 264; Romans, 386 

Naval affairs of Greeks, 472, 
529, 542 ; of Romans, 61$ 

Naval battle, 532, 616 

Naumachius, 165 

Nazarius, 328 

Nearchus, 251, 258 

Nemean games, 499 

Nemesian, 317 

Nemesis, 435 



GENERAL INDEX. 



749 



Nepos Cornelius, 375 
Neptune, 413 
Nereids, 414 

Nero, his tyranny, 719 ; his 
persecution of christians, 
378 ; burning of Rome, 
553 

Netha, Egyptian deity, 421 

New Testament, books of 
classified, 268; literary im- 
portance of, 269 ,- Apocry- 
phal, 270 

JVeic-Platonists and Pythago- 
reans, 231 

New-year's presents at Rome. 
571 

Nicander, 165, 196 

Nicetas, 166 

Nicolaus, 251 

Nigidius Figulus, 355 

Niobe, 456,- and children, 
statues of, 102 

Noah, language of, 23 

Nobility, Roman, 586 

Nones, 571, 700 

Nonius Marcellus, 335 

Nonnus, 160, 196 

Nossis, 162 

Notation, Greek, 544; Roman, 
600 

Novels or imperial edicts, 393 

Novum Organurn, 236 

Nox, 433 

Nubian inscriptions, 53 

Numa, his influence at Rome, 
342, 555, 558; fragments 
of his laws, 68 

Numbers, designated by let- 
ters, Grecian, 544 ; Ro- 
man, 600 

Nuptial celebrations, 481, 550, 
621 

Nymphis, 251 

Nymphs, 444 



Oases, Egyptian, 693 
Oaths, of Greeks, 486; of Ro- 
mans, 569, 602; Roman 

soldiers, 603 
Obelisks, 130, 6G0, 693 
Obituary inscriptions, 49 
Obliteration of Mss.46 
Obsequens Julius, 386 
Ocellus Lucanus, 233 
Occupations of men in early 

ages, 6 
Odea, 133, 660, 674 
CEconomists, 357 
O3nomaus and Pelops, 450 
Offences penal at Rome, 592 
Offerings to the gods, 468 
Official robe of magistrates,633 
Ogyges, 452 
Ointments of the ancients, 

539, 480, 140 
Olbian decree, 50, 52 
Old and new style, 701 
Olen, Greek poet, 158 
Olympic games, 498 
Olympiodorus, 239 
Olympus, 157 ; residence of 

the cods, 411 
Omens, 562, 470 
Onesander, 248 
Onyx, a gem representing the 

apotheosis of Augustus, 

118, 119 
Opal, of Nonius, 111 
Oplitodrome, 103, 496 
Oppian, 165, 196 

65* 



Optatianus Porphvrius, 294 

Oracles, 26, 469, 487, 489 f Sib- 
yline, 158 

Oratory and Orators, Greek, 
199, 2; Roman, 321 ; 
among earlier christians, 
277 

Orders, in architecture, 134 

Organ, musical instrument, 
547, 576 

Oribasius, Greek physician,263 

Oriental tales, 232 

Origen. 273,274 

Orion, 443 

Orphan-house at Halle, stud- 
ies in, 152 

Orpheus, 158, 176 

Ornaments, architectural, 625, 
626; personal of Romans, 
637 ; of architecture, 137 

Orthography, Roman in early 
times, 69, 82 

Oscan language, 67 

Osiris, 441 

Ostracism, 511 

Ovation, 618 

Ovid, 291, 292, 307 

Ox, symbol of Osiris, 441 ; 
bones found in the Egyp- 
tian pyramid, 442 



Pacatus Drepanus, 328 

Pacuvius, 125, 299 

Paduan coins, 82 

Pagan fables, coincidence of 

with scripture, 401 
Paganism and Popery, 456 
Paidotribes, 37 
Painted vases, 97 
Painters, ancient, 124, 125 
Painting, ancient, 120ss, ; ma- 
terials and instruments 
used in. 123 ; periods of 
in Greece, 124 ; remains 
of, 126,259,695 
Palace, origin of the word, 657 
Palaeography, 60 
Paleemon, 292, 333 
Palaephatus, 247 
Palimpsest Mss. 46 
Palladium, 420 
Palladias, 364 
Pallas, statue of, 104 
Palm, token of victory, 573 
Pan, 434; priests of, 565 
Panathensea, 38, 495 
Pandects, 393 
Pandora, 424 
Panegyrical oratory, 202, 321, 

324 
Panegyrists, Roman, 327 
Panic, origin of the word, 434 
Pantomime, 287 
Paper, ancient, 32, 70 
Papinianus,391 
Papirius, his collection of 

laws, 67, 389 
Pappus, 244 

Papyri, Egyptian, or manu- 
scripts, 62 
Papyrus, material for writing 
on, 32; manner of prepar- 
ing it, 70 
Paraphrase of John's gospel, 

196 
Parametic orations, 205 
Parchment, 33 
Parga, fate of, 667 
Parian chronicle, 50 
Parks of the Romans, 62T 



Farmenides, 200 
Parnassus, 157, 445 
Parodies, 173, 174 
Parthenius, 248, 221 
Parthenon, 420 
Parthian history, 710 
Pastes, or casts of gems, 117 
Pastoral poetry, 164 
Paterculus C. Velleius, 377 
Patricians and plebeians, 583 
Patronage, of letters by Ro- 
man emperors, 44, 76 
Patrons and clients, 583, 631 
Paul, Silentarius, 167 ; of 
^Egina, 263 ; the Apostle, 
340 
Paulus Diaconus, 381 
Pausanius, 247 
Peace, temple of Janus in 

time of, 409 
Pedestal, 134 
Pediment, 134 
Pedo Albinovanus, 309 
Pegasus, 451 

Pelasgi, 21 ; in Italy, 65, 68 
Pelopidae, 456 
Pelops, 22, 452, 456 
Pen, when first used, 33 
Pencil, invention of, 33 
Penny of the N. Test. 84 
Pentateuch in Ms. 62 
Pergamus, Greek literature 

at, 44 
Pericles, oratory of, 200 
Peripatetics, 229, 345 
Periplus, of Hanno, 244 
Persecution of Christians, 378, 

594, 719 
Persephone, 416 
Persepolis, ruins of, 137, 686 
Perseus, 452 

Persian sculpture, 96; Chro- 
nology, outline of, 710; 
kings, their residences, 
684 
Persius, 295, 311 
Perspective, of ancients, 124 
Pessinus, origin of the name, 

410 
Petalism,514 

Petrarch, 85 ; his Africa, 314 
Petrified City, 695 
Petronius Arbiter, 352 
Phaedrus, 293,311 
Phalanx, Grecian, 525 
Phalaris, 221 
Phanodemus, 250 
Pherecydes, 250 
Phial of tears, 639, 640 
Philanthropists, 19 
Philemon, 173 
Philetas, 162, 164 . 
Philippus, 167 
Philistion, 175 
Philistus, 250 
Philo, of Biblus, 252; Judceus, 

253 
Philochorus, 250 
Philology, comparative, 22 
Philosophy, favorite study of 
Greeks, 41 ; general view 
of the Greek, 224 ; Chris- 
tian, 240, 270, 346 ; Roman 
342 ; authorities respect- 
ing ancient, 233 
Philostratus, uncle and neph- 
ew, 252, 259 
Phlegon, eclipse named by ,252 
Phocylides, 183 
Phcebus, 417 
Phormis, 171 



750 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Phoenician history, 709 ,• lan- 
guage and writings, 28; 
art, 96 
Phoroneus, 452 
Photius, 218 
Phronto, 324, 341 
Phrynicus, 169, 217 
Phurnutus, or Cornutus, 258 
Physicians, Greek, 264 ; Ro- 
man, 383 
Physical science among 

Greeks, 263 ; Romans, 381 
Pictor a. Fabius, 367 
Picture, writing, 11 

Pictures, earliest Greek, 122 ; 
ancient described by Phi- 
lostratus, 259 

Pierus, 445 

Pigments, of the ancients, 122 
123 

Pilasters, 136 

Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 469 

Pillars, or columns, 53, 130, 
134, 136, 137, 660 

Pilpay, 233 

Pindar, 162, 185 

Pipe, of Pan, &c. 546, 547 

Pisastratus, 200,502 

Placidus, 366 

Placitus, 385 

Planudes, 167, 232, 354 

Plastic arts, 87 

Plato, his philosophy, 228, 234 j 
his works, 234 

Platonists, New, 236,346 

Plautus, 285, 298 

Plays, of the Greeks, 445,- Ro- 
mans, 573, 631 ; Plebei- 
ans, 585 

Pleiades, tragic, 171 ; the con- 
stellation, 424 

Plinth, 134 

Pliny, (the elder) his Natural 
history, 351, 386 ; account 
of gems, 111 

Pliny C. Caecilius, (the young- 
er), 324, 327, 340 

Plotinus, 239 

Plough, Grecian, 542; Roman 
597 

Plutarch, 237, 251, 257 

Pluto, 416 

Plutus, 436 

Poetry, origin and varieties of 
Greek, 157 ; of Latin, 282 ; 
mythic, 405 

Poets, first philosophers of 
Greece, 224 ; influence on 
religion of Greeks,465; the 
Greek, 175 ; the Latin 296; 
early Christian, 271, 290 

Polemarch at Athens, 506 

Polemo Perigetes, 167 

Zolignac, his poem Anti-Lu- 
cretius, 301, 302 

Follio, Virgil's 4th eel. 305; C. 
Asinius, 369 ; Trebellius, 
383 

P ollux, Julius,, 217 ; and Cas- 
tor, 455 

Polyamus, 248 

Polybius„250, 255 

Poly carp, 269 

Polycrates, signet of, 115 

Polygamy, not allowed by the 
Greeks, 548 

Polyhistor, work of Solinus, 
361 

Polyhymnia, 445 

Polynices, 455 

Pomona, 437 



Pompeii, implements, &c. dis- 
interred at, 126, 626, 627, 
629 
Pompeius, grammarian, 334 
Pompey's Pillar, 136 
Pomponius, Atticus, 368 ; Me 

la, 360 
Pomptine marshes, 652 
Pontiffs, Roman, 562 
Poor, at Athens, how support 

ed, 508 
Populace, Roman, 585 
Population of Rome, 554 
Fopulousness of ancient na- 
tions, 503, 554 
Porphyrio, 334 
Porphyry, 239 
Porticos, 134, 660, 673, 678 
Portland vase, 97, 596 
Portraits and busts among 

Greeks, 125, 104 
Posidonius, 251 
Posts, on Roman roads, 656 
Potamo, 231 
Pottery, Roman, 596 
Pound, Roman, 601 
Pracriti, Hindoo goddess, 410 
Prefects, 583 
Praetorian soldiers, 618 
Praetors, Roman, 580 
Prayers, of Greeks, 466 ; of 

Romans, 567 
Praxilla, 162 
Praxis, 261, 371 
Praxiteles, 100 
Preaching of first centuries, 

works on, 274 
Precession of the equinoxes, 
means of settling dates, 
703 
Priem, palace of, 131 
Priapus, 437 

Priests and priestesses, Greek, 
466, 485 ; imposture of, 
487 ; Roman, 560 ; classes 
of them made by later 
writers, 567 
Priscian, 371, 388 
Prison of state, at Rome, 593 ; 

Sparta, 517 
Prizes, in the musical contests 
&.c. 38 ; funeral games,551 
Prova Falconia, 318 
Procession, at the Circensian 
games,573; triumphal, 618; 
funeral, 638 
Proclus, 239 
Proconsals, 583 
Procopius, 260 
Proculus Sempronius, 390 
Prodicus, 207 

Professions, not separated an- 
ciently, 35, 40 
Profiles on ancient medals, 54, 

81 
Prologue in comedy, 285 
Pronunciation of Greek, 147; 

of Latin, 278 
Propertius, 291, 304 
Property, among Romans, 600; 
basis of division into clas- 
ses, 584 
Propraetors, 584 
Proquaestors, 584 
Prose composition, applied first 

to history, 249, 250) 
Proserpine, 416, 433 
Prosper, 371 
Protocol, 34 

Provinces, Roman, 554, 591 
Provincial magistrates of Ro 



mans, 583, 591 

Prudentius, 290, 319 

Prytanes, at Athens, 510 

Psellus, 264 

Psyche, and Cupid, story of, 
352, 423 

Ptolemy Claudius, 242, 246 

Publicans of the New Testa- 
ment, 595 

Publius Syrus, 287, 309 

Pulpit, eloquence of, 273 ; ori- 
gin of the word, 576 

Punctuation, ancient, 32, 60 

Punic language, 299, 680 

Punishments, Athenian, 51© 
Spartan, 527 ; Roman ,593 $ 
of Roman soldiers, 607 

Purifications, Greek, 466, 485 ; 
Roman, 569 

Purple dye, its costliness, 633 

Pygmies, 443 

Pylades, 287 

Pyramidal tablets for writing, 
33 

Pyramids, 130, 442, 694 

Pyrgoteles, gem-engraver, 115 

Pyrrhonists, 345 

Pythagoras, founder of Italic 
school, 225; fragments of, 
184 

Pythagoreans, 345 

Pytheas, 242, 245 

Pythean games, 38, 498, 41fi 



Quaestors, Roman, 581 
duinquatria, 420 
Quintilian, 324, 331 
Quintus, or Cointus, 160, 197 
Q-uintus Ourtius, 379 
duirites, rights of, 590 
auoit, 497, 573 

R 

Race, Grecian 496; Roman, 

573 
Races or families at Rome, 620> 
Raising a child, 622 
Rama, Hindoo deity, 427 
Ras Sem, the petrified city ,695 
Readers, professed, 39, 73 
Reading-books, or Selection^ 

in study of language, 150, 

Reed, instrument for writing. 

Reformation by Luther, 45 
Refugees from Constantinople, 

46, 153, 216 
Rehearsals by ancient writers, 

39, 73 
Religion of the Greeks, 464, 

482 ; the Romans, 557 
Repasts, of Greeks 479, 534 
Revenue of Athens, 507 ; of 

Rome, 595 
Reviewing in the study of 

languages, 150 
Rewards at Athens,514; Spar- 

ta,519 ; of Roman soldiers, 

607 ; Roman Generals, 617 
Rhadamanthus, 417 
Rhapsodists, 27, 40, 160 
Rhetoricians, discriminated 

from Sophists, 207, 208 j 

Roman, 328 
Rhianus, 160 

Rhodes, Greek letters at, 44 
Riches, god of, 436 
Riding on horseback, 477 
Rights, of citizens and suij^ 



GENERAL INDEX. 



751 



jects of Bome, 590, 591 

Ring, of Gyges, 416 ; Poly cra- 
tes, 115 

Rings, gems, in, 115 i 

Rites, of marriage, 550, 621 ; 
religious, 466", 436, 567 

Rivers called infernal, 416 

Roads, Roman, 656 

Rolls, ancient form of books, 
34, 70 ,■ Herculanean, 62 

Roman sculpture, 101 ; archi- 
tecture, 138 ; antiquities, 
553; literature, 71, 76, 
277 

Romances, 220, 339 

Romanesque, 142 

Romans, origin of 65; their 
empire, 554, 715 ; most 
brilliant era, 555 

Rome, foundation of,553 , gov- 
ernment of, 579 ; extent of 
empire, 554 ; luxury and 
decline, 555 ; classes or 
division of the people,584 ; 
authenticity of its early 
history, 66, 367 ; popula- 
iton , 554 ; topography 656 ; 
chronology of, 715 

Rope-dancers, 574 

Roscius, actor at Rome, 286 

Rosetta stone or inscription ,51 

Rotunda or Pantheon, 659 

Rousseau, on invention of 
language, 10 

Rowers, their benches in the 
ancient galley, 532 

Royal Society of Literature, 20 

Rubrick, from rubrica, 33 

Rufinianus, 330 

Rufus, physician, 263 ; histo- 
rian or geographer, 357 

Runic wands, 33 

Runners among the Greeks, 
528 

Running, one of the games, 
496 

Rural deities, 436 

Rutilius Lupus, 331 

Rutilius Numatianus, 320 



Sabinus, Aulus, 308 ; Masuri- 

us,390 
Saccas, 231 

Sacred poetry of Greeks, 158 
Sacrifices, human, 409 ; of 

Greeks, 467, 486; Romans, 

560, 567 ; origin of, 467 
Saddles and stirrups, 497 
Salamat or Memnon, statue of, 

432 
Sale bv auction 600 
Salic Hymns, 282; Priests, 565 
Sallust, Roman historian, 373 
Salustius, Greek mythogra- 

pher, 249 
Salt token of friendship, 537 
Salus, goddess of health, 436 
Salvius Julianus, 391 
Sammonicus, 387 
Sanconiathon, 252 
Sanscrit language, 24 
Sappho, 162, 166, 182 
Saracenic architecture, 142 
Sardonic laugh, 680 
Satire Roman, 295 
Saturn, 407 
Saturnian verse, 282 
Satyre dramatic different from 

satire, 173, 174 
Satyrs, 449 
ScaBvola, 389 



Scaling ladders, 613 

Scarabaei gems, 113 

Sceptic philosophers, 230, 345 

Sceptres, 579 

Schiva, Hindoo deity, 427 

Scholiasts, Greek, 153, 216 

Schools, of painting and sculp- 
ture in Greece, 99, 124 ; of 
philosophy, 41, 225; of 
medicine, 262, 384. See 
Seminaries 

Scipio, tomb and inscription 
of, 298, 79 ; Africanus, his 
love of philosophy, 342, 
343 

Scironian rocks, 670 

Scolion or skolion, 101 

Scribonius Largus, 387 

Scriptures, Sacred, in the 
Greek language, 267, 268 ; 
attested in Pagan fictions, 
401 

Sculptors, eminent Greek, 100 

Sculpture, ancient, 90 ss ,• ma- 
terials used in, 91 ; inven- 
tion of, 94 ; Asiatic, 96 ; 
among the Greeks, 98 ; his- 
tory of in Greece, 99, 100 ; 
remains of, 102 

Scylax, 241,245 

Scyllaand Charybdis, 451 

Scymnus, 165 

Sea-fight, 616, 533 

Scythian guards at Athens, 
674 

Seals, sculptured gems used 
for, 115 ; seal of Angelo, 
118 ; of Polycrates, 115 

Seatur, German deity, 407 

Sects of Greek philosophy, 225 

Sedulius, 320 

Self-devotion, 569 

Semele, 425 

Seminaries of early Chris- 
tians, 45 ; of ancient 
Greeks, 42 ; Romans, 
73,75 

Semitic languages, 23 

Sempronius Proculus, 390 

Senate, Athenian, 510 ; Spar- 
tan, 517 ; Roman, 588 

Seneca, L. Annasus, 284, 312, 
340, 349, 386 ; M Annaa- 
us, 33 

Septimius, arch of, 105 

Septuagint, origin of, 267 ; 
chronology of, 705 

Sepulchres, "Roman in Eng- 
land, 639 

Sequester, 361 

Serapis, 442 

Serenus Septimius, 289 

Serpent, emblem of health,436 

Sertorian war, 649 

Servius Sulpicius, lawyer, 390 

Servius, commentator on Vir- 
gil, 304, 334 

Sesterce, value of, 598 

Seth, pillars of, 5 

Sethus Simeon, 233 

Seven, sages of Greece, 225 ; 
wonders of the world, 241 

Severus Cornelius, 308; Sanc- 
tus, 290 

Sewers of Rome, 661 

Sextus Empiricus, 238 

Sextus Placitus, 385 

Shaft, 134 

Shield, a poem ascribed to He- 
siod, 180 ; the sacred, 565 

Shields, ancient, 474,524,606 ; 
making of, 204 ; of Hercu- 



les and Achilles, 475 

Ships, Grecian, 476, 529; Ro- 
man, 616 

Shipwreck, practice of those 
surviving, 568 

Shoes, 538, 636 ; of horses, 

Short hand, Greek, 35 ; Ro- 
man, 70 

Shows or spectacles at Rome,. 
573 

Siamese, alphabet, 14 

Sibyls, 158 ; books of, 569 

Sidonian artists, 26 

Sidonius Apollinaris, 342 . 

Sieges, celebrated, 526, 613 

Sigsean inscription, 48 

Signals of battle, 526 

Signets, 115, 116, 118 ; that of 
Polycrates, 115 

Silence, god of, 442 

Sileni, 449 

Silenus, curious image of, 427 

Silius Italicus, 289, 314 

Silk, known to the ancients, 
539, 634 

Silver coins of Romans, 84 

Simonides, 162, 164, 166, 174 

Singingat feasts, 537 

Sirens, 443, 444 

Sisenna, 368 

Si strum, 547 

Siva, Hindoo deity, 412 

Skeleton, of priest found at 
Pompeii, 82 

Skins, material for writing, 
32 

Slaves in Greece, 482, 504 ; at 
Sparta, 516 : Rome, 620, 
624 ; patron goddess of the 
freed, 438 ; trade in, 595, 
624 ; republic of in Sicily, 
681 

Sleep, god of, 448 

Sneezing, ominous, 470 

Sobriquet or burlesque name, 
620 

Social entertainments, 534,631 

Society, primitive state of, 8 

Socrates, letters of, 181, 222 ; 
philosophy, 226; method 
of teaching, 41 

Socratic gems, 114 

Sofa-bed, 542 

Sol, 430 ; statue of at Rhodes^ 
430 

Solar Cycle, 701 

Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 
473, 521 ; of Roman 603, 
604 ; load carried by Ro- 
man, 606, 613 

Solinus C. Julius, 361 

Solomon, Song of, 193 

Solon, his poetry, 183 ; his in- 
fluence on Athsns, 200,. 
225; fragments, 183; tab- 
lets of his laws, 32 

Songs of the Greeks, 161. 163 

Sophists, Greek, 207 ; lives of 
260 

Sophocles, 170, 187, 189 

Sophronists, 37 

Sophron, 174 

Soranus, 263 

Soul, state of after death, 416 ; 
weighing of by Egyptians, 
417 

Sparta, under Lycurgus, 461 ; 
rival of Athens, 462 ; 
changes in government, 
472 ; system of education, 
37 ; magistrates of 516 ; 
public meals, 518 ; consti- 



752 



GENERAL INDEX. 



tution, 515, 517 ; topogra- 
phy, 677 

Spartianus, 383 

Spectacles or shows, Roman, 
573 

Sphere of Chiron, 703 

Sphinx, 451 

Spintrian medals, 80 

Spoils of war, how divided, 
477, 528 

Spoletto, aqueduct at, 651 

Spurinna,289 

Spurs, 597 

Stage, actors on Greek, 500 ; 
parts of Roman, 576 

Staircases, 626 

Standards, military, Grecian, 
526 ; Roman, 604 

Statius, 456, 289,314 

Statues, 90 ; ancient rude, 91 ; 
two most famous, 91, 100 ; 
Equestrian, 104; classifi- 
ed, 92 ; use frequent, 100 ; 
more numerous than 
paintings, 125 ; where 
placed, 101; found at Pom- 
peii, 633; at Herculane- 
um, 104 

Stheno, 449 

Stephens, family of printers, 

Stephanus of Byzantium, 248 

Stesichorus, 162, 165 

Stiletto, 71 

Stirrups, 597 

Stobaeus, 239 

Stoic philosophy, 227, 344 

Stone, used for tools, 6, 7 

Stonehenge, 468 

Storms, goddesses of, 447 

Strabo, 242, 245 

Strangers, treatment of by 

Greeks, 537 
Strato, 167 
Strophes, 162, 169 
Stucco-painting, 626 
Studying languages, methods 
of, 148, 278; in London 
University, 151 ; Boston 
Latin school, 279 
Style, instrument for writing, 

33 
Stylobate, 134 
Styx, 416 
Suetonius, 380 
Suidas, 218 

Suliotes, bravery of, 667 
Sulpicia, 296, 
Sulpicius Rufus, 390 
Sun, the Fountain of, 695 ; 

Statue of at Rhodes, 432 
Sun-god, 409; worship 430 
Superior gods, 407 
Suppers of the Romans, 630 
Supplicants, 467 
Survey of Roman empire, 356 
Swimming among the an- 
cients, 628 
Swords, 524 
Syenite, 693 
Symbolical, language of the 

Bible, 268 ; pictures, 11 
Symbols, the origin of the Gre- 
cian gods, 26 ; on medals, 
54, 83 
Symmachus, 328,341 
Symposia, 40 

Synagogues, Jewish, in Gre- 
cian cities, 268 
Synchretistic philosophy, 231 
Syracuse, constitution of, 520, 
topography of, 681 



Syria, kingdom of, 710 
Syriac N. T. Ms. copy of,34, 



Table, Iliac, 161 ; of Isis, 441 ; 
ancient for eating, 536,629 
Tables and charts, 705 
Tables twelve, 59 4 
Tablets, for writing, 32, 70 
Tabula Peutingeria, 361 
Tachygraphy, 35, 70 
Tacitus C. Cornelius, 324, 378 
Tactics, Greek writers on } 242; 

Roman, 356, 358 
Tantalus, 456 
Tapestry, ancient, 548 
Tarpeian Rock, 593, 657 
Tartarus, 416 
Tassie's casts of ancient gems, 

117 
Tatian, 272 
Tauchnitz, classics printed by, 

395 
Taxes at Rome, 595 ; Athens, 

507 
Teachers in Greek schools, 42; 

at Rome, 73 
Tears, preservation of, 639,640 
Telesille, 162 

Temples, ancient, 131 ; seven 
kinds of, 132 ; most cele- 
brated, 132 ; Grecian, 465, 
468 ; in time of Homer, 
467 ; Roman, 559, 658 ; 
dedication of, &c. 568 ,• at 
Athens, 503 ; of Jupiter 
Ammon, 412, 695 ; of Isis, 
441 ; Juno Lacinia, 655 
Tents, of Greek soldiers, 477 
Terence, 285, 300 
Terentianus, Maurus, 292 
Terminus, 437 
Terpander, 163, 166 
Terpsichore, 445 
Tertullian, 346 
Thales, founder of Italic 

school, 225 
Thaletas, 162 
Thalia, 445 
Thamyris, 157 

Theatre, form of ancient, 132 ; 
remains, 133; performan- 
ces in, 175, 500 ; of Ro- 
mans, 576 ; of Greeks,500 ; 
views of early Christians 
respecting, 288 ; 
Theban war, heroes of, 455 
Thebes, constitution of,' 520 
Themis, 411, 435 
Themistius, 213 3 
Themistocle3, eloquence of, 

200 ; letters of, 222 
Theocritus, 164, 192 
Theodorus Prodromus, 166. 
198; Gaza, 219: Priscia : 
nus, 388 
Theodosian Code, 392; table, 

361 
Theodulus, 219 
Theognis, 183 
Theogony, Greek, 465 
Theomancy, 490 
Theon, Greek sophist, 212 
Theophilus, 272 
Theophrastus, philosopher, 

236 ; naturalist, 266 
Theopompus, 250 
Theromenes, 200 
Theseus, 454 ; his temple at 

Athens, 673 
Thespis, 169 
Thomas Magister, 219 



Thracian, school of poetry,157 
Thucydides, 250, 254 
Thundering legion, 238 
Thunder-stones, 6 
Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 426 
Tibullus, 291, 303 
Timaeus, of Locri, 235; the 

grammarian, 137 
Timon, 171, 174 
Titanides, 407 
Titans, 442 
Titles of ancient books, how 

written, 34 
Titus, arch of, 105 
Toilet, Grecian, 539; Roman, 

637 
Tomb, of Cyrus, &c, 552: 
Roman at Pompeii, 639; 
at Gyrene, 695; of Virgil, 
653 
Tongues, confusion of, 5 
Tone, or accent, in Greek, 147 
Topography, of Rome, 656 ; of 
Athens, 503, 671 ; Sparta, 
677 
Torso, the statue, 103 
Totila, Rome laid waste by, 

553 
Towers, ancient, 614, 616; 
Leaning tower of Pisa, 142 
Towns, with names ending in 

Chester, 613 
Trade, at Rome, 595; in slaves, 

624 
Traditions of mythology, 399 
Tragedy, Greek, 169; Roman, 

283 
Transcribers, 35 
Translation, practiced by Ro- 
man orators, 74 ; utility of 
the exercise of, 150 
Translations of the classics, 

395 
Travels, of ancient scholars, 

43,75 
Treasury, Athenian, 508 ; Ro- 
man, 594 
Treaties, 478, 564 
Trebellius Pollio, 383 
Trees, cultivated by Romans, 

596 
Trial, of persons accused, 510, 

591 
Triban, 33 

Tribes, of Athens, 501, 502, 
503 ; Sparta, 515 ; Rome, 
584 
Tribonian, Roman lawyer, 393 
Tribunes, Roman, 581 
Triglyphs, 136 

Tripods consecrated to Apol- 
lo, 468, 488, 489 ; street of, 
675 
Triremes, 529 
Trismegistus, 159, 424 
Tritons, 443 
Triumph of Roman generals, 

617 
Triumvirate, 583, 598, 718 
Trogus Pompeius, 381 
Trojan history, 709 ; cycle,160 
Trophies, 528, 469, 661 
Trumpets, 547 
Tryphiodorus, 160, 198 
Tryphon, 217 
Tubal-Cain, 424 
Tultecan hieroglyphics, 12; 

architecture, 130 
Tunnel of Pausilypus, 653 
Tuinus, Roman satirist, 296 
Tuscan order, 136, 138 



GENERAL INDEX. 



753 



Tusks of the Calydoniun boar, 
668 

Twelve Tables, laws of, 67, 
389, 594 

Tympanum, 134 

Tyxannio, his library, 74 

Tyranny, Roman, over prov- 
inces, 591 

Tyrants, the thirty, 502, 714 

Tyrtasus, 163, 181 

Tzetzes, 198, 219 

U 
Ulpian, 391 

Uncial characters, 30, 60 
Unguentary vases, 112 
Urania, 430 
Uranus, 445 
Urns, for depositing the ashes 

of the dead, 551, 639 
Utensils, ancient, found at 

Pompeii, 82 ; represented 

on Egyptian monuments, 

560 



Valerianus, 385 

Valerius, Flaccus, 195, 313; 
Maximus, 377 ; Probus, 
333 ; Antias, 368 ; Julius, 
his account of Alexander, 
251, 362 

Valley of Moffeta, 654 

Valpy's classics, 395 

Variorum classics, 395 

Varius Lucius, 284, 288 

Varnish, on ancient statues, 92 

Varro, 75, 295, 333, 334, 363,368 

Vases, Tuscan, 96, 105, 125 ; 
murrhine, 111; Panathe- 
naic, 496 ; sacrificial, 560 

Vegetius, 360, 385 

Veils, 538 

Velleius, Paterculus, 377 

Vellum, for writing, 71 

Venus, 422 ; de Medici, 103 ; 
temple of, at Paphos, 692 ; 
Anadyomene, 125, 423 

Verginius, 287 

Verres, his spoliations, 50, 101 

Verrius Flaccus, 368 

Vertumnus, 437 

Vessels, for holding wine,632; 
of war, 616; sacrificial,560 

Vesta, 410, 428 

Vestal virgins, 566, 429 

Vestritius Spurinna, 289 

Vibius Sequester, 361 

Vices, deified, 440 

Victims, in sacrifice, 568 

Victor, Sextus Aurelius, 381 

Victorinus, 330 

Victory, rewards of, 617, 618 

Vigils, or watches of Romans, 
698 

Villas, or country seats of Ro- 
mans, 627 

Vindicianus, 385 

Violet, robe of office, 633 

Violin, ancient, 546 

Virgil, 288, 290, 291, 304 

Virgo, 435 

Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 412 

Virtues, deified. 440 



Vitrum obsidianum, 117 
Vitruvius, 359 
Voconius, 324 
Volaterrag, hypogea of, 97 
Volutes, 136 
Vopiscus Flavius, 383 
Voyages, 241 ; imaginary, 220 
Voting, Athenian mode of, 
509, 510 ; Roman, 588, 590 
Vows, 568 
Vulcan, 423 
Vulcanalia, 424 

W 

Wages of Roman soldiers, 606 

Walls,Roman in England, 680, 
141 

Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 
425 

War, heroes of the Theban, 
455; of the Trojan, 456 ; 
affairs of among Greeks, 
473, 521; Romans, 601; 
declarations of, 525, 564 ; 
the Sertorian, 649; of 
Troy, Bryant's view of it, 
456 

War-chariots, 523 

War-engines, 613 

War-galleys, 529, 616 

Wards or boroughs of Attica, 
501, 503 

Watch-word, 613 

Warwick vase, 105 

Watches, divisions of the 
night, 612, 570, 698 

Water-clock, 698 

Wax, tablets of, 33 

Wealth and luxury, instances 
of Roman, 600 

Weapons or arms, of the an- 
cients, 474, 606 

Wedgewood's imitations of 
antiques, 96, 117 

Weeding, goddess of, 438 

Week, known to Egyptians, 
700 

Weights and measures, Greek, 
544 ; Roman, 597 

Well of Syene, 693 

Wind-instruments of music, 
546 

Wind, woven, 539 

Windows, of Roman houses, 
625 

Winds, temple of, 673 

Wines, of Greeks, 534 ; of Ro- 
mans, 631 ; history of, 534 

Wine-cellars, 626, 632 

Winfrid,381 

Winter-quarters, of Roman 
soldiers, 613 

Wise men, the seven, 225 

Wife of the Rex Sacrorum, and 
of the Flamen Dialis, 564, 
565 

Women, condition and em- 
ployments of among the 
Greeks, 481, 544; Romans, 
628 

Wonders of the world, seven, 
432, 241 

World, as known to the an- 
cients, 643 



Wrestling, 497, 573 

Writing, successive steps 111 
the invention of, 11 ; Mex- 
ican, 11 ; Egyptian, 12 ; 
Tultecan, 12; Persepoli- 
tan and Babylonian, 14_,* 
Chinese method of, 13 ; 
Cherokee, 14; Grecian, 30; 
materials u^ed in, 32, 70 ; 
whether practiced in time 
of Homer, 35, 179 ; Latin 
terms respecting, 70, 71 

Writing Greek and Latin, 
useful exercise, 150, 278 ; 
helps for, 154, 280 

Writers, on value of the clas- 
sics, 19 ; on different top- 
ics of the Archaeology of 
Literature or Art, 20 ; on 
inscriptions, 47, 77 ; on 
coins and medals, 58, 83 ; 
on manuscripts, 61,63,85; 
on ^Esthetics, 89 ; on Tus- 
can remains, 97 ; on an- 
cient sculpture, 106, 107, 
108; on engraved gems, 
118, 119 ; on paintings a- 
mong the ancients, 126 ; 
on ancient architecture, 
130, 132, J 41 ; on branches 
connected with Greek lit- 
erature, 152 ss. ; Roman 
literature, 279 ss. ; mod- 
ern Greek literature, 51 ; 
on mythology, 406 ; on 
Greek antiquities, 463j; 
Roman antiquities, 556 ; 
Roman military affairs, 
602 ; ancient weights and 
measures, 601 ; classical 
geography, 154, 280 ; chro- 
nology, 155, 280, 705 ; to- 
pography of Rome, 657,* 
topography of Athens, 676; 
of Sparta, 677 ; Byzanti- 
um, 662 ; Babylon and 
Nineveh, 491 ; see also 
references under specific 
subjects. 

X 

Xenocrates, 262 

Xenophon, of Ephesus, 224 i 

of Athens, historian, 233, 

250,254 
Xiphilinus, 258 



Year, division of by the an- 
cients, 570, 700 

Young, time of burying among 
the Greeks, 551 



Zaleucus, 225 
Zenobia, 213 
Zenodotus, 215 
Zodiac, of Denderah, 693 
Zoilus, 215 
Zonaras, 261 
Zoology, father of, 263 
Zoroaster, 159 

Zosimus, htstorian, 260; of 
Egypt, 264 



